fbpx
Wikipedia

Myriapoda

January 31, 2023

Myriapods (from Ancient Greek μυρίος (muríos) 'ten thousand', and πούς (poús) 'foot') are the members of subphylum Myriapoda, containing arthropods such as millipedes and centipedes. The group contains about 13,000 species, all of them terrestrial.[2]

Myriapods
Temporal range: Pridoli–Present
Representatives of the four extant myriapod classes. Clockwise from top left: Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Symphyla, and Pauropoda.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Clade: Mandibulata
Subphylum: Myriapoda
Latreille, 1802
Classes[1]

The fossil record of myriapods reaches back into the late Silurian, although molecular evidence suggests a diversification in the Cambrian Period,[3] and Cambrian fossils exist which resemble myriapods.[2] The oldest unequivocal myriapod fossil is of the millipede Pneumodesmus newmani, from the late Silurian (428 million years ago). P. newmani is also important as the earliest known terrestrial animal.[4][5] The phylogenetic classification of myriapods is still debated.

The scientific study of myriapods is myriapodology, and those who study myriapods are myriapodologists.[6]

Anatomy

Myriapods have a single pair of antennae and, in most cases, simple eyes. Exceptions are the two classes symphylans and pauropods, and the millipede order Polydesmida and the centipede order Geophilomorpha, which are all eyeless.[7] The house centipedes (Scutigera) on the other hand, have large and well-developed compound eyes.[8] The mouthparts lie on the underside of the head, with an "epistome" and labrum forming the upper lip, and a pair of maxillae forming the lower lip. A pair of mandibles lie inside the mouth. Myriapods breathe through spiracles that connect to a tracheal system similar to that of insects. There is a long tubular heart that extends through much of the body, but usually few, if any, blood vessels.[9]

Malpighian tubules excrete nitrogenous waste into the digestive system, which typically consists of a simple tube. Although the ventral nerve cord has a ganglion in each segment, the brain is relatively poorly developed.[9]

During mating, male myriapods produce a packet of sperm, or spermatophore, which they must transfer to the female externally; this process is often complex and highly developed. The female lays eggs which hatch as much-shortened versions of the adults, with only a few segments and as few as three pairs of legs. With the exception of the two centipede orders Scolopendromorpha and Geophilomorpha, which have epimorphic development (all body segments are formed segments embryonically), the young add additional segments and limbs as they repeatedly moult to reach the adult form.[9]

The process of adding new segments during postembryonic growth is known as anamorphosis, of which there are three types: euanamorphosis, emianamorphosis, and teloanamorphosis. In euanamorphosis, every moult is followed by addition of new segments, even after reaching sexual maturity; in emianamorphosis, new segments are added until a certain stage, and further moults happen without addition of segments; and in teloanamorphosis, where the addition of new segments stops after the adult form is reached, after no further moults occur.[10]

Ecology

Myriapods are most abundant in moist forests, where they fulfill an important role in breaking down decaying plant material,[2] although a few live in grasslands, semi-arid habitats or even deserts.[11] A very small percentage of species are littoral (found along the sea shore).[12][13] The majority are detritivorous, with the exception of centipedes, which are chiefly nocturnal predators. A few species of centipedes and millipedes are able to produce light and are therefore bioluminescent[14] Pauropodans and symphylans are small, sometimes microscopic animals that resemble centipedes superficially and live in soils. Millipedes differ from the other groups in having their body segments fused into pairs, giving the appearance that each segment bears two pairs of legs, while the other three groups have a single pair of legs on each body segment.

Although not generally considered dangerous to humans, many millipedes produce noxious secretions (often containing benzoquinones) which in rare cases can cause temporary blistering and discolouration of the skin.[15] Large centipedes, however, can bite humans, and although the bite may cause intense pain and discomfort, fatalities are extremely rare.[16]

Classification

 
Scolopendra cingulata, a centipede

There has been much debate as to which arthropod group is most closely related to the Myriapoda.[17] Under the Mandibulata hypothesis, Myriapoda is the sister taxon to Pancrustacea, a group comprising the Crustacea and Hexapoda (insects and their close relatives). Under the Atelocerata hypothesis, Hexapoda is the closest, whereas under the Paradoxopoda hypothesis, Chelicerata is the closest. This last hypothesis, although supported by few, if any, morphological characters, is supported by a number of molecular studies.[18]

A 2020 study found numerous characters of the eye and preoral region suggesting that the closest relatives to crown myriapods are the extinct Euthycarcinoids.[19] There are four classes of extant myriapods, Chilopoda (centipedes), Diplopoda, Pauropoda and Symphyla, containing a total of around 12,000 species.[20] While each of these groups of myriapods is believed to be monophyletic, relationships among them are less certain.[21]

Centipedes

Main article: Centipede
 
Tachypodoiulus niger, a millipede
 
A species of Scutigerella, a genus of Symphylan.

Centipedes make up the class Chilopoda. They are fast, predatory and venomous, hunting mostly at night. There are around 3,300 species,[20] ranging from the diminutive Nannarrup hoffmani (less than 12 mm or 1⁄2 in in length)[22] to the giant Scolopendra gigantea, which may exceed 30 centimetres (12 in).

Millipedes

Main article: Millipede

Millipedes form the class Diplopoda. Most millipedes are slower than centipedes, and feed on leaf litter and detritus. Except for the first segment called collum, which don't have any appendages, and the next three segments with a single pair of legs each, they are distinguished by the fusion of each pair of body segments into a single unit, giving the appearance of having two pairs of legs per segment. It is also common for the sternites, pleurites and tergites to fuse into rigid armour rings.[23] The males produce aflagellate sperm cells, unlike the rest of the myriapods which produce flagellated sperm.[24] Around 12,000 species have been described, which may represent less than a tenth of the true global millipede diversity.[20] Although the name "millipede" is a compound word formed from the Latin roots millia ("thousand") and pes (gen. pedis) ("foot"), millipedes typically have between 36 and 400 legs. In 2021, however, was described Eumillipes persephone, the first species known to have 1,000 or more legs, possessing 1,306 of them.[25] Pill millipedes are much shorter, and are capable of rolling up into a ball, like pillbugs.

Symphyla

Main article: Symphyla

Symphylans, or garden centipedes, are closely related to centipedes and millipedes.[26][27] They are 3 to 6 cm long, and have 6 to 12 pairs of legs, depending on their life stage.[26][27][28] Their eggs, which are white and spherical and covered with small hexagonal ridges, are laid in batches of 4 to 25 at a time, and usually take up to 40 days to hatch.[26][27][28] There are about 200 species worldwide.[29]

Pauropoda

Main article: Pauropoda
 
A Eurypauropodid Pauropod.

Pauropoda is another small group of small myriapods. They are typically 0.5–2.0 mm long and live in the soil on all continents except Antarctica.[citation needed] Over 700 species have been described.[20] They are believed to be the sister group to millipedes, and have the dorsal tergites fused across pairs of segments, similar to the more complete fusion of segments seen in millipedes.[30]

Arthropleuridea

Main article: Arthropleuridea
 
Arthropleura armata, an arthropleuridean

Arthropleurideans were ancient myriapods that are now extinct, known from the late Silurian to the Permian. The most famous members are from the genus Arthropleura, which was a giant, probably herbivorous, animal that could be up to 2.63 metres (8 ft 8 in) long,[31] but the group also includes species less than 1 cm (0.39 in). Arthropleuridea was historically considered a distinct class of myriapods, but since 2000 scientific consensus has viewed the group as a subset of millipedes, although the relationship of arthropleurideans to other millipedes and to each other is debated.[32][33]

Myriapod relationships

 
Some of the various hypotheses of myriapod phylogeny. Morphological studies (trees a and b) support a sister grouping of Diplopoda and Pauropoda, while studies of DNA or amino acid similarities suggest a variety of different relationships, including the relationship of Pauropoda and Symphyla in tree c.

A variety of groupings (clades) of the myriapod classes have been proposed, some of which are mutually exclusive, and all of which represent hypotheses of evolutionary relationships. Traditional relationships supported by morphological similarities (anatomical or developmental similarities) are challenged by newer relationships supported by molecular evidence (including DNA sequence and amino acid similarities).[34][35]

  • Dignatha (also called Collifera) is a clade consisting of millipedes and pauropods, and is supported by morphological similarities including the presence of a gnathochilarium (a modified jaw and plate apparatus) and a collum, a legless segment behind the head.
  • Trignatha (also called Atelopoda) is a grouping of centipedes and symphylans, united by similarities of mouthparts.
  • Edafopoda is a grouping of symphylans and pauropodans that is supported by shared genetic sequences, yet conflicts with Dignatha and Trignatha.[36]
  • Progoneata is a group encompassing millipedes, pauropods and symphylans while excluding centipedes. Shared features include reproductive openings (gonopores) behind the second body segment, and sensory hairs (trichobothria) with a bulb-like swelling. It is compatible with either Dignatha or Edafopoda.[35]

See also

  • Euthycarcinoidea, a group of enigmatic arthropods that may be ancestral to myriapods
  • Colonization of land, major evolutionary stages leading to terrestrial organisms
  • Metamerism, the condition of multiple linearly repeated body segments

References

  1. ^ "Myriapoda". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  2. ^ a b c Ben Waggoner (February 21, 1996). "Introduction to the Myriapoda". University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved November 9, 2021.
  3. ^ Markus Friedrich & Diethard Tautz (2002). "Ribosomal DNA phylogeny of the major extant arthropod classes and the evolution of myriapods". Nature. 376 (6536): 165–167. Bibcode:1995Natur.376..165F. doi:10.1038/376165a0. PMID 7603566. S2CID 4270910.
  4. ^ Rowland Shelley & Paul Marek (March 1, 2005). . East Carolina University. Archived from the original on May 27, 2011.
  5. ^ Garwood, Russell J.; Edgecombe, Gregory D. (September 2011). "Early Terrestrial Animals, Evolution, and Uncertainty". Evolution: Education and Outreach. 4 (3): 489–501. doi:10.1007/s12052-011-0357-y.
  6. ^ Sue Hubbell (2000). Waiting for Aphrodite: Journeys Into the Time Before Bones. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-618-05684-2.
  7. ^ Deep Metazoan Phylogeny: The Backbone of the Tree of Life. New insights from analyses of molecules, morphology, and theory of data analysis.
  8. ^ Müller, C.H.G.; Rosenberg, J.; Richter, S.; Meyer-Rochow, V.B. (2003). "The compound eye of Scutigera coleoptrata (Linnaeus, 1758) (Chilopoda; Notostigmophora): an ultrastructural re-investigation that adds support to the Mandibulata concept". Zoomorphology. 122 (4): 191–209. doi:10.1007/s00435-003-0085-0. S2CID 6466405.
  9. ^ a b c Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 810–827. ISBN 978-0-03-056747-6.
  10. ^ Enghoff, Henrik; Dohle, Wolfgang; Blower, J. Gordon (October 1993). "Anamorphosis in millipedes (Diplopoda) – the present state of knowledge with some developmental and phylogenetic considerations". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society (abstract). 109 (2): 103–234. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1993.tb00305.x.
  11. ^ "Myriapod". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
  12. ^ Barber, A.D. (2009). (PDF). Soil Organisms. 81 (3): 735–760. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
  13. ^ Barber, A.D., ed. (2013). "World Database of Littoral Myriapoda". World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  14. ^ Rosenberg, Joerg; Meyer-Rochow, Victor Benno (2009). Meyer-Rochow V.B. (ed.). Bioluminescence in Focus - a collection of illuminating essays. Research Signpost; Trivandrum, Kerala, India. pp. 139–147.
  15. ^ . herper.com. Archived from the original on April 2, 2012. Retrieved July 2, 2007.
  16. ^ Sean P. Bush; Bradley O. King; Robert L. Norris; Scott A. Stockwell (2001). "Centipede envenomation". Wilderness & Environmental Medicine. 12 (2): 93–99. doi:10.1580/1080-6032(2001)012[0093:CE]2.0.CO;2. PMID 11434497.
  17. ^ Gregory D. Edgecombe (2004). "Morphological data, extant Myriapoda, and the myriapod stem-group". Contributions to Zoology. 73 (3): 207–252. doi:10.1163/18759866-07303002.
  18. ^ Alexandre Hassanin (2006). "Phylogeny of Arthropoda inferred from mitochondrial sequences: strategies for limiting the misleading effects of multiple changes in pattern and rates of substitution". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 38 (1): 100–116. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.09.012. PMID 16290034.
  19. ^ Edgecombe, Gregory D.; Strullu-Derrien, Christine; Góral, Tomasz; Hetherington, Alexander J.; Thompson, Christine; Koch, Markus (2020-04-01). "Aquatic stem group myriapods close a gap between molecular divergence dates and the terrestrial fossil record". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (16): 8966–8972. Bibcode:2020PNAS..117.8966E. doi:10.1073/pnas.1920733117. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 7183169. PMID 32253305.
  20. ^ a b c d A. D. Chapman (2005). (PDF). Department of the Environment and Heritage. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-642-56850-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
  21. ^ Jerome C. Regier, Heather M. Wilson & Jeffrey W. Shultz (2005). "Phylogenetic analysis of Myriapoda using three nuclear protein-coding genes". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 34 (1): 147–158. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.09.005. PMID 15579388.
  22. ^ . 2008-04-30. Archived from the original on 2008-04-30. Retrieved 2022-10-30.
  23. ^ A review of the correlation of tergites, sternites, and leg pairs in diplopods
  24. ^ Invertebrate Zoology: A Tree of Life Approach
  25. ^ Marek, Paul E.; Buzatto, Bruno A.; Shear, William A.; Means, Jackson C.; Black, Dennis G.; Harvey, Mark S.; Rodriguez, Juanita (December 2021). "The first true millipede—1306 legs long". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 23126. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1123126M. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-02447-0. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8677783. PMID 34916527. S2CID 245317751.
  26. ^ a b c Gesell, Stanley; Calvin, Dennis (2017-03-09). "Garden Symphylan as a Pest of Field Crops".
  27. ^ a b c University, Utah State. "Sympylans (Garden Centipede)". extension.usu.edu. Retrieved 2022-10-30.
  28. ^ a b . 2007-08-03. Archived from the original on 2007-08-03. Retrieved 2022-10-30.
  29. ^ (PDF). 2009-09-26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-26. Retrieved 2022-10-30.
  30. ^ David Kendall (June 6, 2005). "Pauropods & Symphylids". Kendall Bioresearch.
  31. ^ Neil Davies; et al. (Dec 21, 2021). "The largest arthropod in Earth history: insights from newly discovered Arthropleura remains (Serpukhovian Stainmore Formation, Northumberland, England)". Journal of the Geological Society. 179 (3). doi:10.1144/jgs2021-115. S2CID 245401499.
  32. ^ Wilson, Heather M.; Shear, William A. (2000). "Microdecemplicida, a new order of minute arthropleurideans (Arthropoda: Myriapoda) from the Devonian of New York State, U.S.A.". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences. 90 (4): 351–375. doi:10.1017/S0263593300002674. S2CID 129597005.
  33. ^ Shear, William A.; Edgecombe, Gregory D. (2010). "The geological record and phylogeny of the Myriapoda". Arthropod Structure & Development. 39 (2–3): 174–190. doi:10.1016/j.asd.2009.11.002. PMID 19944188.
  34. ^ Edgecombe GD; Giribet G (2002). "Myriapod phylogeny and the relationships of Chilopoda" (PDF). In J Llorente Bousquets; JJ Morrone; HP Ulloa (eds.). Biodiversidad, Taxonomia y Biogeografia de Artropodos de Mexico: Hacia una S´ıntesis de su Conocimiento. Univ. Nac. Aut´on Mexico: Prensas Ciencias. pp. 143–168.
  35. ^ a b Miyazawa, Hideyuki; Ueda, Chiaki; Yahata, Kensuke; Su, Zhi-Hui (2014). "Molecular phylogeny of Myriapoda provides insights into evolutionary patterns of the mode in post-embryonic development". Scientific Reports. 4 (4127): 4127. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E4127M. doi:10.1038/srep04127. PMC 3927213. PMID 24535281.
  36. ^ Zwick, Andreas; Regier, Jerome C.; Zwickl, Derrick J.; Gadagkar, Sudhindra R. (2012). "Resolving Discrepancy between Nucleotides and Amino Acids in Deep-Level Arthropod Phylogenomics: Differentiating Serine Codons in 21-Amino-Acid Models". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e47450. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...747450Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047450. PMC 3502419. PMID 23185239.

External links

 
Wikispecies has information related to Myriapoda.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Myriapoda.
  • International Society of Myriapodology
  • British Myriapod and Isopod Group

January 31, 2023
myriapoda, myriapods, from, ancient, greek, μυρίος, muríos, thousand, πούς, poús, foot, members, subphylum, containing, arthropods, such, millipedes, centipedes, group, contains, about, species, them, terrestrial, myriapodstemporal, range, pridoli, present, pr. Myriapods from Ancient Greek myrios murios ten thousand and poys pous foot are the members of subphylum Myriapoda containing arthropods such as millipedes and centipedes The group contains about 13 000 species all of them terrestrial 2 MyriapodsTemporal range Pridoli Present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg NRepresentatives of the four extant myriapod classes Clockwise from top left Chilopoda Diplopoda Symphyla and Pauropoda Scientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ArthropodaClade MandibulataSubphylum MyriapodaLatreille 1802Classes 1 Chilopoda Diplopoda Pauropoda SymphylaThe fossil record of myriapods reaches back into the late Silurian although molecular evidence suggests a diversification in the Cambrian Period 3 and Cambrian fossils exist which resemble myriapods 2 The oldest unequivocal myriapod fossil is of the millipede Pneumodesmus newmani from the late Silurian 428 million years ago P newmani is also important as the earliest known terrestrial animal 4 5 The phylogenetic classification of myriapods is still debated The scientific study of myriapods is myriapodology and those who study myriapods are myriapodologists 6 Contents 1 Anatomy 2 Ecology 3 Classification 3 1 Centipedes 3 2 Millipedes 3 3 Symphyla 3 4 Pauropoda 3 5 Arthropleuridea 3 6 Myriapod relationships 4 See also 5 References 6 External linksAnatomy Edit The head of Scutigera coleoptrata showing antennae compound eyes and mouthparts Myriapods have a single pair of antennae and in most cases simple eyes Exceptions are the two classes symphylans and pauropods and the millipede order Polydesmida and the centipede order Geophilomorpha which are all eyeless 7 The house centipedes Scutigera on the other hand have large and well developed compound eyes 8 The mouthparts lie on the underside of the head with an epistome and labrum forming the upper lip and a pair of maxillae forming the lower lip A pair of mandibles lie inside the mouth Myriapods breathe through spiracles that connect to a tracheal system similar to that of insects There is a long tubular heart that extends through much of the body but usually few if any blood vessels 9 Malpighian tubules excrete nitrogenous waste into the digestive system which typically consists of a simple tube Although the ventral nerve cord has a ganglion in each segment the brain is relatively poorly developed 9 During mating male myriapods produce a packet of sperm or spermatophore which they must transfer to the female externally this process is often complex and highly developed The female lays eggs which hatch as much shortened versions of the adults with only a few segments and as few as three pairs of legs With the exception of the two centipede orders Scolopendromorpha and Geophilomorpha which have epimorphic development all body segments are formed segments embryonically the young add additional segments and limbs as they repeatedly moult to reach the adult form 9 The process of adding new segments during postembryonic growth is known as anamorphosis of which there are three types euanamorphosis emianamorphosis and teloanamorphosis In euanamorphosis every moult is followed by addition of new segments even after reaching sexual maturity in emianamorphosis new segments are added until a certain stage and further moults happen without addition of segments and in teloanamorphosis where the addition of new segments stops after the adult form is reached after no further moults occur 10 Ecology EditMyriapods are most abundant in moist forests where they fulfill an important role in breaking down decaying plant material 2 although a few live in grasslands semi arid habitats or even deserts 11 A very small percentage of species are littoral found along the sea shore 12 13 The majority are detritivorous with the exception of centipedes which are chiefly nocturnal predators A few species of centipedes and millipedes are able to produce light and are therefore bioluminescent 14 Pauropodans and symphylans are small sometimes microscopic animals that resemble centipedes superficially and live in soils Millipedes differ from the other groups in having their body segments fused into pairs giving the appearance that each segment bears two pairs of legs while the other three groups have a single pair of legs on each body segment Although not generally considered dangerous to humans many millipedes produce noxious secretions often containing benzoquinones which in rare cases can cause temporary blistering and discolouration of the skin 15 Large centipedes however can bite humans and although the bite may cause intense pain and discomfort fatalities are extremely rare 16 Classification Edit Scolopendra cingulata a centipedeThere has been much debate as to which arthropod group is most closely related to the Myriapoda 17 Under the Mandibulata hypothesis Myriapoda is the sister taxon to Pancrustacea a group comprising the Crustacea and Hexapoda insects and their close relatives Under the Atelocerata hypothesis Hexapoda is the closest whereas under the Paradoxopoda hypothesis Chelicerata is the closest This last hypothesis although supported by few if any morphological characters is supported by a number of molecular studies 18 A 2020 study found numerous characters of the eye and preoral region suggesting that the closest relatives to crown myriapods are the extinct Euthycarcinoids 19 There are four classes of extant myriapods Chilopoda centipedes Diplopoda Pauropoda and Symphyla containing a total of around 12 000 species 20 While each of these groups of myriapods is believed to be monophyletic relationships among them are less certain 21 Centipedes Edit Main article Centipede Tachypodoiulus niger a millipede A species of Scutigerella a genus of Symphylan Centipedes make up the class Chilopoda They are fast predatory and venomous hunting mostly at night There are around 3 300 species 20 ranging from the diminutive Nannarrup hoffmani less than 12 mm or 1 2 in in length 22 to the giant Scolopendra gigantea which may exceed 30 centimetres 12 in Millipedes Edit Main article Millipede Millipedes form the class Diplopoda Most millipedes are slower than centipedes and feed on leaf litter and detritus Except for the first segment called collum which don t have any appendages and the next three segments with a single pair of legs each they are distinguished by the fusion of each pair of body segments into a single unit giving the appearance of having two pairs of legs per segment It is also common for the sternites pleurites and tergites to fuse into rigid armour rings 23 The males produce aflagellate sperm cells unlike the rest of the myriapods which produce flagellated sperm 24 Around 12 000 species have been described which may represent less than a tenth of the true global millipede diversity 20 Although the name millipede is a compound word formed from the Latin roots millia thousand and pes gen pedis foot millipedes typically have between 36 and 400 legs In 2021 however was described Eumillipes persephone the first species known to have 1 000 or more legs possessing 1 306 of them 25 Pill millipedes are much shorter and are capable of rolling up into a ball like pillbugs Symphyla Edit Main article SymphylaSymphylans or garden centipedes are closely related to centipedes and millipedes 26 27 They are 3 to 6 cm long and have 6 to 12 pairs of legs depending on their life stage 26 27 28 Their eggs which are white and spherical and covered with small hexagonal ridges are laid in batches of 4 to 25 at a time and usually take up to 40 days to hatch 26 27 28 There are about 200 species worldwide 29 Pauropoda Edit Main article Pauropoda A Eurypauropodid Pauropod Pauropoda is another small group of small myriapods They are typically 0 5 2 0 mm long and live in the soil on all continents except Antarctica citation needed Over 700 species have been described 20 They are believed to be the sister group to millipedes and have the dorsal tergites fused across pairs of segments similar to the more complete fusion of segments seen in millipedes 30 Arthropleuridea Edit Main article Arthropleuridea Arthropleura armata an arthropleuridean Arthropleurideans were ancient myriapods that are now extinct known from the late Silurian to the Permian The most famous members are from the genus Arthropleura which was a giant probably herbivorous animal that could be up to 2 63 metres 8 ft 8 in long 31 but the group also includes species less than 1 cm 0 39 in Arthropleuridea was historically considered a distinct class of myriapods but since 2000 scientific consensus has viewed the group as a subset of millipedes although the relationship of arthropleurideans to other millipedes and to each other is debated 32 33 Myriapod relationships Edit Some of the various hypotheses of myriapod phylogeny Morphological studies trees a and b support a sister grouping of Diplopoda and Pauropoda while studies of DNA or amino acid similarities suggest a variety of different relationships including the relationship of Pauropoda and Symphyla in tree c A variety of groupings clades of the myriapod classes have been proposed some of which are mutually exclusive and all of which represent hypotheses of evolutionary relationships Traditional relationships supported by morphological similarities anatomical or developmental similarities are challenged by newer relationships supported by molecular evidence including DNA sequence and amino acid similarities 34 35 Dignatha also called Collifera is a clade consisting of millipedes and pauropods and is supported by morphological similarities including the presence of a gnathochilarium a modified jaw and plate apparatus and a collum a legless segment behind the head Trignatha also called Atelopoda is a grouping of centipedes and symphylans united by similarities of mouthparts Edafopoda is a grouping of symphylans and pauropodans that is supported by shared genetic sequences yet conflicts with Dignatha and Trignatha 36 Progoneata is a group encompassing millipedes pauropods and symphylans while excluding centipedes Shared features include reproductive openings gonopores behind the second body segment and sensory hairs trichobothria with a bulb like swelling It is compatible with either Dignatha or Edafopoda 35 See also Edit Arthropods portalEuthycarcinoidea a group of enigmatic arthropods that may be ancestral to myriapods Colonization of land major evolutionary stages leading to terrestrial organisms Metamerism the condition of multiple linearly repeated body segmentsReferences Edit Myriapoda Integrated Taxonomic Information System a b c Ben Waggoner February 21 1996 Introduction to the Myriapoda University of California Berkeley Retrieved November 9 2021 Markus Friedrich amp Diethard Tautz 2002 Ribosomal DNA phylogeny of the major extant arthropod classes and the evolution of myriapods Nature 376 6536 165 167 Bibcode 1995Natur 376 165F doi 10 1038 376165a0 PMID 7603566 S2CID 4270910 Rowland Shelley amp Paul Marek March 1 2005 Millipede Fossils East Carolina University Archived from the original on May 27 2011 Garwood Russell J Edgecombe Gregory D September 2011 Early Terrestrial Animals Evolution and Uncertainty Evolution Education and Outreach 4 3 489 501 doi 10 1007 s12052 011 0357 y Sue Hubbell 2000 Waiting for Aphrodite Journeys Into the Time Before Bones Houghton Mifflin Harcourt p 53 ISBN 978 0 618 05684 2 Deep Metazoan Phylogeny The Backbone of the Tree of Life New insights from analyses of molecules morphology and theory of data analysis Muller C H G Rosenberg J Richter S Meyer Rochow V B 2003 The compound eye of Scutigera coleoptrata Linnaeus 1758 Chilopoda Notostigmophora an ultrastructural re investigation that adds support to the Mandibulata concept Zoomorphology 122 4 191 209 doi 10 1007 s00435 003 0085 0 S2CID 6466405 a b c Barnes Robert D 1982 Invertebrate Zoology Philadelphia PA Holt Saunders International pp 810 827 ISBN 978 0 03 056747 6 Enghoff Henrik Dohle Wolfgang Blower J Gordon October 1993 Anamorphosis in millipedes Diplopoda the present state of knowledge with some developmental and phylogenetic considerations Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society abstract 109 2 103 234 doi 10 1111 j 1096 3642 1993 tb00305 x Myriapod Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Barber A D 2009 Littoral myriapods a review PDF Soil Organisms 81 3 735 760 Archived from the original PDF on 2016 03 03 Retrieved 2013 11 05 Barber A D ed 2013 World Database of Littoral Myriapoda World Register of Marine Species Retrieved 25 October 2013 Rosenberg Joerg Meyer Rochow Victor Benno 2009 Meyer Rochow V B ed Bioluminescence in Focus a collection of illuminating essays Research Signpost Trivandrum Kerala India pp 139 147 Strange and Unusual Millipedes herper com Archived from the original on April 2 2012 Retrieved July 2 2007 Sean P Bush Bradley O King Robert L Norris Scott A Stockwell 2001 Centipede envenomation Wilderness amp Environmental Medicine 12 2 93 99 doi 10 1580 1080 6032 2001 012 0093 CE 2 0 CO 2 PMID 11434497 Gregory D Edgecombe 2004 Morphological data extant Myriapoda and the myriapod stem group Contributions to Zoology 73 3 207 252 doi 10 1163 18759866 07303002 Alexandre Hassanin 2006 Phylogeny of Arthropoda inferred from mitochondrial sequences strategies for limiting the misleading effects of multiple changes in pattern and rates of substitution Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 38 1 100 116 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2005 09 012 PMID 16290034 Edgecombe Gregory D Strullu Derrien Christine Goral Tomasz Hetherington Alexander J Thompson Christine Koch Markus 2020 04 01 Aquatic stem group myriapods close a gap between molecular divergence dates and the terrestrial fossil record Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117 16 8966 8972 Bibcode 2020PNAS 117 8966E doi 10 1073 pnas 1920733117 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 7183169 PMID 32253305 a b c d A D Chapman 2005 Numbers of Living Species in Australia and the World PDF Department of the Environment and Heritage p 23 ISBN 978 0 642 56850 2 Archived from the original PDF on 25 October 2007 Retrieved 1 January 2011 Jerome C Regier Heather M Wilson amp Jeffrey W Shultz 2005 Phylogenetic analysis of Myriapoda using three nuclear protein coding genes Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 34 1 147 158 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2004 09 005 PMID 15579388 City Centipede An Urban Legend with Real Legs TIME 2008 04 30 Archived from the original on 2008 04 30 Retrieved 2022 10 30 A review of the correlation of tergites sternites and leg pairs in diplopods Invertebrate Zoology A Tree of Life Approach Marek Paul E Buzatto Bruno A Shear William A Means Jackson C Black Dennis G Harvey Mark S Rodriguez Juanita December 2021 The first true millipede 1306 legs long Scientific Reports 11 1 23126 Bibcode 2021NatSR 1123126M doi 10 1038 s41598 021 02447 0 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 8677783 PMID 34916527 S2CID 245317751 a b c Gesell Stanley Calvin Dennis 2017 03 09 Garden Symphylan as a Pest of Field Crops a b c University Utah State Sympylans Garden Centipede extension usu edu Retrieved 2022 10 30 a b Symphylan Identification 2007 08 03 Archived from the original on 2007 08 03 Retrieved 2022 10 30 Numbers of Living Species in Australia and the World PDF 2009 09 26 Archived from the original PDF on 2009 09 26 Retrieved 2022 10 30 David Kendall June 6 2005 Pauropods amp Symphylids Kendall Bioresearch Neil Davies et al Dec 21 2021 The largest arthropod in Earth history insights from newly discovered Arthropleura remains Serpukhovian Stainmore Formation Northumberland England Journal of the Geological Society 179 3 doi 10 1144 jgs2021 115 S2CID 245401499 Wilson Heather M Shear William A 2000 Microdecemplicida a new order of minute arthropleurideans Arthropoda Myriapoda from the Devonian of New York State U S A Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Earth Sciences 90 4 351 375 doi 10 1017 S0263593300002674 S2CID 129597005 Shear William A Edgecombe Gregory D 2010 The geological record and phylogeny of the Myriapoda Arthropod Structure amp Development 39 2 3 174 190 doi 10 1016 j asd 2009 11 002 PMID 19944188 Edgecombe GD Giribet G 2002 Myriapod phylogeny and the relationships of Chilopoda PDF In J Llorente Bousquets JJ Morrone HP Ulloa eds Biodiversidad Taxonomia y Biogeografia de Artropodos de Mexico Hacia una S intesis de su Conocimiento Univ Nac Aut on Mexico Prensas Ciencias pp 143 168 a b Miyazawa Hideyuki Ueda Chiaki Yahata Kensuke Su Zhi Hui 2014 Molecular phylogeny of Myriapoda provides insights into evolutionary patterns of the mode in post embryonic development Scientific Reports 4 4127 4127 Bibcode 2014NatSR 4E4127M doi 10 1038 srep04127 PMC 3927213 PMID 24535281 Zwick Andreas Regier Jerome C Zwickl Derrick J Gadagkar Sudhindra R 2012 Resolving Discrepancy between Nucleotides and Amino Acids in Deep Level Arthropod Phylogenomics Differentiating Serine Codons in 21 Amino Acid Models PLOS ONE 7 11 e47450 Bibcode 2012PLoSO 747450Z doi 10 1371 journal pone 0047450 PMC 3502419 PMID 23185239 External links Edit Wikispecies has information related to Myriapoda Wikimedia Commons has media related to Myriapoda Myriapod Fossil Record University of Bristol International Journal of Myriapodology International Society of Myriapodology British Myriapod and Isopod Group Myriapods the World s Leggiest Animals North America Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Myriapoda amp oldid 1133555310, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.