fbpx
Wikipedia

Protoplasm

April 12, 2024

Protoplasm (/ˈproʊtəˌplæzəm/;[1][2] pl. protoplasms)[3] is the living part of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane. It is a mixture of small molecules such as ions, monosaccharides, amino acids, and macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, etc.

In some definitions, it is a general term for the cytoplasm (e.g., Mohl, 1846),[4] but for others, it also includes the nucleoplasm (e.g., Strasburger, 1882). For Sharp (1921), "According to the older usage the extra-nuclear portion of the protoplast [the entire cell, excluding the cell wall] was called "protoplasm," but the nucleus also is composed of protoplasm, or living substance in its broader sense. The current consensus is to avoid this ambiguity by employing Strasburger's (1882) terms cytoplasm [coined by Kölliker (1863), originally as synonym for protoplasm] and nucleoplasm [term coined by van Beneden (1875), or karyoplasm, used by Flemming (1878)]."[5][6][7][8][9] The cytoplasm definition of Strasburger excluded the plastids (Chromatoplasm).

Like the nucleus, whether to include the vacuole in the protoplasm concept is controversial.[10]

Terminology edit

Besides "protoplasm", many other related terms and distinctions were used for the cell contents over time. These were as follows:[11][12]

History edit

The word "protoplasm" comes from the Greek protos for first, and plasma for thing formed, and was originally used in religious contexts.[39] It was used in 1839 by J. E. Purkinje for the material of the animal embryo.[15][40] Later, in 1846 Hugo von Mohl redefined the term (also named as Primordialschlauch, "primordial utricle") to refer to the "tough, slimy, granular, semi-fluid" substance within plant cells, to distinguish this from the cell wall and the cell sap (Zellsaft) within the vacuole.[16][41][42] Max Schultze in 1861 proposed the "Protoplasm Doctrine" which states that all living cells are made of a living substance called Protoplasm.[43] Thomas Huxley (1869) later referred to it as the "physical basis of life" and considered that the property of life resulted from the distribution of molecules within this substance.[44] The protoplasm became an "epistemic thing".[45] Its composition, however, was mysterious and there was much controversy over what sort of substance it was.[46]

In 1872, Beale created the vitalist term "bioplasm", to contrast with the materialism of Huxley.[24][47] In 1880, term protoplast was proposed by Hanstein (1880) for the entire cell, excluding the cell wall,[48][49] and some authors like Julius von Sachs (1882) preferred that name instead of cell.[50]

In 1965, Lardy introduced the term "cytosol", later redefined to refer to the liquid inside cells.[38]

By the time Huxley wrote, a long-standing debate was largely settled over the fundamental unit of life: was it the cell or was it protoplasm? By the late 1860s, the debate was largely settled in favor of protoplasm. The cell was a container for protoplasm, the fundamental and universal material substance of life. Huxley's principal contribution was to establish protoplasm as incompatible with a vitalistic theory of life.[51] Attempts to investigate the origin of life through the creation of synthetic "protoplasm" in the laboratory were not successful.[52]

The idea that protoplasm of eukaryotes is simply divisible into a ground substance called "cytoplasm" and a structural body called the cell nucleus reflects the more primitive knowledge of cell structure that preceded the development of electron microscopy, when it seemed that cytoplasm was a homogeneous fluid and the existence of most sub-cellular compartments, or how cells maintain their shape, was unknown.[53] Today, it is known that the cell contents are structurally very complex and contain multiple organelles, the cytoskeleton and biomolecular condensates.the word protoplasm is mainly divided in to two parts cytoplasm and nucleus.

Description edit

Physical nature edit

Protoplasm is physically translucent, granular slimy, semifluid or viscous. In it, granules of different shapes and sizes are suspended in solution. It may exist in two interchangeable states which are more liquid-like sol state and more solid-like gel state which is like jelly. The constituent molecules are free to move in sol state, while in gel state, the constituent molecules are compactly arranged. Protoplasm becomes opaque when it is heated. It also coagulates on heating. It occurs everywhere in the cell.[43] In eukaryotes, the portion of protoplasm surrounding the cell nucleus is known as the cytoplasm and the portion inside the nucleus as the nucleoplasm. In prokaryotes the material inside the plasma membrane is the bacterial cytoplasm, while in Gram-negative bacteria the region outside the plasma membrane but inside the outer membrane is the periplasm.[4]

Chemical composition edit

There are about 35 elements, like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, calcium and many others which are identified in protoplasm of different cells. They form compounds, like water (75-95%), carbohydrates, ions, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), fatty acids, glycerol, nucleotides, nucleosides and minerals. They are living as long as they are part of protoplasm. They are not able to perform functions of life independently. The composition of protoplasm is inconsistent and continuous changes take place in it.[43]

Functions edit

Some functions of protoplasm are:-

  1. It provides place where all life functions occur
  2. The cells respond to various stimuli like temperature, light, chemicals, gravitation, pricking, electric shocks and others because of properties of protoplasm.
  3. Cyclosis (the streaming movement of protoplasm is known as Cyclosis. It helps in even distribution of various materials in the cells.)[43]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ . Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on May 10, 2021.
  2. ^ "protoplasm". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
  3. ^   The dictionary definition of protoplasm at Wiktionary
  4. ^ a b Cammack, Richard; Teresa Atwood; Attwood, Teresa K.; Campbell, Peter Scott; Parish, Howard I.; Smith, Tony; Vella, Frank; Stirling, John (2006), Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology, Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-852917-0
  5. ^ Sharp, L. W. (1921). Introduction To Cytology. New York: McGraw Hill, p. 25.
  6. ^ Strasburger, E. (1882). Ueber den Theilungsvorgang der Zellkerne und das Verhältnis der Kernteilung zur Zellteilung. Arch Mikr Anat, 21: 476-590, BHL.
  7. ^ Beneden, E. van (1875). La maturation de l'oeuf, la fécondation et les premières de développement embryonnaire des Mammiferes d'après les recherches faites chez le lapin. Bull. Acad. Bel. Cl. Sci. 40, 2 sèr.: 686-736, BHL.
  8. ^ Flemming, W. (1878). Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Zelle und ihrer Lebenserscheinungen. Arch. f. mikr. Anat., 16: 302-436, p. 360, BHL.
  9. ^ Battaglia, E. (2009). Caryoneme alternative to chromosome and a new caryological nomenclature. Caryologia, 62(4), 1.
  10. ^ Parker, J. 1972. Protoplasmic resistance to water deficits, p. 125-176. In: Kozlowski, T. T. (ed.), Water deficits and plant growth. Vol. III. Plant responses and control of water balance. Academic Press, New York, p. 144, [1].
  11. ^ Sharp (1921), p. 11, 32-34.
  12. ^ a b c Battaglia, E. (1985). Meiosis and mitosis: a terminological criticism. Annali di Botanica (Rome) 43: 101–140. (Table 3, "-plasma derivatives", p. 118).
  13. ^ Grundriss der Naturphilosophie.
  14. ^ Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie.
  15. ^ a b Purkinje J.E. 1840. Über die Analogien in den Strukturelementen des thierischen und pflanzichen Organismus. In: Übersicht der Arbeiten und Veränderungen der schlesischen Gesellschaft für vaterländische Kultur, Jahre 1839: 81.
  16. ^ a b c von Mohl, H. 1846. Ueber die Saftbewegung im Inneren der Zellen. Bot. Ztg. 4: 73-78, 89-94.
  17. ^ Dujardin, F. 1835. Recherches sur les organisms inférieurs. Annales des Sciences Naturelles 4: 343–377, [2].
  18. ^ Dujardin, F. (1841). Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes Infusoires. Paris: Librarie Encyclopedique de Roret. p. 26.
  19. ^ Kölliker, R. A. v. (1863). Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen. 4. Auflage. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann.
  20. ^ a b c d Wayne (2009), p. 134.
  21. ^ Vines, S. H. (1877). An account of Prof. Strasburger's observation on protoplasm. Quart. J. Micr. Sc., Lond., 1877, n. s., 17, pp. 124-132. link.
  22. ^ Cienkowski, L. 1863. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Myxomyceten. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 3: 325-337, [3].
  23. ^ Van Beneden, E. Recherches sur la composition et la signification de l'œuf. F. Hayez, Bruxelles, 1870 (Extrait du tome XXXIV des Mém. cour. des savants étrangers, publiés par l'Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique). link.
  24. ^ a b Beale, L. S. (1872). Bioplasm. London: J. & A. Churchill.
  25. ^ Kupffer, K. W. 1875. Ueber Differenzierung des Protoplasmas an den Zellen tierischer Gewebe. Schriften des Naturwissenschaft, Vereins für Schleswig-Holstein, 1 (3), 229-242, link.
  26. ^ Velten, W. 1876. Die physikalische Beschaffenhoit des pflanzlichon Protoplasmas. Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-Nat. Kl., 73: I 131-151, [4].
  27. ^ Pfeffer, W. Osmotische Untersuchungen. W. Engelmann, Leipzig. link.
  28. ^ Hanstein (1880), p. 45.
  29. ^ Hanstein (1880), pp. 24, 39.
  30. ^ Flemming, W. (1882). Zellsubstanz, Kern, und Zelltheilung. Vogel, Leipzig, [5].
  31. ^ Bütschli, O. 1892. Untersuchungen über mikroskopische Schäume und das Protoplasma. Leipzig, [6].
  32. ^ Schütt, F. (1895). Die Peridineen der Plankton Expedition. Ergebnisse der Plankton-Expedition des Humbold-Stiftung, Bd IV, p. 1–27, Lipsius & Tischer, Kiel. link.
  33. ^ Seifriz, W. (1931). The structure of protoplasm. Science 73, 648-649. link.
  34. ^ Munson, J. P., 1899 The Ovarian Egg of Limulus. Athenaeum Press, Boston, Massachusetts
  35. ^ Bargmann, W. (1956). Über einige Probleme und Ergebnisse des elektronen-mikroskopischen Studiums der Zelle. Dtsch. med. Wschr. 81 (28): 1109-1125.
  36. ^ Szymonowicz, L. (1901). Lehrbuch der Histologie und der mikroskopischen Anatomie. Stuber, Würzburg. link.
  37. ^ Szymonowicz, L. (1902). Textbook of histology and microscopic anatomy of the human body, including microscopic technique. Philadelphia, Lea Bros. link.
  38. ^ a b Lardy, H. A. 1965. On the direction of pyridine nucleotide oxidation-reduction reactions in gluconeogenesis and lipogenesis. In: Control of energy metabolism, edited by B. Chance, R. Estabrook, and J. R. Williamson. New York: Academic, 1965, p. 245, [7].
  39. ^ Wayne, R. 2009. Plant Cell Biology: From Astronomy to Zoology. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press, p. 133.
  40. ^ Bynum, W. F., Browne, E. J. & Porter, R. (1981). Dictionary of the history of science. Princeton University Press.
  41. ^ Larson, P. R. (1994). The Vascular Cambium: Development and Structure. Springer-Verlag: New York and Berlin, p. 30-31, [8].
  42. ^ Evert, R. F. 2006. Esau's Plant Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development. 3rd.ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: Hoboken, New.Jersey, p. 16, [9].
  43. ^ a b c d Candid ICSE Biology Class 9. New Delhi: Evergreen Publications (India) Ltd. 2020. p. 1.3. ISBN 9788173133718.
  44. ^ Huxley, T. H. 1869. The Physical Basis of Life. New Haven, Conn., The College Courant.
  45. ^ Brain, R.M. "Protoplasmania: Huxley, Haeckel, and the Vibratory Organism in Fin de Siècle Visual Cultures", in The Art of Evolution: Darwin, Darwinisms, and Visual Cultures, F. Brauer and Larson, B. University Presses of New England, 2009, pp. 92-123, [10].
  46. ^ Harvey, E. N. (1938), "Some Physical Properties of Protoplasm", Journal of Applied Physics, 9 (2): 68–80, Bibcode:1938JAP.....9...68H, doi:10.1063/1.1710397, archived from the original on 2013-01-12
  47. ^ Bynum et al. (1981), p. 344.
  48. ^ Hanstein, J. (1880). Das Protoplasma. Heidelberg.
  49. ^ Sharp (1921), p. 24.
  50. ^ Wayne (2009), p. 15.
  51. ^ Geison, Gerald (1969), "The Protoplasmic Theory of Life and the Vitalist-Mechanist Debate", Isis, 60 (3): 272–292, doi:10.1086/350498, PMID 4919832, S2CID 39167693
  52. ^ Lazcano, A.; Capone, S.; Walde, P.; Seebach, D.; Ishikawa, T.; Caputo, R. (2008), "What Is Life? A Brief Historical Overview", Chemistry & Biodiversity, 5 (1): 1–15, doi:10.1002/cbdv.200890001, PMID 18205130, S2CID 6722644
  53. ^ Satir, P. (2005), "Tour of organelles through the electron microscope: A reprinting of Keith R. Porter's classic Harvey Lecture with a new introduction", The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology, 287A (2): 1184–1204, doi:10.1002/ar.a.20222, PMID 16265625

External links edit

April 12, 2024
protoplasm, protoplasms, living, part, cell, that, surrounded, plasma, membrane, mixture, small, molecules, such, ions, monosaccharides, amino, acids, macromolecules, such, proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, some, definitions, general, term, cytoplasm, mohl, 1. Protoplasm ˈ p r oʊ t e ˌ p l ae z em 1 2 pl protoplasms 3 is the living part of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane It is a mixture of small molecules such as ions monosaccharides amino acids and macromolecules such as proteins polysaccharides lipids etc In some definitions it is a general term for the cytoplasm e g Mohl 1846 4 but for others it also includes the nucleoplasm e g Strasburger 1882 For Sharp 1921 According to the older usage the extra nuclear portion of the protoplast the entire cell excluding the cell wall was called protoplasm but the nucleus also is composed of protoplasm or living substance in its broader sense The current consensus is to avoid this ambiguity by employing Strasburger s 1882 terms cytoplasm coined by Kolliker 1863 originally as synonym for protoplasm and nucleoplasm term coined by van Beneden 1875 or karyoplasm used by Flemming 1878 5 6 7 8 9 The cytoplasm definition of Strasburger excluded the plastids Chromatoplasm Like the nucleus whether to include the vacuole in the protoplasm concept is controversial 10 Contents 1 Terminology 2 History 3 Description 3 1 Physical nature 3 2 Chemical composition 3 3 Functions 4 See also 5 References 6 External linksTerminology editBesides protoplasm many other related terms and distinctions were used for the cell contents over time These were as follows 11 12 Urschleim Oken 1802 1809 13 14 Protoplasma Purkinje 1840 von Mohl 1846 15 16 Primordialschlauch primordial utricle von Mohl 1846 16 sarcode Dujardin 1835 1841 17 18 Cytoplasma Kolliker 1863 19 Hautschicht Kornerschicht ectoplasm endoplasm Pringsheim 1854 Hofmeister 1867 20 21 Grundsubstanz ground substance Cienkowski 1863 22 metaplasm protoplasm Hanstein 1868 20 deutoplasm protoplasm van Beneden 1870 23 bioplasm Beale 1872 24 paraplasm protoplasm Kupffer 1875 25 inter filar substance theory Velten 1876 26 Hyaloplasma Pfeffer 1877 27 Protoplast Hanstein 1880 28 Enchylema Hyaloplasma Hanstein 1880 29 Kleinkorperchen or Mikrosomen small bodies or microsomes Hanstein 1882 20 paramitome Flemming 1882 30 Idioplasma Nageli 1884 12 Zwischensubstanz inter alveolar substance Butschli 1892 31 Grundplasma ground plasma Schutt 1895 32 ergastoplasme Garnier 1897 12 phaneroplasm cryptoplasm Seifriz 1931 33 cytoplasmic matrix Munson 1899 zytoplasmatische Matrix Bergmann 1956 34 35 Protoplasma oder Zelleinschlusse protoplasmic or cellular inclusions Szymonowicz 1901 36 37 kinoplasm trophoplasm Strasburger et at 1912 20 cytosol Lardy 1965 38 History editThe word protoplasm comes from the Greek protos for first and plasma for thing formed and was originally used in religious contexts 39 It was used in 1839 by J E Purkinje for the material of the animal embryo 15 40 Later in 1846 Hugo von Mohl redefined the term also named as Primordialschlauch primordial utricle to refer to the tough slimy granular semi fluid substance within plant cells to distinguish this from the cell wall and the cell sap Zellsaft within the vacuole 16 41 42 Max Schultze in 1861 proposed the Protoplasm Doctrine which states that all living cells are made of a living substance called Protoplasm 43 Thomas Huxley 1869 later referred to it as the physical basis of life and considered that the property of life resulted from the distribution of molecules within this substance 44 The protoplasm became an epistemic thing 45 Its composition however was mysterious and there was much controversy over what sort of substance it was 46 In 1872 Beale created the vitalist term bioplasm to contrast with the materialism of Huxley 24 47 In 1880 term protoplast was proposed by Hanstein 1880 for the entire cell excluding the cell wall 48 49 and some authors like Julius von Sachs 1882 preferred that name instead of cell 50 In 1965 Lardy introduced the term cytosol later redefined to refer to the liquid inside cells 38 By the time Huxley wrote a long standing debate was largely settled over the fundamental unit of life was it the cell or was it protoplasm By the late 1860s the debate was largely settled in favor of protoplasm The cell was a container for protoplasm the fundamental and universal material substance of life Huxley s principal contribution was to establish protoplasm as incompatible with a vitalistic theory of life 51 Attempts to investigate the origin of life through the creation of synthetic protoplasm in the laboratory were not successful 52 The idea that protoplasm of eukaryotes is simply divisible into a ground substance called cytoplasm and a structural body called the cell nucleus reflects the more primitive knowledge of cell structure that preceded the development of electron microscopy when it seemed that cytoplasm was a homogeneous fluid and the existence of most sub cellular compartments or how cells maintain their shape was unknown 53 Today it is known that the cell contents are structurally very complex and contain multiple organelles the cytoskeleton and biomolecular condensates the word protoplasm is mainly divided in to two parts cytoplasm and nucleus Description editPhysical nature edit Protoplasm is physically translucent granular slimy semifluid or viscous In it granules of different shapes and sizes are suspended in solution It may exist in two interchangeable states which are more liquid like sol state and more solid like gel state which is like jelly The constituent molecules are free to move in sol state while in gel state the constituent molecules are compactly arranged Protoplasm becomes opaque when it is heated It also coagulates on heating It occurs everywhere in the cell 43 In eukaryotes the portion of protoplasm surrounding the cell nucleus is known as the cytoplasm and the portion inside the nucleus as the nucleoplasm In prokaryotes the material inside the plasma membrane is the bacterial cytoplasm while in Gram negative bacteria the region outside the plasma membrane but inside the outer membrane is the periplasm 4 Chemical composition edit There are about 35 elements like carbon hydrogen oxygen phosphorus sulphur calcium and many others which are identified in protoplasm of different cells They form compounds like water 75 95 carbohydrates ions proteins lipids nucleic acids DNA and RNA fatty acids glycerol nucleotides nucleosides and minerals They are living as long as they are part of protoplasm They are not able to perform functions of life independently The composition of protoplasm is inconsistent and continuous changes take place in it 43 Functions edit Some functions of protoplasm are It provides place where all life functions occur The cells respond to various stimuli like temperature light chemicals gravitation pricking electric shocks and others because of properties of protoplasm Cyclosis the streaming movement of protoplasm is known as Cyclosis It helps in even distribution of various materials in the cells 43 See also editChemical evolution Membrane SymplastReferences edit protoplasm Lexico UK English Dictionary Oxford University Press Archived from the original on May 10 2021 protoplasm Dictionary com Unabridged Online n d nbsp The dictionary definition of protoplasm at Wiktionary a b Cammack Richard Teresa Atwood Attwood Teresa K Campbell Peter Scott Parish Howard I Smith Tony Vella Frank Stirling John 2006 Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology Oxford Oxfordshire Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 852917 0 Sharp L W 1921 Introduction To Cytology New York McGraw Hill p 25 Strasburger E 1882 Ueber den Theilungsvorgang der Zellkerne und das Verhaltnis der Kernteilung zur Zellteilung Arch Mikr Anat 21 476 590 BHL Beneden E van 1875 La maturation de l oeuf la fecondation et les premieres de developpement embryonnaire des Mammiferes d apres les recherches faites chez le lapin Bull Acad Bel Cl Sci 40 2 ser 686 736 BHL Flemming W 1878 Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Zelle und ihrer Lebenserscheinungen Arch f mikr Anat 16 302 436 p 360 BHL Battaglia E 2009 Caryoneme alternative to chromosome and a new caryological nomenclature Caryologia 62 4 1 Parker J 1972 Protoplasmic resistance to water deficits p 125 176 In Kozlowski T T ed Water deficits and plant growth Vol III Plant responses and control of water balance Academic Press New York p 144 1 Sharp 1921 p 11 32 34 a b c Battaglia E 1985 Meiosis and mitosis a terminological criticism Annali di Botanica Rome 43 101 140 Table 3 plasma derivatives p 118 Grundriss der Naturphilosophie Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie a b Purkinje J E 1840 Uber die Analogien in den Strukturelementen des thierischen und pflanzichen Organismus In Ubersicht der Arbeiten und Veranderungen der schlesischen Gesellschaft fur vaterlandische Kultur Jahre 1839 81 a b c von Mohl H 1846 Ueber die Saftbewegung im Inneren der Zellen Bot Ztg 4 73 78 89 94 Dujardin F 1835 Recherches sur les organisms inferieurs Annales des Sciences Naturelles 4 343 377 2 Dujardin F 1841 Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes Infusoires Paris Librarie Encyclopedique de Roret p 26 Kolliker R A v 1863 Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen 4 Auflage Leipzig Wilhelm Engelmann a b c d Wayne 2009 p 134 Vines S H 1877 An account of Prof Strasburger s observation on protoplasm Quart J Micr Sc Lond 1877 n s 17 pp 124 132 link Cienkowski L 1863 Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Myxomyceten Jahrb Wiss Bot 3 325 337 3 Van Beneden E Recherches sur la composition et la signification de l œuf F Hayez Bruxelles 1870 Extrait du tome XXXIV des Mem cour des savants etrangers publies par l Academie royale des sciences des lettres et des beaux arts de Belgique link a b Beale L S 1872 Bioplasm London J amp A Churchill Kupffer K W 1875 Ueber Differenzierung des Protoplasmas an den Zellen tierischer Gewebe Schriften des Naturwissenschaft Vereins fur Schleswig Holstein 1 3 229 242 link Velten W 1876 Die physikalische Beschaffenhoit des pflanzlichon Protoplasmas Sitzber Akad Wiss Wien Math Nat Kl 73 I 131 151 4 Pfeffer W Osmotische Untersuchungen W Engelmann Leipzig link Hanstein 1880 p 45 Hanstein 1880 pp 24 39 Flemming W 1882 Zellsubstanz Kern und Zelltheilung Vogel Leipzig 5 Butschli O 1892 Untersuchungen uber mikroskopische Schaume und das Protoplasma Leipzig 6 Schutt F 1895 Die Peridineen der Plankton Expedition Ergebnisse der Plankton Expedition des Humbold Stiftung Bd IV p 1 27 Lipsius amp Tischer Kiel link Seifriz W 1931 The structure of protoplasm Science 73 648 649 link Munson J P 1899 The Ovarian Egg of Limulus Athenaeum Press Boston Massachusetts Bargmann W 1956 Uber einige Probleme und Ergebnisse des elektronen mikroskopischen Studiums der Zelle Dtsch med Wschr 81 28 1109 1125 Szymonowicz L 1901 Lehrbuch der Histologie und der mikroskopischen Anatomie Stuber Wurzburg link Szymonowicz L 1902 Textbook of histology and microscopic anatomy of the human body including microscopic technique Philadelphia Lea Bros link a b Lardy H A 1965 On the direction of pyridine nucleotide oxidation reduction reactions in gluconeogenesis and lipogenesis In Control of energy metabolism edited by B Chance R Estabrook and J R Williamson New York Academic 1965 p 245 7 Wayne R 2009 Plant Cell Biology From Astronomy to Zoology Amsterdam Elsevier Academic Press p 133 Bynum W F Browne E J amp Porter R 1981 Dictionary of the history of science Princeton University Press Larson P R 1994 The Vascular Cambium Development and Structure Springer Verlag New York and Berlin p 30 31 8 Evert R F 2006 Esau s Plant Anatomy Meristems Cells and Tissues of the Plant Body Their Structure Function and Development 3rd ed John Wiley amp Sons Inc Hoboken New Jersey p 16 9 a b c d Candid ICSE Biology Class 9 New Delhi Evergreen Publications India Ltd 2020 p 1 3 ISBN 9788173133718 Huxley T H 1869 The Physical Basis of Life New Haven Conn The College Courant Brain R M Protoplasmania Huxley Haeckel and the Vibratory Organism in Fin de Siecle Visual Cultures in The Art of Evolution Darwin Darwinisms and Visual Cultures F Brauer and Larson B University Presses of New England 2009 pp 92 123 10 Harvey E N 1938 Some Physical Properties of Protoplasm Journal of Applied Physics 9 2 68 80 Bibcode 1938JAP 9 68H doi 10 1063 1 1710397 archived from the original on 2013 01 12 Bynum et al 1981 p 344 Hanstein J 1880 Das Protoplasma Heidelberg Sharp 1921 p 24 Wayne 2009 p 15 Geison Gerald 1969 The Protoplasmic Theory of Life and the Vitalist Mechanist Debate Isis 60 3 272 292 doi 10 1086 350498 PMID 4919832 S2CID 39167693 Lazcano A Capone S Walde P Seebach D Ishikawa T Caputo R 2008 What Is Life A Brief Historical Overview Chemistry amp Biodiversity 5 1 1 15 doi 10 1002 cbdv 200890001 PMID 18205130 S2CID 6722644 Satir P 2005 Tour of organelles through the electron microscope A reprinting of Keith R Porter s classic Harvey Lecture with a new introduction The Anatomical Record Part A Discoveries in Molecular Cellular and Evolutionary Biology 287A 2 1184 1204 doi 10 1002 ar a 20222 PMID 16265625External links edit Protoplasm Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed 1911 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Protoplasm amp oldid 1155371333, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.