Instructions per second

Instructions per second (IPS) is a measure of a computer's processor speed. For complex instruction set computers (CISCs), different instructions take different amounts of time, so the value measured depends on the instruction mix; even for comparing processors in the same family the IPS measurement can be problematic. Many reported IPS values have represented "peak" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches and no cache contention, whereas realistic workloads typically lead to significantly lower IPS values. Memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in IPS calculations. Because of these problems, synthetic benchmarks such as Dhrystone are now generally used to estimate computer performance in commonly used applications, and raw IPS has fallen into disuse.

Computer processing efficiency, measured as the number of watts needed per million instructions per second (Watts per MIPS).

The term is commonly used in association with a metric prefix (k, M, G, T, P, or E) to form kilo instructions per second (kIPS), million instructions per second (MIPS), and billion instructions per second (GIPS) and so on. Formerly TIPS was used occasionally for "thousand ips".

Computing

IPS can be calculated using this equation:^[1]

${\displaystyle {\text{IPS}}={\text{sockets}}\times {\frac {\text{cores}}{\text{socket}}}\times {\text{clock}}\times {\frac {\text{Is}}{\text{cycle}}}}$ 

However, the instructions/cycle measurement depends on the instruction sequence, the data and external factors.

Thousand instructions per second (TIPS/kIPS)

Before standard benchmarks were available, average speed rating of computers was based on calculations for a mix of instructions with the results given in kilo Instructions Per Second (kIPS). The most famous was the Gibson Mix,^[2] produced by Jack Clark Gibson of IBM for scientific applications in 1959. Other ratings, such as the ADP mix which does not include floating point operations, were produced for commercial applications. The thousand instructions per second (kIPS) unit is rarely used today, as most current microprocessors can execute at least a million instructions per second.

The Gibson Mix

Gibson divided computer instructions into 12 classes, based on the IBM 704 architecture, adding a 13th class to account for indexing time. Weights were primarily based on analysis of seven scientific programs run on the 704, with a small contribution from some IBM 650 programs. The overall score was then the weighted sum of the average execution speed for instructions in each class.^[3]

The Gibson Mix	%
1. Loads and Store	31.2
2. Fixed Point Add and Subtract	6.1
3. Compares	3.8
4. Branches	16.6
5. Floating Add and Subtract	6.9
6. Floating Multiply	3.8
7. Floating Divide	1.5
8. Fixed Point Multiply	0.6
9. Fixed Point Divide	0.2
10. Shifting	4.4
11. Logical, And, Or, etc.	1.6
12. Instructions Not Using Registers	5.3
13. Indexing	18
Total	100

Millions of instructions per second (MIPS)

Not to be confused with MIPS architecture.

The speed of a given CPU depends on many factors, such as the type of instructions being executed, the execution order and the presence of branch instructions (problematic in CPU pipelines). CPU instruction rates are different from clock frequencies, usually reported in Hz, as each instruction may require several clock cycles to complete or the processor may be capable of executing multiple independent instructions simultaneously. MIPS can be useful when comparing performance between processors made with similar architecture (e.g. Microchip branded microcontrollers), but they are difficult to compare between differing CPU architectures.^[4] This led to the term "Meaningless Indicator of Processor Speed,"^[5] or less commonly, "Meaningless Indices of Performance," ^[6] being popular amongst technical people by the mid-1980s.

For this reason, MIPS has become not a measure of instruction execution speed, but task performance speed compared to a reference. In the late 1970s, minicomputer performance was compared using VAX MIPS, where computers were measured on a task and their performance rated against the VAX-11/780 that was marketed as a 1 MIPS machine. (The measure was also known as the VAX Unit of Performance or VUP.) This was chosen because the 11/780 was roughly equivalent in performance to an IBM System/370 model 158–3, which was commonly accepted in the computing industry as running at 1 MIPS.

Many minicomputer performance claims were based on the Fortran version of the Whetstone benchmark, giving Millions of Whetstone Instructions Per Second (MWIPS). The VAX 11/780 with FPA (1977) runs at 1.02 MWIPS.

Effective MIPS speeds are highly dependent on the programming language used. The Whetstone Report has a table showing MWIPS speeds of PCs via early interpreters and compilers up to modern languages. The first PC compiler was for BASIC (1982) when a 4.8 MHz 8088/87 CPU obtained 0.01 MWIPS. Results on a 2.4 GHz Intel Core 2 Duo (1 CPU 2007) vary from 9.7 MWIPS using BASIC Interpreter, 59 MWIPS via BASIC Compiler, 347 MWIPS using 1987 Fortran, 1,534 MWIPS through HTML/Java to 2,403 MWIPS using a modern C/C++ compiler.

For the most early 8-bit and 16-bit microprocessors, performance was measured in thousand instructions per second (1000 kIPS = 1 MIPS).

zMIPS refers to the MIPS measure used internally by IBM to rate its mainframe servers (zSeries, IBM System z9, and IBM System z10).

Weighted million operations per second (WMOPS) is a similar measurement, used for audio codecs.

Timeline of instructions per second

Processor / System	Dhrystone MIPS or MIPS, and frequency	D instructions per clock cycle	D instructions per clock cycle per core	Year	Source
UNIVAC I	0.002 MIPS at 2.25 MHz	0.0008	0.0008	1951	^[7]
IBM 7030 ("Stretch")	1.200 MIPS at 3.30 MHz	0.364	0.364	1961	^[8]^[9]
CDC 6600	10.00 MIPS at 10.00 MHz	1	1	1965	^[10]^[11]
Intel 4004	0.092 MIPS at 0.740 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.124	0.124	1971	^[12]
IBM System/370 Model 158	0.640 MIPS at 8.696 MHz	0.0736	0.0736	1972	^[13]
Intel 8080	0.290 MIPS at 2.000 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.145	0.145	1974	^[14]
Cray 1	160.0 MIPS at 80.00 MHz	2	2	1975	^[15]
MOS Technology 6502	0.430 MIPS at 1.000 MHz	0.43	0.43	1975	^[16]
Intel 8080A	0.435 MIPS at 3.000 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.145	0.145	1976	^[14]
Zilog Z80	0.580 MIPS at 4.000 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.145	0.145	1976	^[16]
Motorola 6802	0.500 MIPS at 1.000 MHz	0.5	0.5	1977	^[17]
IBM System/370 Model 158-3	0.730 MIPS at 8.696 MHz	0.0839	0.0839	1977	^[13]
VAX-11/780	1.000 MIPS at 5.000 MHz	0.2	0.2	1977	^[13]
Motorola 6809	0.420 MIPS at 1.000 MHz	0.42	0.42	1978	^[16]
Intel 8086	0.330 MIPS at 5.000 MHz	0.066	0.066	1978	^[14]
Fujitsu MB8843	2.000 MIPS at 2.000 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	1	1	1978	^[18]
Intel 8088	0.750 MIPS at 10.00 MHz	0.075	0.075	1979	^[14]
Motorola 68000	1.400 MIPS at 8.000 MHz	0.175	0.175	1979	^[16]
Zilog Z8001/Z8002	1.5 MIPS at 6 MHz	0.25	0.25	1979	^[19]
Intel 8035/8039/8048	6 MIPS at 6 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	1	1	1980	^[20]
Fujitsu MB8843/MB8844	6 MIPS at 6 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	1	1	1980	^[18]
Zilog Z80/Z80H	1.16 MIPS at 8 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.145	0.145	1981	^[16]^[21]
Motorola 6802	1.79 MIPS at 3.58 MHz	0.5	0.5	1981	^[17]^[22]
Zilog Z8001/Z8002B	2.5 MIPS at 10 MHz	0.25	0.25	1981	^[19]
MOS Technology 6502	2.522 MIPS at 5.865 MHz	0.43	0.43	1981	^[16]^[22]
Intel 80286	1.28 MIPS at 12 MHz	0.107	0.107	1982	^[13]
Motorola 68000	2.188 MIPS at 12.5 MHz	0.175	0.175	1982	^[16]
Motorola 68010	2.407 MIPS at 12.5 MHz	0.193	0.193	1982	^[23]
NEC V20	4 MIPS at 8 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.5	0.5	1982	^[24]
LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System (257-processor)	642.5 MIPS at 10 MHz	2.5	0.25	1982	^[25]
Texas Instruments TMS32010	5 MIPS at 20 MHz	0.25	0.25	1983	^[26]
NEC V30	5 MIPS at 10 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.5	0.5	1983	^[24]
Motorola 68010	3.209 MIPS at 16.67 MHz	0.193	0.193	1984	^[23]
Motorola 68020	4.848 MIPS at 16 MHz	0.303	0.303	1984	^[27]
Hitachi HD63705	2 MIPS at 2 MHz	1	1	1985	^[28]^[29]
Intel i386DX	2.15 MIPS at 16 MHz	0.134	0.134	1985	^[13]
Hitachi-Motorola 68HC000	3.5 MIPS at 20 MHz	0.175	0.175	1985	^[16]
Intel 8751	1 MIPS at 12 MHz	0.083	0.083	1985	^[30]
Sega System 16 (4-processor)	16.33 MIPS at 10 MHz	4.083	1.020	1985	^[31]
ARM2	4 MIPS at 8 MHz	0.5	0.5	1986	^[32]
Texas Instruments TMS34010	6 MIPS at 50 MHz	0.12	0.12	1986	^[33]
NEC V70	6.6 MIPS at 20 MHz	0.33	0.33	1987	^[34]
Motorola 68030	9 MIPS at 25 MHz	0.36	0.36	1987	^[35]^[36]
Gmicro/200	10 MIPS at 20 MHz	0.5	0.5	1987	^[37]
Texas Instruments TMS320C20	12.5 MIPS at 25 MHz	0.5	0.5	1987	^[38]
Analog Devices ADSP-2100	12.5 MIPS at 12.5 MHz	1	1	1987	^[39]
Texas Instruments TMS320C25	25 MIPS at 50 MHz	0.5	0.5	1987	^[38]
Motorola 68020	10 MIPS at 33 MHz	0.303	0.303	1988	^[27]
Motorola 68030	18 MIPS at 50 MHz	0.36	0.36	1988	^[36]
Namco System 21 (10-processor)	73.927 MIPS at 25 MHz	2.957	0.296	1988	^[40]
Intel i386DX	4.3 MIPS at 33 MHz	0.13	0.13	1989	^[13]
Intel i486DX	8.7 MIPS at 25 MHz	0.348	0.348	1989	^[13]
NEC V80	16.5 MIPS at 33 MHz	0.5	0.5	1989	^[34]
Intel i860	25 MIPS at 25 MHz	1	1	1989	^[41]
Atari Hard Drivin' (7-processor)	33.573 MIPS at 50 MHz	0.671	0.0959	1989	^[42]
NEC SX-3 (4-processor)	680 MIPS at 400 MHz	1.7	0.425	1989	^[43]
ARM3	12 MIPS at 25 MHz	0.5	0.5	1989	^[44]
Motorola 68040	44 MIPS at 40 MHz	1.1	1.1	1990	^[45]
Namco System 21 (Galaxian³) (96-processor)	1,660.386 MIPS at 40 MHz	41.51	0.432	1990	^[46]
AMD Am386	9 MIPS at 40 MHz	0.225	0.225	1991	^[47]
Intel i486DX	11.1 MIPS at 33 MHz	0.336	0.336	1991	^[13]
Intel i860	50 MIPS at 50 MHz	1	1	1991	^[41]
Intel i486DX2	25.6 MIPS at 66 MHz	0.388	0.388	1992	^[13]
Alpha 21064 (EV4)	86 MIPS at 150 MHz	0.573	0.573	1992	^[13]
Alpha 21064 (EV4S/EV45)	135 MIPS at 200 MHz	0.675	0.675	1993	^[13]^[48]
MIPS R4400	85 MIPS at 150 MHz	0.567	0.567	1993	^[49]
Gmicro/500	132 MIPS at 66 MHz	2	2	1993	^[50]
IBM-Motorola PowerPC 601	157.7 MIPS at 80 MHz	1.971	1.971	1993	^[51]
SGI Onyx RealityEngine^2 (36-processor)	2,640 MIPS at 150 MHz	17.6	0.489	1993	^[52]
Namco Magic Edge Hornet Simulator (36-processor)	2,880 MIPS at 150 MHz	19.2	0.533	1993	^[49]
ARM7	40 MIPS at 45 MHz	0.889	0.889	1994	^[53]
Intel DX4	70 MIPS at 100 MHz	0.7	0.7	1994	^[14]
Motorola 68060	110 MIPS at 75 MHz	1.33	1.33	1994
Intel Pentium	188 MIPS at 100 MHz	1.88	1.88	1994	^[54]
Microchip PIC16F	5 MIPS at 20 MHz	0.25	0.25	1995	^[55]
IBM-Motorola PowerPC 603e	188 MIPS at 133 MHz	1.414	1.414	1995	^[56]
ARM 7500FE	35.9 MIPS at 40 MHz	0.9	0.9	1996
IBM-Motorola PowerPC 603ev	423 MIPS at 300 MHz	1.41	1.41	1996	^[56]
Intel Pentium Pro	541 MIPS at 200 MHz	2.7	2.7	1996	^[57]
Hitachi SH-4	360 MIPS at 200 MHz	1.8	1.8	1997	^[58]^[59]
IBM-Motorola PowerPC 750	525 MIPS at 233 MHz	2.3	2.3	1997
Zilog eZ80	80 MIPS at 50 MHz	1.6	1.6	1999	^[60]
Intel Pentium III	2,054 MIPS at 600 MHz	3.4	3.4	1999	^[54]
Sega Naomi Multiboard (32-processor)	6,400 MIPS at 200 MHz	32	1	1999	^[61]
Freescale MPC8272	760 MIPS at 400 MHz	1.9	1.9	2000	^[62]
AMD Athlon	3,561 MIPS at 1.2 GHz	3.0	3.0	2000
Silicon Recognition ZISC 78	8,600 MIPS at 33 MHz	260.6	260.6	2000	^[63]
ARM11	515 MIPS at 412 MHz	1.25	1.25	2002	^[64]
AMD Athlon XP 2500+	7,527 MIPS at 1.83 GHz	4.1	4.1	2003	^[54]
Pentium 4 Extreme Edition	9,726 MIPS at 3.2 GHz	3.0	3.0	2003
Microchip PIC10F	1 MIPS at 4 MHz	0.25	0.25	2004	^[65]^[66]
ARM Cortex-M3	125 MIPS at 100 MHz	1.25	1.25	2004	^[67]
Nios II	190 MIPS at 165 MHz	1.13	1.13	2004	^[68]
MIPS32 4KEc	356 MIPS at 233 MHz	1.5	1.5	2004	^[69]
VIA C7	1,799 MIPS at 1.3 GHz	1.4	1.4	2005	^[70]
ARM Cortex-A8	2,000 MIPS at 1.0 GHz	2.0	2.0	2005	^[71]
AMD Athlon FX-57	12,000 MIPS at 2.8 GHz	4.3	4.3	2005
AMD Athlon 64 3800+ X2 (2-core)	14,564 MIPS at 2.0 GHz	7.3	3.6	2005	^[72]
PowerPC G4 MPC7448	3,910 MIPS at 1.7 GHz	2.3	2.3	2005	^[73]
ARM Cortex-R4	450 MIPS at 270 MHz	1.66	1.66	2006	^[74]
MIPS32 24K	604 MIPS at 400 MHz	1.51	1.51	2006	^[75]
PS3 Cell BE (PPE only)	10,240 MIPS at 3.2 GHz	3.2	3.2	2006
IBM Xenon CPU (3-core)	19,200 MIPS at 3.2 GHz	6.0	2.0	2005
AMD Athlon FX-60 (2-core)	18,938 MIPS at 2.6 GHz	7.3	3.6	2006	^[72]
Intel Core 2 Extreme X6800 (2-core)	27,079 MIPS at 2.93 GHz	9.2	4.6	2006	^[72]
Intel Core 2 Extreme QX6700 (4-core)	49,161 MIPS at 2.66 GHz	18.4	4.6	2006	^[76]
MIPS64 20Kc	1,370 MIPS at 600 MHz	2.3	2.3	2007	^[77]
P.A. Semi PA6T-1682M	8,800 MIPS at 1.8 GHz	4.4	4.4	2007	^[78]
Qualcomm Scorpion (Cortex A8-like)	2,100 MIPS at 1 GHz	2.1	2.1	2008	^[64]
Intel Atom N270	3,846 MIPS at 1.6 GHz	2.4	2.4	2008	^[79]
Intel Core 2 Extreme QX9770 (4-core)	59,455 MIPS at 3.2 GHz	18.6	4.6	2008	^[76]
Intel Core i7 920 (4-core)	82,300 MIPS at 2.93 GHz	28.089	7.022	2008	^[80]
ARM Cortex-M0	45 MIPS at 50 MHz	0.9	0.9	2009	^[81]
ARM Cortex-A9 (2-core)	7,500 MIPS at 1.5 GHz	5.0	2.5	2009	^[82]
AMD Phenom II X4 940 Black Edition	42,820 MIPS at 3.0 GHz	14.3	3.5	2009	^[83]
AMD Phenom II X6 1100T	78,440 MIPS at 3.3 GHz	23.7	3.9	2010	^[80]
Intel Core i7 Extreme Edition 980X (6-core)	147,600 MIPS at 3.33 GHz	44.7	7.46	2010	^[84]
ARM Cortex A5	1,256 MIPS at 800 MHz	1.57	1.57	2011	^[71]
ARM Cortex A7	2,850 MIPS at 1.5 GHz	1.9	1.9	2011	^[64]
Qualcomm Krait (Cortex A15-like, 2-core)	9,900 MIPS at 1.5 GHz	6.6	3.3	2011	^[64]
AMD E-350 (2-core)	10,000 MIPS at 1.6 GHz	6.25	3.125	2011	^[85]
Nvidia Tegra 3 (Quad core Cortex-A9)	13,800 MIPS at 1.5 GHz	9.2	2.5	2011
Samsung Exynos 5250 (Cortex-A15-like 2-core)	14,000 MIPS at 2.0 GHz	7.0	3.5	2011	^[86]
Intel Core i5-2500K (4-core)	83,000 MIPS at 3.3 GHz	25.152	6.288	2011	^[87]
Intel Core i7 875K	92,100 MIPS at 2.93 GHz	31.4	7.85	2011	^[80]
AMD FX-8150 (8-core)	90,749 MIPS at 3.6 GHz	25.2	3.15	2011	^[88]
Intel Core i7 2600K (4-core)	117,160 MIPS at 3.4 GHz	34.45	8.61	2011	^[89]
Intel Core i7-3960X (6-core)	176,170 MIPS at 3.3 GHz	53.38	8.89	2011	^[90]
AMD FX-8350 (8-core)	97,125 MIPS at 4.2 GHz	23.1	2.9	2012	^[88]^[91]
AMD FX-9590 (8-core)	115,625 MIPS at 5.0 GHz	23.1	2.9	2012	^[80]
Intel Core i7 3770K (4-core)	106,924 MIPS at 3.9 GHz	27.4	6.9	2012	^[88]
Intel Core i7 4770K (4-core)	133,740 MIPS at 3.9 GHz	34.29	8.57	2013	^[88]^[91]^[92]
Intel Core i7 5960X (8-core)	298,190 MIPS at 3.5 GHz	85.2	10.65	2014	^[93]
Raspberry Pi 2 (quad-core ARM Cortex A7)	4,744 MIPS at 1.0 GHz	4.744	1.186	2014	^[94]
Intel Core i7 6950X (10-core)	320,440 MIPS at 3.5 GHz	91.55	9.16	2016	^[95]
ARM Cortex A73 (4-core)	71,120 MIPS at 2.8 GHz	25.4	6.35	2016
ARM Cortex A75	?	?	8.2-9.5	2017	^[96]
ARM Cortex A76	?	?	10.7-12.4	2018	^[96]
ARM Cortex A53	2,300 MIPS at 1 GHz	2.3	2.3	2012	^[97]
ARM Cortex A35	2,100 MIPS at 1 GHz	2.1	2.1	2015	^[97]
ARM Cortex A72	15,750 to 18,375 at 2.5 GHz	6.3 to 7.35	6.3 to 7.35	2015	^[97]
ARM Cortex A57	10,250 to 11,750 at 2.5 GHz	4.1 to 4.7	4.1 to 4.7	2012	^[97]
Sitara AM64x ARM Cortex A53 (2-core)	5,992 MIPS at 1 GHz	6	3	2021	^[98]
AMD Ryzen 7 1800X (8-core)	304,510 MIPS at 3.7 GHz	82.3	10.29	2017	^[99]
Intel Core i7-8086K (6-core)	221,720 MIPS at 5.0 GHz	44.34	7.39	2018	^[100]
Intel Core i9-9900K (8-core)	412,090 MIPS at 4.7 GHz	87.68	10.96	2018	^[101]
AMD Ryzen 9 3950X (16-core)	749,070 MIPS at 4.6 GHz	162.84	10.18	2019	^[101]
AMD Ryzen Threadripper 3990X (64 core)	2,356,230 MIPS at 4.35 GHz	541.66	8.46	2020	^[102]
Processor / System	Dhrystone MIPS / MIPS	D instructions per clock cycle	D instructions per clock cycle per core	Year	Source

See also

• TOP500
• FLOPS - floating-point operations per second
• SUPS
• Benchmark (computing)
• BogoMips (measurement of CPU speed made by the Linux kernel)
• Instructions per cycle
• Cycles per instruction
• Dhrystone (benchmark) - DMIPS integer benchmark
• Whetstone (benchmark) - floating-point benchmark
• Million service units (MSU)
• Computer performance by orders of magnitude
• Performance per watt
• Data-rate units

References

1. US, Dell. "Technical Resources migrated from TechCenter - Dell US". en.community.dell.com.
2. Gibson, J.C. (1970). The Gibson Mix (Technical Report TR 00.2043). Poughkeepsie, N.Y.: IBM Systems Development Division.
3. Elliot, Jimmie Lynn (June 5, 1975). "Appendix E, The Gibson Mix by Jack C. Gibson". Computer Performance and Evaluation Utilizating the Resource Planing and Management System, Masters Thesis. Oregon State University. pp. 88–92. Retrieved March 21, 2021.
4. Ted MacNeil. . IBM magazine. Archived from the original on 2012-07-23. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
5. Musumeci, Gian-Paolo D.; Loukides, Mike; Loukides, Michael Kosta (2002). System Performance Tuning. p. 32. ISBN 9780596002848.
6. "The Best of Both Worlds: Mac II vs. IBM PS/2 Model 80". PC Magazine. November 24, 1987. p. 105.
7. US Steel News. Vol. 15–20. Industrial Relations Department of The United States Steel Corporation of Delaware. 1950–1955. p. 29.
8. Padua, David (2011-09-08). Encyclopedia of Parallel Computing. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9780387097657.
9. Meagher, R.E. (May 9, 1961). "STRETCH Report" (PDF). Computer History.
10. "Control Data Corporation, CDC-6600 & 7600". ed-thelen.org. Retrieved 2017-05-25.
11. . Dr. Dobb's. Archived from the original on 2017-06-05. Retrieved 2017-05-25.
12. "MCS4 > IntelP4004".
13. . Archived from the original on 2014-10-09.
14. . 24 April 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-04-24.
15. "History of Computers and Computing, Birth of the modern computer, Electronic computer, Cray computers of Seymour Cray". history-computer.com. Retrieved 2017-05-25.
16. Drolez, Ludovic. "Lud's Open Source Corner".
17. 2 cycles per instruction [1]
18. 1 instruction per cycle
19. 4 cycles per instruction [3] 2015-06-09 at the Wayback Machine = 0.25 instructions per cycle
20. "intel :: dataSheets :: 8048 8035 HMOS Single Component 8-Bit Microcomputer DataSheet 1980". 1980.
21. . 25 October 1997. Archived from the original on 2012-02-19.
22. "System 16 - Irem M27 Hardware (Irem)".
23. 10% faster [4] than 68000 (0.175 MIPS per MHz [5])
24. NEC V20/V30: "250 nanoseconds per instruction @ 8 MHz" means some fastest 2-clock register-register instructions only
25. LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System: 257× Zilog Z8001 [6] at 10 MHz [7] (2.5 MIPS [8] 2015-06-09 at the Wayback Machine) each
26. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-06.
27. "32-Bit Microprocessor-NXP".
28. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 6, 2014.
29. (PDF). www.datasheetarchive.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2014. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
30. 1 instruction per cycle [9]
31. Sega System 16: Hitachi-Motorola 68000 @ 10 MHz (1.75 MIPS), NEC-Zilog Z80 @ 4 MHz (0.58 MIPS) [10] [11], Intel 8751 @ 8 MHz [12] (8 MIPS [13]), Intel 8048 @ 6 MHz . Archived from the original on 2016-01-25. Retrieved 2016-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) (6 MIPS [14])
32. "ARM2 - Microarchitectures - Acorn". Wikichip.org. Retrieved 17 October 2018.
33. Inc, InfoWorld Media Group (23 January 1989). "InfoWorld". InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. – via Google Books. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
34. Yasuhiko Komoto; Tatsuya Saito; Kazumasa Mine. "情報学広場：情報処理学会電子図書館" [Overview of 32-bit V-Series Microprocessor]. Advanced Products Department Microcomputer Division NEC Corporation.
35. Inc, Ziff Davis (24 November 1987). "PC Mag". Ziff Davis, Inc. – via Google Books. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
36. "Enhanced 32-Bit Processor-NXP".
37. "TRON VLSI CPU Introduction".
38. "060 1987 Drivers Eyes + 1989 Winning Run" (PDF). The history of racing games. June 2007.
39. "Analog Devices - datasheet pdf" (PDF).
40. Namco System 21 hardware: 5× Texas Instruments TMS320C20 @ 25 MHz (62.5 MIPS [15]), 2× Motorola 68000 @ 12.288 MHz [16] (4.301 MIPS [17]), Motorola 68020 [18] @ 12.5 MHz (3.788 MIPS [19]), Hitachi HD63705 @ 2.048 MHz [20] (2.048 MIPS ), Motorola 6809 @ 3.072 MHz [22] (1.29 MIPS [23])
41. "Intel i860-based Bus Boards". Archived from the original on 2013-06-25.
42. Atari Hard Drivin' hardware: [24] Motorola 68000 @ 7 MHz (1.225 MIPS [25]), Motorola 68010 @ 7 MHz (1.348 MIPS [26]), 3× Texas Instruments TMS34010 @ 50 MHz (18 MIPS [27]), Analog Devices ADSP-2100 @ 8 MHz (8 MIPS [28]), Texas Instruments TMS32010 @ 20 MHz (5 MIPS (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-09-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link))
43. . Pik - Praxis der Informationsverarbeitung und Kommunikation. 13 (4). 1990. doi:10.1515/piko.1990.13.4.205. Archived from the original on 2014-11-09. Retrieved 2014-09-29.
44. "ARM3 - Microarchitectures - Acorn". Wikichip.org. Retrieved 17 October 2018.
45. "(Including EC, LC, and V)-NXP".
46. Namco System 21 (Galaxian³) hardware: [29] 80× Texas Instruments TMS320C25 @ 40 MHz (1600 MIPS [30]), 5× Motorola 68020 @ 24.576 MHz (37.236 MIPS [31]) Motorola 68000 @ 12.288 MHz (2.15 MIPS [32]), 10× Motorola 68000 @ 12 MHz (21 MIPS [33])
47. Enterprise, I. D. G. (25 March 1991). "Computerworld". IDG Enterprise – via Google Books.
48. Digital's 21064 Microprocessor, Digital Equipment Corporation^{[permanent dead link]} (c1992) accessdate=2009-08-29
49. "System 16 - Namco Magic Edge Hornet Simulator Hardware (Namco)".
50. Uchiyama, Kunio; Arakawa, Fumio; Narita, Susumu; Aoki, Hirokazu; Kawasaki, Ikuya; Matsui, Shigezumi; Yamamoto, Mitsuyoshi; Nakagawa, Norio; Kudo, Ikuo (1 September 1993). "The Gmicro/500 Superscalar Microprocessor with Branch Buffers". IEEE Micro. 13 (5): 12–22. doi:10.1109/40.237998. S2CID 30178249.
51. "dhrystone".
52. 24× MIPS R4400 (2040 MIPS), [34] 12× Intel i860 (600 MIPS) "Intel i860-based Bus Boards". Archived from the original on 2013-06-25. Retrieved 2014-09-17.
53. . Archived from the original on 2003-03-01.
54. "Charts, benchmarks CPU Charts 2004, Sandra - CPU Dhrystone". Archived from the original on 2013-02-05.
55. "PIC16F84A - 8-bit PIC Microcontrollers".
56. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-09-18. Retrieved 2014-09-17.
57. "SiSoftware – Windows, GPGPU, Android, iOS analysers, diagnostic and benchmarking apps".
58. . Archived from the original on 2014-12-11. Retrieved 2014-09-18.
59. . Archived from the original on 2016-03-05.
60. "Zilog Sees New Lease of Life for Z80 in Internet Appliances". Computergram International. 1999. Archived from the original on 2012-05-25.
61. Sega Naomi Multiboard hardware: [35] [36] 2014-10-06 at the Wayback Machine 16× Hitachi SH-4 at 200 MHz (5760 MIPS [37] 2014-12-11 at the Wayback Machine), 16× ARM7 at 45 MHz (640 MIPS )
62. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-18. Retrieved 2008-05-13.
63. "ZISC78 datasheet & application note - Datasheet Archive".
64. Shimpi, Anand Lal. "ARM's Cortex A7: Bringing Cheaper Dual-Core & More Power Efficient High-End Devices".
65. "PIC10F200 - 8-bit PIC Microcontrollers".
66. . Archived from the original on 2014-10-06.
67. "Cortex-M3 Processor - ARM".
68. "Nios II Performance Benchmarks" (PDF).
69. "MIPS Architecture Enabling Growing List of Mobile Application Processors".
70. "mini-itx.com - epia px 10000 review".
71. "Cortex-A Series - ARM".
72. "Charts, benchmarks CPU Charts 2007, Synthetic SiSoft Sandra XI CPU". Archived from the original on 2013-02-04.
73. "MPC7448: RISC Microprocessor".
74. "Cortex-R4 Processor - ARM".
75. 24K^{[permanent dead link]}
76. "Tom's Hardware Articles - Find and Filter Our Latest Articles".
77. "Semiconductor IP Cores Companies".
78. Merritt, Rick (5 February 2007). "Startup takes PowerPC to 25 W". EE Times. UBM Tech. Archived from the original on 21 January 2013. Retrieved 20 November 2012.
79. "Benchmarks of ECS 945GCT-D with Intel Atom 1.6GHz".
80. "Charts, benchmarks Desktop CPU Charts 2010, ALU Performance: SiSoftware Sandra 2010 Pro (ALU)". Archived from the original on 2013-02-04.
81. "Cortex-M0 Processor - ARM".
82. . Archived from the original on 2011-07-19.
83. . Archived from the original on 2009-04-04. Retrieved 2009-01-15.
84. "OC3D :: Review :: Intel 980x Gulftown :: Synthetic Benchmarks". 12 March 2010.
85. "Benchmark Results: Sandra 2011 - ASRock's E350M1: AMD's Brazos Platform Hits The Desktop First". 14 January 2011.
86. "Samsung Semiconductor Global Official Website".
87. "Core i5 2500K and Core i7 2600K review".
88. "Test: Sandra Dhrystone (MIPS) for i7-4770K, i7-3770K, FX-8350, FX-8150".
89. "Benchmark Results: SiSoftware Sandra 2011 - The Intel Core i7-990X Extreme Edition Processor Review". 25 February 2011.
90. . Archived from the original on 2011-11-16. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
91. "AMD FX-8350 Black Edition vs Intel Core i7-4770K - Compare CPUs".
92. "Intel Core i7-4770K Desktop Processor".
93. Rob Williams (August 29, 2014). "Core i7-5960X Extreme Edition Review: Intel's Overdue Desktop 8-Core Is Here". Techgage.
94. By (2015-02-05). "Benchmarking The Raspberry Pi 2". hackaday.com.
95. ccokeman (May 30, 2016). "Intel Core I7 6950X Extreme Edition Broadwell-E CPU Review".
96. http://users.nik.uni-obuda.hu/sima/letoltes/Processor_families_Knowledge_Base_2019/ARM_processors_lecture_2018_12_02.pdf^{[bare URL PDF]}
97. https://elearning.unicampania.it/pluginfile.php/65623/mod_folder/content/0/ARM_organization_part2.pdf^{[bare URL PDF]}
98. https://www.ti.com/lit/an/spracv1a/spracv1a.pdf^{[bare URL PDF]}
99. Chiappetta, Marco (2017-03-02). . HotHardware. Archived from the original on 2017-03-05. Retrieved 2017-03-05.
100. "Details for Component Intel Core i7-8086K". SiSoftware Official Live Ranker.
101. Marco Chiappetta (14 November 2019). . HotHardware. Archived from the original on 6 March 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
102. Marco Chiappetta (7 February 2020). . HotHardware. Archived from the original on 18 March 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2020.