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Mucor mucedo

January 08, 2023

Mucor mucedo, commonly known as the common pinmould,[1] is a fungal plant pathogen and member of the phylum Mucoromycota and the genus Mucor.[2] Commonly found on soil, dung, water, plants and moist foods, Mucor mucedo is a saprotrophic fungus found world-wide with 85 known strains.[3][4] It is often mistaken for Rhizopus rots on fruits (i.e. strawberries) due to similar mould growth shape and colour.[5] Contrastingly, however, Mucor mucedo is found to grow on a wide range of stored grains and plants, including cucumber and tomato.[6][7] Discovered in Italy in 1729 by P.A. Micheli and later noted by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 in the Species Plantarum, Mucor mucedo was originally classified as Mucor vulgaris by Micheli but later classified synonymous under name Mucor mucedo.[8] The species was redescribed as Ascophora mucedo by H.J. Tode in 1790 but this type resided in a stoloniferous habitat and was later made the type of new genus Rhizopus.[9][10]

Mucor mucedo
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Mucoromycota
Order: Mucorales
Family: Mucoraceae
Genus: Mucor
Species:
M. mucedo
Binomial name
Mucor mucedo
Linnaeus (1753)
Synonyms
  • Mucor coprophilus Povah (1917)
  • Mucor griseoochraceus Naumov (1915)
  • Mucor murorum Naumov (1915)
  • Mucor vulgaris P. Micheli (1729)

Growth and morphology

Mucor mucedo has fast growing colonies and are characterized by tall, simple, unbranched sporangiophores lacking basal rhizoids, non-apophysate sporangia, and pigmented zygosporangial walls.[11][12] The walls are covered with granules and the swollen apex contains spores that are white or yellow in when immature, and upon maturation appear brownish grey or dark grey.[8][13] Colonies commonly have a fluffy appearance with heights of up to several centimeters, resembling cotton candy, and the hyphae are non-septate or sparsely septate.[14] Mucor mucedo is heterothallic, and both (+) and (-) mating strains are morphologically indistinguishable although isolates of the (-) strain may exhibit less vigorous mycelial growth in cultivation.[13] The zygophores are highly differentiated from sporangiophores and are known to rarely bare sporangia.[13][15] Mucor mucedo morphology and growth is influenced by temperature:[16]

  • 30 °C - No growth
  • 5-25 °C - Growth and sporulation
  • 15 °C and below - Recurved short sporangiophores, columellae more narrow and cylindrical-ellipsoidal, sporangiospores larger

Mucor mucedo reproduction occurs in asexual and sexual methods.

Mucor mucedo is also influenced by light, as cultures grown during the day at 20 °C mainly produced tall sporangiophores, rarely producing short sporangiophores or none at all.[16] Cultures drown in the dark grew a dense layer of short sporangiophores with occasional tall ones.[16] A wide range of growth media can be used, but most Mucor mucedo fungi appear to grow well with good mycelial growth and sporulation on pumpkin and sweet potato as well as potato dextrose agar (PDA), consisting of potato starch and dextrose as key carbon sources, due to its rich nutrient availability.[14][17] An optimal phospholipid environment has been found to be necessary for the normal apical growth and hyphal branching in Mucor mucedo, specifically with dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine shown to stimulate chitinase activity.[18] Chitinases and chitin synthases are regulated for the lysis and synthesis of the major cell wall component chitin, and have important morphogenetic roles in hyphal growth.[18][19] Both are inactivated when treated with phospholipases and growth is shunted[19] Chitin synthase activity can also be inhibited by anethole, which is a major component of anise oil that has weak antimicrobial activity with broad antimicrobial spectrum.[20]

Reproduction

Asexual reproduction occurs by the formation of uninucleate, haploid sporangiospores in the sporangia, on the terminal ends of the aerial sporangiophores. In the sporangia, there is an accumulation of nutrients, cytoplasm, and nuclei. An extension of the sporangiophore called the columella protrudes into the sporangium, and upon the maturation of the sporangiospores, burst of the sporangium allows for the dispersion of the spores, where wind is the primary dissemination method.[11][13] Asexual reproduction may be favoured in unfavourable environmental conditions, as this inhibits the conjugation between the two sexual strains.[13] The (-) strain loses sexual capacity faster than the (+) strain.[13]

As Mucor mucedo are heterothallic, the hyphae taking part in the sexual reproduction have to be of two different strains, either (+) or (-). When these make contact an extension of the hyphae called progametangia are formed and most of the nuclei and cytoplasm accumulate at the ends.[11][13] Septa form adjacent to the point of contact, and the terminal component, gametangia, are visible with elongated cells called suspensors attached to it. As the gametangia grow and after numerous mitotic divisions, the gametangial wall proceeds to dissolve and gametes found inside fuse, producing a zygote. This zygospore appear black or grey in colour.[16] Under favourable conditions a zygosporangium forms, and the burst of the zygosporangium wall allows for the dispersal of spores.[13] In Mucor mucedo, sexual specificity can be observed between the two mating strains with the production of either 4-hydroxy methyltrisporates for (+) strains and trisporins for (-) strains.[21] These are ultimately converted to trisporic acids, the sexual hormone of M. mucedo and other zygomycetes, which induce the first steps of zygophore development on the opposite mating type. Trisporic acid is a volatile organic C18 compound that is made from β-carotene and retinol pathways, and 4-dihydromethyltrisporate dehydrogenase is found to be an important enzyme in the biosynthesis of trisporic acid.[22][23]

Physiology

Mucor mucedo is sensitive to the fungicide captafol (terrazol) which inhibits the apical growth of hyphae and, at lower concentrations, promotes thickening of the fungal cell wall.[24] Terrazol, with its fungistatic effect, induces liberation in phospholipases within the mitochondria and other membranes, leading to a complete lysis of the mitochondria.[25] The only known antidote for the effect of terrazol is impure saccharose, which contains phospholipase inhibitors. The cell wall thickening appears to be a side effect of the lowered phosphorylating capability of the mitochondria.[25] Pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB) causes lysis of the internal structure of the mitochondria in M. mucedo, and the observed effect differs from that of terrazol. PCNB increases the perinuclear space and the number of vacuoles in the cell, and a pathological thickening of the cell wall is also observed.[26] The cell wall thickening occurring in M. mucedo is induced by some fungicides, N2 atmosphere, and high concentrations of glucose in growth media. The appears to be similar to the changes observed when transforming from mycelial to yeast form in dimorphic fungi.[27]

Habitat and ecology

Mucor mucedo has word-wide distribution, and are commonly discovered in Canary Is., Egypt, Great Britain, Ireland, Kenya, Netherlands, Australia, Sri Lanka, Ukraine, China, and Canada.[28][29][30]M. mucedo is easily found in dry horse dung around March and April and have the common habitat of soil, dung, water, nose effluent of cow, composted leaf litter, stored grains, and many plants and fruits, such as grapes and tomatoes.[28][31] It interacts with some animals but are not frequent causative agents of disease, including horse, rabbits, mice, and rats.[32]M. mucedo grows well on cheese and produces the 'cat hair' defect, which is white mould forming on cheese with long, grey, hyphae, giving it the appearance of cat hair.[33]

Mucor mucedo has been found to degrade polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), a common soil pollutant and contaminant causing high concern, as contamination continues to increase. The species are highly efficient in biodegrading residual PAH in the soil, significantly decreasing it in within 12 days of introduction.[34][35] Exopolymeric substances (EPS) produced by the fungus, mainly composed of proteins, carbohydrates, and humic-like substances, are responsible for the degradation.[35]

Mycotoxins

Mucor mucedo produces oxalate, or oxalic acid, a simple dicarboxylic acid that is one of the terminal metabolic products of many fungi and plants. It is well known to be toxic to higher animals, including humans, due to its local corrosive effect and affinity for calcium ions, which oxalate reacts with to form water-insoluble calcium crystals.[36] Mucor mucedo also produces aflatoxins, which are known to cause liver cancer and other digestive, urinary, endocrine, haematopoetic, reproductive, and circulatory complications, although this requires further confirmatory studies as aflatoxins are mainly characteristic of Aspergillus species.[37][38] The ability for mycotoxins to diffuse from the mycelium into the environment depends on its water solubility. Products with high water content, notably cheese and dough, allow significant diffusion of mycotoxins. Aflatoxins have been observed to diffuse into food products without extensive mycelial growth into the food.[39]

Human disease

Mucor mucedo sometimes cause opportunistic and rapidly spreading infections called mucormycosis. Also referred to as zygomycosis, this necrotizing infection can be life threatening in diabetic or immuno-suppressed/compromised patients.[40] Mucor mucedo can cause minor infections as well, as there have been reported cases of frequent vomiting and severe purging along with prostration following the consumption of cheese contaminated with M. mucedo mould growth.[41]

Amphotericin B

Amphotericin B, a drug primarily used for treatment of patients with progressive and potentially life threatening fungal infections, has been found to be a potent inhibitor of M. mucedo at concentrations of the drug ranging from 0.03 to 1.0 mcg/mL in vitro.[42] Amphotericin B functions by binding to sterols in the cell membrane of fungi leading to change in membrane permeability allowing leakage of intracellular components.[42]

References

  1. ^ "Taxonomy - Mucor mucedo (Common pinmould)". UniProt. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
  2. ^ Lee, Soo Chan; Idmurm, Alexander (2018). "8. Fungal sex: The Mucoromycota". In Heitman, Joseph; Howlett, Barbara J.; Crous, Pedro W.; Stukenbrock, Eva H.; James, Timothy Yong; Gow, Neil A. R. (eds.). The Fungal Kingdom. Wiley. p. 181. ISBN 978-1-55581-958-3.
  3. ^ Brooks, Charles (November 1906). "Temperature and Toxic Action". Botanical Gazette. 42 (5): 359–379. doi:10.1086/329038. JSTOR 2465497.
  4. ^ "Mucor mucedo". Global Catalogue of Microorganisms. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
  5. ^ Michailides, Themis J (April 1991). "Characterization and Comparative Studies of Mucor Isolates from Stone Fruits from California and Chile" (PDF). Plant Disease. 75 (4): 373–380. doi:10.1094/PD-75-0373. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
  6. ^ Hocking, John I; Hocking, Alisa D (1985). Fungi and food spoilage (3 ed.). Dordrecht: Springer. p. 388. ISBN 978-0387922072.
  7. ^ Reyes, Andres A (May 1990). "Pathogenicity, Growth, and Sporulation of Mucor mucedo and Botrytis cinerea in Cold or CA Storage". HortScience. 25 (5): 549–552. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.25.5.549.
  8. ^ a b Wilson, Guy (November 1906). "The Identity of Mucor Mucedo". Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 33 (11): 557–560. doi:10.2307/2478932. JSTOR 2478932.
  9. ^ Tode, H. J. (1790). Fungi Mecklenburgenses Selecti (1 ed.). Lüneburg: J.F.G. Lemke. pp. 1–47.
  10. ^ Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried (1818). Sylvae mycologicae Berolinenses. Berlin: Formis Theophili Bruschcke.
  11. ^ a b c Nguyen, Thi Thuong Thuong; Duong, Tham Thi; Lee, Hyang Burm (2016). "Characterization of Two New Records of Mucoralean Species Isolated from Gut of Soldier Fly Larva in Korea". Mycobiology. 44 (4): 310–313. doi:10.5941/MYCO.2016.44.4.310. PMC 5287164. PMID 28154489.
  12. ^ Gray, Samuel Frederick (1821). A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. p. 561. mucor mucedo.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h Blakeslee, Albert F. (August 1904). "Sexual Reproduction in the Mucorineae". Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 40 (4): 205–319. doi:10.2307/20021962. JSTOR 20021962.
  14. ^ a b Onions, A.H.S.; Allsopp, D.; Eggins, H.O.W. (1981). Smith's Introduction to Industrial Mycology (7th ed.). London, UK: Arnold. ISBN 978-0713128116.
  15. ^ Van Tieghem, P; Le Monnier, G (1872). "Sur Polymorphisme du M. Mucedo". Mptes Rendus Acad. Des Sc. 74: 997–1001.
  16. ^ a b c d Schipper, M. A. A (1975). "On Mucor mucedo, Mucor flavus and related species". Studies in Mycology. 10: 1–33. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
  17. ^ Micheli, Pier Antonio (1729). Nova Plantarum Genera. Florence: B. Paperninii. p. 215.
  18. ^ a b Humphreys, Anne M; Gooday, Graham W (1984). "Phospholipid Requirement of Microsomal Chitinase from Mucor mucedo". Current Microbiology. 11 (3): 187–190. doi:10.1007/BF01567348. S2CID 30938976.
  19. ^ a b Humphreys, Anne M; Gooday, Graham W (1984). "Properties of Chitinase Activities from Mucor mucedo: Evidence for a Membrane-bound Zymogenic Form". Journal of General Microbiology. 130 (6): 1359–1366. doi:10.1099/00221287-130-6-1359.
  20. ^ Yutani, Masahiro; Hashimoto, Yukie; Ogita, Akira; Kubo, Isao; Tanaka, Toshio; Fujita, Ken-ichi (November 2011). "Morphological Changes of the Filamentous Fungus Mucor Mucedo and Inhibition of Chitin Synthase Activity Induced by Anethole". Phytotherapy Research. 25 (11): 1707–1713. doi:10.1002/ptr.3579. PMID 21721062.
  21. ^ Nieuwenhuis, M; Van Den Ende, H (January 1975). "Sex specificity of hormone synthesis in Mucor mucedo". Archives of Microbiology. 102 (1): 167–169. doi:10.1007/BF00428363. PMID 1115561. S2CID 37014399.
  22. ^ Czempinski, K; Kruft, V; Wöstemeyer, J; Burmester, A (September 1996). "4-Dihydromethyltrisporate dehydrogenase from Mucor mucedo, an enzyme of the sexual hormone pathway: purification, and cloning of the corresponding gene". Microbiology. 142 (Pt 9) (9): 2647–54. doi:10.1099/00221287-142-9-2647. PMID 8828234.
  23. ^ Lee, Soo Chan; Heitman, Joseph (December 2014). "Sex in the Mucoralean Fungi". Mycoses. 57: 18–24. doi:10.1111/myc.12244. PMC 4374171. PMID 25175551.
  24. ^ Casperson, G; Lyr, H (1975). "Effect of terrazol on the ultrastructure of Mucor mucedo". Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Mikrobiologie. 15 (7): 481–493. doi:10.1002/jobm.19750150702. PMID 1210350.
  25. ^ a b Lyr, H; Casperson, G; Laussmann, B (1977). "Mode of action of terrazoleon Mucor mucedo". Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Mikrobiologie. 17 (2): 117–129. doi:10.1002/jobm.3630170205. PMID 868082.
  26. ^ Casperson, G; Lyr, H (1982). "Effect of pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB) on the ultrastructure of Mucor mucedo and Phytophthora cactorum". Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Mikrobiologie. 22 (4): 219–26. doi:10.1002/jobm.19820220402. PMID 7123992.
  27. ^ Lyr, H; Casperson, G (1982). "Anomalous cell wall synthesis in Mucor mucedo (L.) Fres. induced by some fungicides and other compounds related to the problem of dimorphism". Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Mikrobiologie. 22 (4): 245–54. doi:10.1002/jobm.3630220405. PMID 7123995.
  28. ^ a b "Mucor mucedo: Common Pinmould". Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
  29. ^ "Mucor mucedo Fresen., 1850". Catalogue of Life. Retrieved 30 October 2017.
  30. ^ "Search Catalogue: Mucor mucedo". UAMH. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
  31. ^ Bainier, G (1883). "Sur les Zygospores des Mucorinees". Ann. Des Sc. Nat. Bot. 15: 342.
  32. ^ "Common Pinmould (Mucor mucedo)". Global Biotic Interactions. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
  33. ^ McSweeney, P.L.H. (2007). Cheese problems solved (1 ed.). Cambridge: Woodhead. pp. 268–283. ISBN 978-1-84569-060-1. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
  34. ^ Hou, Wei; Zhang, Le; Li, Xiaojun; Gong, Zongqiang; Yang, Yongwei; Li, Zhi (30 June 2015). "Influence of Mucor mucedo immobilized to corncob in remediation of pyrene contaminated agricultural soil". Environmental Engineering Research. 20 (2): 149–154. doi:10.4491/eer.2015.013.
  35. ^ a b Jia, Chunyun; Li, Xiaojun; Allinson, Graeme; Liu, Changfeng; Gong, Zongqiang (19 January 2016). "Composition and morphology characterization of exopolymeric substances produced by the PAH-degrading fungus of Mucor mucedo". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 23 (9): 8421–8430. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-5986-1. PMID 26782320. S2CID 11635746.
  36. ^ Ciegler, Alex; Kadis, Solomon; Ajl, Samuel J (15 June 2016). Fungal Toxins: A Comprehensive Treatise. Elsevier. p. 268. ISBN 9781483215907. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
  37. ^ Sinha, K.K. (1996). Mycotoxin induced physiological responses in crop plants. New Delhi: MD Publications PVT LTD. p. 9. ISBN 978-8175330160. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
  38. ^ Kolhe, Ajaykumar Soma (2016). Impact of Aflatoxin on Human & Animal Being. Lulu Publication. p. 4. ISBN 9781329940659. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
  39. ^ Reiß, J (1981). "Studies on the ability of mycotoxins to diffuse in bread". European Journal of Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 12 (4): 239–241. doi:10.1007/BF00499495.
  40. ^ Spellberg, B; Edwards, J; Ibrahim, A (14 July 2005). "Novel Perspectives on Mucormycosis: Pathophysiology, Presentation, and Management". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 18 (3): 556–569. doi:10.1128/CMR.18.3.556-569.2005. PMC 1195964. PMID 16020690.
  41. ^ Vaughan, Victor Clarence; Novy, Frederick George (1 January 1896). Ptomaïnes, Leucomaïnes, Toxins and Antitoxins, Or, The Chemical Factors in the Causation of Disease. Lea Brothers. p. 89. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
  42. ^ a b "Amphotericin B". Drugs.com. Retrieved 21 November 2017.

January 08, 2023
mucor, mucedo, commonly, known, common, pinmould, fungal, plant, pathogen, member, phylum, mucoromycota, genus, mucor, commonly, found, soil, dung, water, plants, moist, foods, saprotrophic, fungus, found, world, wide, with, known, strains, often, mistaken, rh. Mucor mucedo commonly known as the common pinmould 1 is a fungal plant pathogen and member of the phylum Mucoromycota and the genus Mucor 2 Commonly found on soil dung water plants and moist foods Mucor mucedo is a saprotrophic fungus found world wide with 85 known strains 3 4 It is often mistaken for Rhizopus rots on fruits i e strawberries due to similar mould growth shape and colour 5 Contrastingly however Mucor mucedo is found to grow on a wide range of stored grains and plants including cucumber and tomato 6 7 Discovered in Italy in 1729 by P A Micheli and later noted by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 in the Species Plantarum Mucor mucedo was originally classified as Mucor vulgaris by Micheli but later classified synonymous under name Mucor mucedo 8 The species was redescribed as Ascophora mucedo by H J Tode in 1790 but this type resided in a stoloniferous habitat and was later made the type of new genus Rhizopus 9 10 Mucor mucedoScientific classificationKingdom FungiDivision MucoromycotaOrder MucoralesFamily MucoraceaeGenus MucorSpecies M mucedoBinomial nameMucor mucedoLinnaeus 1753 SynonymsMucor coprophilus Povah 1917 Mucor griseoochraceus Naumov 1915 Mucor murorum Naumov 1915 Mucor vulgaris P Micheli 1729 Contents 1 Growth and morphology 2 Reproduction 3 Physiology 4 Habitat and ecology 5 Mycotoxins 5 1 Human disease 5 2 Amphotericin B 6 ReferencesGrowth and morphology EditMucor mucedo has fast growing colonies and are characterized by tall simple unbranched sporangiophores lacking basal rhizoids non apophysate sporangia and pigmented zygosporangial walls 11 12 The walls are covered with granules and the swollen apex contains spores that are white or yellow in when immature and upon maturation appear brownish grey or dark grey 8 13 Colonies commonly have a fluffy appearance with heights of up to several centimeters resembling cotton candy and the hyphae are non septate or sparsely septate 14 Mucor mucedo is heterothallic and both and mating strains are morphologically indistinguishable although isolates of the strain may exhibit less vigorous mycelial growth in cultivation 13 The zygophores are highly differentiated from sporangiophores and are known to rarely bare sporangia 13 15 Mucor mucedo morphology and growth is influenced by temperature 16 30 C No growth 5 25 C Growth and sporulation 15 C and below Recurved short sporangiophores columellae more narrow and cylindrical ellipsoidal sporangiospores largerMucor mucedo reproduction occurs in asexual and sexual methods Mucor mucedo is also influenced by light as cultures grown during the day at 20 C mainly produced tall sporangiophores rarely producing short sporangiophores or none at all 16 Cultures drown in the dark grew a dense layer of short sporangiophores with occasional tall ones 16 A wide range of growth media can be used but most Mucor mucedo fungi appear to grow well with good mycelial growth and sporulation on pumpkin and sweet potato as well as potato dextrose agar PDA consisting of potato starch and dextrose as key carbon sources due to its rich nutrient availability 14 17 An optimal phospholipid environment has been found to be necessary for the normal apical growth and hyphal branching in Mucor mucedo specifically with dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine shown to stimulate chitinase activity 18 Chitinases and chitin synthases are regulated for the lysis and synthesis of the major cell wall component chitin and have important morphogenetic roles in hyphal growth 18 19 Both are inactivated when treated with phospholipases and growth is shunted 19 Chitin synthase activity can also be inhibited by anethole which is a major component of anise oil that has weak antimicrobial activity with broad antimicrobial spectrum 20 Reproduction EditAsexual reproduction occurs by the formation of uninucleate haploid sporangiospores in the sporangia on the terminal ends of the aerial sporangiophores In the sporangia there is an accumulation of nutrients cytoplasm and nuclei An extension of the sporangiophore called the columella protrudes into the sporangium and upon the maturation of the sporangiospores burst of the sporangium allows for the dispersion of the spores where wind is the primary dissemination method 11 13 Asexual reproduction may be favoured in unfavourable environmental conditions as this inhibits the conjugation between the two sexual strains 13 The strain loses sexual capacity faster than the strain 13 As Mucor mucedo are heterothallic the hyphae taking part in the sexual reproduction have to be of two different strains either or When these make contact an extension of the hyphae called progametangia are formed and most of the nuclei and cytoplasm accumulate at the ends 11 13 Septa form adjacent to the point of contact and the terminal component gametangia are visible with elongated cells called suspensors attached to it As the gametangia grow and after numerous mitotic divisions the gametangial wall proceeds to dissolve and gametes found inside fuse producing a zygote This zygospore appear black or grey in colour 16 Under favourable conditions a zygosporangium forms and the burst of the zygosporangium wall allows for the dispersal of spores 13 In Mucor mucedo sexual specificity can be observed between the two mating strains with the production of either 4 hydroxy methyltrisporates for strains and trisporins for strains 21 These are ultimately converted to trisporic acids the sexual hormone of M mucedo and other zygomycetes which induce the first steps of zygophore development on the opposite mating type Trisporic acid is a volatile organic C18 compound that is made from b carotene and retinol pathways and 4 dihydromethyltrisporate dehydrogenase is found to be an important enzyme in the biosynthesis of trisporic acid 22 23 Physiology EditMucor mucedo is sensitive to the fungicide captafol terrazol which inhibits the apical growth of hyphae and at lower concentrations promotes thickening of the fungal cell wall 24 Terrazol with its fungistatic effect induces liberation in phospholipases within the mitochondria and other membranes leading to a complete lysis of the mitochondria 25 The only known antidote for the effect of terrazol is impure saccharose which contains phospholipase inhibitors The cell wall thickening appears to be a side effect of the lowered phosphorylating capability of the mitochondria 25 Pentachloronitrobenzene PCNB causes lysis of the internal structure of the mitochondria in M mucedo and the observed effect differs from that of terrazol PCNB increases the perinuclear space and the number of vacuoles in the cell and a pathological thickening of the cell wall is also observed 26 The cell wall thickening occurring in M mucedo is induced by some fungicides N2 atmosphere and high concentrations of glucose in growth media The appears to be similar to the changes observed when transforming from mycelial to yeast form in dimorphic fungi 27 Habitat and ecology EditMucor mucedo has word wide distribution and are commonly discovered in Canary Is Egypt Great Britain Ireland Kenya Netherlands Australia Sri Lanka Ukraine China and Canada 28 29 30 M mucedo is easily found in dry horse dung around March and April and have the common habitat of soil dung water nose effluent of cow composted leaf litter stored grains and many plants and fruits such as grapes and tomatoes 28 31 It interacts with some animals but are not frequent causative agents of disease including horse rabbits mice and rats 32 M mucedo grows well on cheese and produces the cat hair defect which is white mould forming on cheese with long grey hyphae giving it the appearance of cat hair 33 Mucor mucedo has been found to degrade polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs a common soil pollutant and contaminant causing high concern as contamination continues to increase The species are highly efficient in biodegrading residual PAH in the soil significantly decreasing it in within 12 days of introduction 34 35 Exopolymeric substances EPS produced by the fungus mainly composed of proteins carbohydrates and humic like substances are responsible for the degradation 35 Mycotoxins EditMucor mucedo produces oxalate or oxalic acid a simple dicarboxylic acid that is one of the terminal metabolic products of many fungi and plants It is well known to be toxic to higher animals including humans due to its local corrosive effect and affinity for calcium ions which oxalate reacts with to form water insoluble calcium crystals 36 Mucor mucedo also produces aflatoxins which are known to cause liver cancer and other digestive urinary endocrine haematopoetic reproductive and circulatory complications although this requires further confirmatory studies as aflatoxins are mainly characteristic of Aspergillus species 37 38 The ability for mycotoxins to diffuse from the mycelium into the environment depends on its water solubility Products with high water content notably cheese and dough allow significant diffusion of mycotoxins Aflatoxins have been observed to diffuse into food products without extensive mycelial growth into the food 39 Human disease Edit Mucor mucedo sometimes cause opportunistic and rapidly spreading infections called mucormycosis Also referred to as zygomycosis this necrotizing infection can be life threatening in diabetic or immuno suppressed compromised patients 40 Mucor mucedo can cause minor infections as well as there have been reported cases of frequent vomiting and severe purging along with prostration following the consumption of cheese contaminated with M mucedo mould growth 41 Amphotericin B Edit Amphotericin B a drug primarily used for treatment of patients with progressive and potentially life threatening fungal infections has been found to be a potent inhibitor of M mucedo at concentrations of the drug ranging from 0 03 to 1 0 mcg mL in vitro 42 Amphotericin B functions by binding to sterols in the cell membrane of fungi leading to change in membrane permeability allowing leakage of intracellular components 42 References Edit Taxonomy Mucor mucedo Common pinmould UniProt Retrieved 14 October 2017 Lee Soo Chan Idmurm Alexander 2018 8 Fungal sex The Mucoromycota In Heitman Joseph Howlett Barbara J Crous Pedro W Stukenbrock Eva H James Timothy Yong Gow Neil A R eds The Fungal Kingdom Wiley p 181 ISBN 978 1 55581 958 3 Brooks Charles November 1906 Temperature and Toxic Action Botanical Gazette 42 5 359 379 doi 10 1086 329038 JSTOR 2465497 Mucor mucedo Global Catalogue of Microorganisms Retrieved 18 November 2017 Michailides Themis J April 1991 Characterization and Comparative Studies of Mucor Isolates from Stone Fruits from California and Chile PDF Plant Disease 75 4 373 380 doi 10 1094 PD 75 0373 Retrieved 18 November 2017 Hocking John I Hocking Alisa D 1985 Fungi and food spoilage 3 ed Dordrecht Springer p 388 ISBN 978 0387922072 Reyes Andres A May 1990 Pathogenicity Growth and Sporulation of Mucor mucedo and Botrytis cinerea in Cold or CA Storage HortScience 25 5 549 552 doi 10 21273 HORTSCI 25 5 549 a b Wilson Guy November 1906 The Identity of Mucor Mucedo Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 33 11 557 560 doi 10 2307 2478932 JSTOR 2478932 Tode H J 1790 Fungi Mecklenburgenses Selecti 1 ed Luneburg J F G Lemke pp 1 47 Ehrenberg Christian Gottfried 1818 Sylvae mycologicae Berolinenses Berlin Formis Theophili Bruschcke a b c Nguyen Thi Thuong Thuong Duong Tham Thi Lee Hyang Burm 2016 Characterization of Two New Records of Mucoralean Species Isolated from Gut of Soldier Fly Larva in Korea Mycobiology 44 4 310 313 doi 10 5941 MYCO 2016 44 4 310 PMC 5287164 PMID 28154489 Gray Samuel Frederick 1821 A Natural Arrangement of British Plants London Baldwin Cradock and Joy p 561 mucor mucedo a b c d e f g h Blakeslee Albert F August 1904 Sexual Reproduction in the Mucorineae Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 40 4 205 319 doi 10 2307 20021962 JSTOR 20021962 a b Onions A H S Allsopp D Eggins H O W 1981 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