fbpx
Wikipedia

Manufacturing

Manufacturing is the creation or production of goods with the help of equipment, labor, machines, tools, and chemical or biological processing or formulation. It is the essence of the secondary sector of the economy.[1][unreliable source?] The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high-tech, but it is most commonly applied to industrial design, in which raw materials from the primary sector are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such goods may be sold to other manufacturers for the production of other more complex products (such as aircraft, household appliances, furniture, sports equipment or automobiles), or distributed via the tertiary industry to end users and consumers (usually through wholesalers, who in turn sell to retailers, who then sell them to individual customers).

Manufacturing of an automobile by Tesla

Manufacturing engineering is the field of engineering that designs and optimizes the manufacturing process, or the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification. These materials are then modified through manufacturing to become the desired product.

Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes involved in the production and integration of a product's components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers, use the term fabrication instead.

The manufacturing sector is closely connected with the engineering and industrial design industries.

Etymology edit

The Modern English word manufacture is likely derived from the Middle French manufacture ("process of making") which itself originates from the Classical Latin manū ("hand") and Middle French facture ("making"). Alternatively, the English word may have been independently formed from the earlier English manufacture ("made by human hands") and fracture.[2] Its earliest usage in the English language was recorded in the mid-16th century to refer to the making of products by hand.[3][4]

History and development edit

Prehistory and ancient history edit

 
Flint stone core for making blades in Negev, Israel, c. 40000 BP
 
A late Bronze Age sword or dagger blade now on display at the National Archaeological Museum in France

Human ancestors manufactured objects using stone and other tools long before the emergence of Homo sapiens about 200,000 years ago.[5] The earliest methods of stone tool making, known as the Oldowan "industry", date back to at least 2.3 million years ago,[6] with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found in Ethiopia within the Great Rift Valley, dating back to 2.5 million years ago.[7] To manufacture a stone tool, a "core" of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint) was struck with a hammerstone. This flaking produced sharp edges that could be used as tools, primarily in the form of choppers or scrapers.[8] These tools greatly aided the early humans in their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to form other tools out of softer materials such as bone and wood.[9] The Middle Paleolithic, approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction of the prepared-core technique, where multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone.[8] Pressure flaking, in which a wood, bone, or antler punch could be used to shape a stone very finely was developed during the Upper Paleolithic, beginning approximately 40,000 years ago.[10] During the Neolithic period, polished stone tools were manufactured from a variety of hard rocks such as flint, jade, jadeite, and greenstone. The polished axes were used alongside other stone tools including projectiles, knives, and scrapers, as well as tools manufactured from organic materials such as wood, bone, and antler.[11]

Copper smelting is believed to have originated when the technology of pottery kiln allowed sufficiently high temperatures.[12] The concentration of various elements such as arsenic increase with depth in copper ore deposits and smelting of these ores yields arsenical bronze, which can be sufficiently work-hardened to be suitable for manufacturing tools.[12] Bronze is an alloy of copper with tin; the latter of which being found in relatively few deposits globally delayed true tin bronze becoming widespread. During the Bronze Age, bronze was a major improvement over stone as a material for making tools, both because of its mechanical properties like strength and ductility and because it could be cast in molds to make intricately shaped objects. Bronze significantly advanced shipbuilding technology with better tools and bronze nails, which replaced the old method of attaching boards of the hull with cord woven through drilled holes.[13] The Iron Age is conventionally defined by the widespread manufacturing of weapons and tools using iron and steel rather than bronze.[14] Iron smelting is more difficult than tin and copper smelting because smelted iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. The place and time for the discovery of iron smelting is not known, partly because of the difficulty of distinguishing metal extracted from nickel-containing ores from hot-worked meteoritic iron.[15]

During the growth of the ancient civilizations, many ancient technologies resulted from advances in manufacturing. Several of the six classic simple machines were invented in Mesopotamia.[16] Mesopotamians have been credited with the invention of the wheel. The wheel and axle mechanism first appeared with the potter's wheel, invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.[17] Egyptian paper made from papyrus, as well as pottery, were mass-produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. Early construction techniques used by the Ancient Egyptians made use of bricks composed mainly of clay, sand, silt, and other minerals.[18]

Medieval and early modern edit

 
A stocking frame at Ruddington Framework Knitters' Museum in Ruddington, England

The Middle Ages witnessed new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. Papermaking, a 2nd-century Chinese technology, was carried to the Middle East when a group of Chinese papermakers were captured in the 8th century.[19] Papermaking technology was spread to Europe by the Umayyad conquest of Hispania.[20] A paper mill was established in Sicily in the 12th century. In Europe the fiber to make pulp for making paper was obtained from linen and cotton rags. Lynn Townsend White Jr. credited the spinning wheel with increasing the supply of rags, which led to cheap paper, which was a factor in the development of printing.[21] Due to the casting of cannon, the blast furnace came into widespread use in France in the mid 15th century. The blast furnace had been used in China since the 4th century BC.[12] The stocking frame, which was invented in 1598, increased a knitter's number of knots per minute from 100 to 1000.[22]

First and Second Industrial Revolutions edit

 
An 1835 illustration of a Roberts Loom weaving shed

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States from 1760 to the 1830s.[23] This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system. The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth. Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.[24]: 40  Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s,[25] with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.[24]

An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed down and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, hot blast iron smelting and new technologies, such as the electrical telegraph, were widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. These innovations included new steel making processes, mass-production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.[24][26][27][28]

Building on improvements in vacuum pumps and materials research, incandescent light bulbs became practical for general use in the late 1870s. This invention had a profound effect on the workplace because factories could now have second and third shift workers.[29] Shoe production was mechanized during the mid 19th century.[30] Mass production of sewing machines and agricultural machinery such as reapers occurred in the mid to late 19th century.[31] The mass production of bicycles started in the 1880s.[31] Steam-powered factories became widespread, although the conversion from water power to steam occurred in England earlier than in the U.S.[32]

Modern manufacturing edit

 
Bell Aircraft's assembly plant in Wheatfield, New York in 1944

Electrification of factories, which had begun gradually in the 1890s after the introduction of the practical DC motor and the AC motor, was fastest between 1900 and 1930. This was aided by the establishment of electric utilities with central stations and the lowering of electricity prices from 1914 to 1917.[33] Electric motors allowed more flexibility in manufacturing and required less maintenance than line shafts and belts. Many factories witnessed a 30% increase in output owing to the increasing shift to electric motors. Electrification enabled modern mass production, and the biggest impact of early mass production was in the manufacturing of everyday items, such as at the Ball Brothers Glass Manufacturing Company, which electrified its mason jar plant in Muncie, Indiana, U.S. around 1900. The new automated process used glass blowing machines to replace 210 craftsman glass blowers and helpers. A small electric truck was now used to handle 150 dozen bottles at a time whereas previously used hand trucks could only carry 6 dozen bottles at a time. Electric mixers replaced men with shovels handling sand and other ingredients that were fed into the glass furnace. An electric overhead crane replaced 36 day laborers for moving heavy loads across the factory.[34]

Mass production was popularized in the late 1910s and 1920s by Henry Ford's Ford Motor Company,[35] which introduced electric motors to the then-well-known technique of chain or sequential production. Ford also bought or designed and built special purpose machine tools and fixtures such as multiple spindle drill presses that could drill every hole on one side of an engine block in one operation and a multiple head milling machine that could simultaneously machine 15 engine blocks held on a single fixture. All of these machine tools were arranged systematically in the production flow and some had special carriages for rolling heavy items into machining positions. Production of the Ford Model T used 32,000 machine tools.[36]

Lean manufacturing, also known as just-in-time manufacturing, was developed in Japan in the 1930s. It is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers.[37][38] It was introduced in Australia in the 1950s by the British Motor Corporation (Australia) at its Victoria Park plant in Sydney, from where the idea later migrated to Toyota.[39] News spread to western countries from Japan in 1977 in two English-language articles: one referred to the methodology as the "Ohno system", after Taiichi Ohno, who was instrumental in its development within Toyota.[40] The other article, by Toyota authors in an international journal, provided additional details.[41] Finally, those and other publicity were translated into implementations, beginning in 1980 and then quickly multiplying throughout the industry in the United States and other countries.[42]

Manufacturing strategy edit

According to a "traditional" view of manufacturing strategy, there are five key dimensions along which the performance of manufacturing can be assessed: cost, quality, dependability, flexibility and innovation.[43]

In regard to manufacturing performance, Wickham Skinner, who has been called "the father of manufacturing strategy",[44] adopted the concept of "focus",[45] with an implication that a business cannot perform at the highest level along all five dimensions and must therefore select one or two competitive priorities. This view led to the theory of "trade offs" in manufacturing strategy.[46] Similarly, Elizabeth Haas wrote in 1987 about the delivery of value in manufacturing for customers in terms of "lower prices, greater service responsiveness or higher quality".[47] The theory of "trade offs" has subsequently being debated and questioned,[46] but Skinner wrote in 1992 that at that time "enthusiasm for the concepts of 'manufacturing strategy' [had] been higher", noting that in academic papers, executive courses and case studies, levels of interest were "bursting out all over".[48]

Manufacturing writer Terry Hill has commented that manufacturing is often seen as a less "strategic" business activity than functions such as marketing and finance, and that manufacturing managers have "come late" to business strategy-making discussions, where, as a result, they make only a reactive contribution.[49][50]

Industrial policy edit

Economics of manufacturing edit

Emerging technologies have offered new growth methods in advanced manufacturing employment opportunities, for example in the Manufacturing Belt in the United States. Manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and also for national defense.

On the other hand, most manufacturing processes may involve significant social and environmental costs. The clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks. These costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals.

The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally. Developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the environmental costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a historic role in the negotiation of worker rights and wages. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world. Tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing. These are significant dynamics in the ongoing process, occurring over the last few decades, of manufacture-based industries relocating operations to "developing-world" economies where the costs of production are significantly lower than in "developed-world" economies.[51]

Finance edit

From a financial perspective, the goal of the manufacturing industry is mainly to achieve cost benefits per unit produced, which in turn leads to cost reductions in product prices for the market towards end customers.[52][unreliable source?] This relative cost reduction towards the market, is how manufacturing firms secure their profit margins.[53]

Safety edit

Manufacturing has unique health and safety challenges and has been recognized by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.[54][55]

Manufacturing and investment edit

 
Capacity use in manufacturing in Germany and the United States

Surveys and analyses of trends and issues in manufacturing and investment around the world focus on such things as:

  • The nature and sources of the considerable variations that occur cross-nationally in levels of manufacturing and wider industrial-economic growth;
  • Competitiveness; and
  • Attractiveness to foreign direct investors.

In addition to general overviews, researchers have examined the features and factors affecting particular key aspects of manufacturing development. They have compared production and investment in a range of Western and non-Western countries and presented case studies of growth and performance in important individual industries and market-economic sectors.[56][57]

On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand.[58] Further, while U.S. manufacturing performs well compared to the rest of the U.S. economy, research shows that it performs poorly compared to manufacturing in other high-wage countries.[59] A total of 3.2 million – one in six U.S. manufacturing jobs – have disappeared between 2000 and 2007.[60] In the UK, EEF the manufacturers organisation has led calls for the UK economy to be rebalanced to rely less on financial services and has actively promoted the manufacturing agenda.

Major manufacturing nations edit

According to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), China is the top manufacturer worldwide by 2019 output, producing 28.7% of the total global manufacturing output, followed by the United States, Japan, Germany, and India.[61][62]

UNIDO also publishes a Competitive Industrial Performance (CIP) Index, which measures the competitive manufacturing ability of different nations. The CIP Index combines a nation's gross manufacturing output with other factors like high-tech capability and the nation's impact on the world economy. Germany topped the 2020 CIP Index, followed by China, South Korea, the United States, and Japan.[63][64]

List of countries by manufacturing output edit

These are the top 50 countries by total value of manufacturing output in U.S. dollars for its noted year according to World Bank:[65]

List of countries by manufacturing output
Rank Country or region Millions of $US Year
 World 16,350,207 2021
1   China 4,975,614 2022
2   United States 2,497,132 2021
3   Japan 1,025,092 2021
4   Germany 752,742 2022
5   India 456,064 2022
6   South Korea 429,058 2022
7   Mexico 314,701 2022
8   Italy 306,009 2022
9   Russia 287,713 2022
10   France 265,231 2022
11   United Kingdom 259,314 2022
12   Indonesia 241,873 2022
13   Brazil 213,557 2022
14   Ireland 202,566 2022
15   Turkey 200,552 2022
16   Canada 162,160 2019
17   Spain 161,698 2022
18   Saudi Arabia 160,032 2022
19    Switzerland 150,631 2022
20   Thailand 133,867 2022
21   Poland 120,308 2022
22   Netherlands 115,189 2022
23   Argentina 101,318 2022
24   Vietnam 101,217 2022
25   Bangladesh 100,162 2022
26   Singapore 95,696 2022
27   Malaysia 95,218 2022
28   Australia 91,299 2022
29   Iran 82,660 2022
30   Sweden 79,351 2022
31   Egypt 76,139 2022
32   Austria 74,920 2022
33   Belgium 73,788 2022
34   Philippines 69,696 2022
35   Cuba 67,996 2022
36   Algeria 67,938 2022
37   Nigeria 64,246 2022
38   Czech Republic 60,989 2022
39   Venezuela 58,237 2014
40   Pakistan 51,622 2022
41   South Africa 49,714 2022
42   Israel 49,658 2021
43   United Arab Emirates 49,317 2022
44   Puerto Rico 48,796 2022
45   Denmark 46,654 2022
46   Finland 44,716 2022
47   Romania 39,865 2020
48   Colombia 39,582 2022
49   Portugal 31,254 2022
50   Hungary 30,514 2022

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Kenton, Will. "Manufacturing". Investopedia. from the original on November 17, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
  2. ^ Stevenson, Angus, ed. (2010). "manufacture, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acres/9780199571123.001.0001. ISBN 978-0199571123.
  3. ^ Srivatsan, T. S.; Manigandan, K.; Sudarshan, T. S. (2018). "Use of Conventional Manufacturing Techniques for Materials". In Srivatsan, T. S.; Sudarshan, T. S.; Manigandan, K. (eds.). Manufacturing Techniques for Materials: Engineering and Engineered. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 436–437. ISBN 978-1138099265.
  4. ^ Youssef, Helmi A.; El-Hofy, Hassan (2008). Machining Technology: Machine Tools and Operations. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1420043396.
  5. ^ . Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on May 1, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
  6. ^ "Ancient 'Tool Factory' Uncovered". BBC News. May 6, 1999. from the original on March 18, 2007. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
  7. ^ Heinzelin, Jean de; Clark, JD; White, T; Hart, W; Renne, P; Woldegabriel, G; Beyene, Y; Vrba, E (April 1999). "Environment and Behavior of 2.5-Million-Year-Old Bouri Hominids". Science. 284 (5414): 625–629. Bibcode:1999Sci...284..625D. doi:10.1126/science.284.5414.625. PMID 10213682.
  8. ^ a b Burke, Ariane. "Archaeology". Encyclopedia Americana. Archived from the original on May 21, 2008. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
  9. ^ Plummer, Thomas (2004). "Flaked Stones and Old Bones: Biological and Cultural Evolution at the Dawn of Technology". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology. Suppl 39 (47): 118–64. doi:10.1002/APA.20157. PMID 15605391.
  10. ^ Haviland, William A. (2004). Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge. The Thomson Corporation. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-534-62487-3.
  11. ^ Tóth, Zsuzsanna (2012). "The First Neolithic Sites in Central/South-East European Transect, Volume III: The Körös Culture in Eastern Hungary". In Anders, Alexandra; Siklósi, Zsuzsanna (eds.). Bone, Antler, and Tusk tools of the Early Neolithic Körös Culture. Oxford: BAR International Series 2334.
  12. ^ a b c Merson, John (1990). The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-87951-397-9.
  13. ^ Paine, Lincoln (2013). The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World. New York: Random House, LLC.
  14. ^ Jane C., Waldbaum (1978). From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean. Paul Aström. pp. 56–58. ISBN 91-85058-79-3. OCLC 1146527679.
  15. ^ Photos, E. (1989). "The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results". World Archaeology. 20 (3): 403–421. doi:10.1080/00438243.1989.9980081. JSTOR 124562. S2CID 5908149.
  16. ^ Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575060422.
  17. ^ Potts, D. T. (2012). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. p. 285.
  18. ^ Trzciński, Jerzy; Zaremba, Małgorzata; Rzepka, Sławomir; Welc, Fabian; Szczepański, Tomasz (June 1, 2016). "Preliminary Report on Engineering Properties and Environmental Resistance of Ancient Mud Bricks from Tell El-Retaba Archaeological Site in the Nile Delta". Studia Quaternaria. 33 (1): 47–56. doi:10.1515/squa-2016-0005. ISSN 2300-0384. S2CID 132452242. (PDF) from the original on November 1, 2023.
  19. ^ "Timeline: 8th century". 8th century. ISBN 978-0191735516. from the original on August 25, 2021. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
  20. ^ de Safita, Neathery (July 2002). "A Brief History Of Paper". St. Louis Community College. from the original on August 22, 2018. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
  21. ^ Marchetti, Cesare (1978). "A Postmortem Technology Assessment of the Spinning Wheel: The Last 1000 Years, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 13; pp. 91–93" (PDF). Technological Forecasting and Social Change. (PDF) from the original on May 2, 2016. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
  22. ^ Rosen, William (2012). The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention. University Of Chicago Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-226-72634-2.
  23. ^ "Industrial History of European Countries". European Route of Industrial Heritage. Council of Europe. from the original on June 23, 2021. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
  24. ^ a b c Landes, David S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-09418-4.
  25. ^ Gupta, Bishnupriya. "Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence: Lancashire, India and Shifting Competitive Advantage, 1600–1850" (PDF). International Institute of Social History. Department of Economics, University of Warwick. (PDF) from the original on September 10, 2016. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
  26. ^ Taylor, George Rogers (1951). The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860. ISBN 978-0-87332-101-3.
  27. ^ Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916). English and American Tool Builders. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. LCCN 16011753. from the original on April 14, 2021. Retrieved July 15, 2021. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (LCCN 27-24075); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (ISBN 978-0-917914-73-7)
  28. ^ Hunter, Louis C. (1985). A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. p. 18.
  29. ^ Nye, David E. (1990). Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology. Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States and London, England: The MIT Press.
  30. ^ Thomson, Ross (1989). The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-1867-1.
  31. ^ a b Hounshell, David A. (1984), From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-2975-8, LCCN 83016269, OCLC 1104810110.
  32. ^ Hunter, Louis C. (1985). A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
  33. ^ Jerome, Harry (1934). Mechanization in Industry, National Bureau of Economic Research. p. xxviii.
  34. ^ Nye, David E. (1990). Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: MIT Press. pp. 14, 15.
  35. ^ Hounshell 1984
  36. ^ Hounshell 1984, p. 288
  37. ^ Ohno, Taiichi (1988). Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-915299-14-0.
  38. ^ Shingō, Shigeo (1985). A Revolution in Manufacturing: The SMED System. ISBN 0-915299-03-8. OCLC 12255263. from the original on January 14, 2022. Retrieved March 6, 2023.
  39. ^ "Site of BMC/Leyland Australia Manufacturing Plant: Nomination as an Historic Engineering Marker" (PDF). The Institution of Engineers, Australia. September 30, 1999. (PDF) from the original on September 4, 2021. Retrieved July 30, 2021.
  40. ^ Ashburn, A. (July 1977). "Toyota's "famous Ohno system"". American Machinist: 120–123.
  41. ^ Sugimori, Y.; Kusunoki, K.; Cho, F.; Uchikawa, S. (1977). "Toyota Production System and Kanban System: Materialization of Just-in-time and Respect-for-human System". International Journal of Production Research. 15 (6): 553–564. doi:10.1080/00207547708943149. ISSN 0020-7543.
  42. ^ "The Founding of the Association for Manufacturing Excellence: Summarized at a Meeting of its Founders, February 2, 2001" (PDF). Target. Association for Manufacturing Excellence. 17 (3): 23–24. 2001. (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2021. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
  43. ^ Hayes, R. H., Wheelwright, S. C. and Clark, K. B. (1988), Dynamic Manufacturing, New York: The Free Press, quoted in Wassenhove, L. van and Corbett, C. J., "Trade-Offs? What Trade Offs? (A Short Essay on Manufacturing Strategy", p. 1, INSEAD, published April 6, 1991, accessed September 27, 2023
  44. ^ R. Sarmiento, G. Whelan, M. Thürer and F. A. Bribiescas-Silva, "Fifty Years of the Strategic Trade-Offs Model: In Memory and Honor of Wickham Skinner", in IEEE Engineering Management Review, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 92-96, 1 Second Quarter, June 2019, doi:10.1109/EMR.2019.2915978, accessed August 22, 2023
  45. ^ Skinner, W., "Focused Factory", Harvard Business Review, published May 1, 1974.
  46. ^ a b Wassenhove, L. van and Corbett, C. J., "Trade-Offs? What Trade Offs? (A Short Essay on Manufacturing Strategy", p. 2, INSEAD, published April 6, 1991, accessed September 27, 2023
  47. ^ Haas, E. A., "Breakthrough Manaufacturing", Harvard Business Review, March/April 1987, pp. 75-81
  48. ^ Skinner, W., "Missing the Links in Manufacturing Strategy" in Voss, C. A. (ed) (1992), Manufacturing Strategy - Process and Content, Chapman and Hall, pp. 12-25
  49. ^ Hill, T., Manufacturing Strategy: Developments in Approach and Analytics, University of Warwick, 1990, accessed 28 September 2023
  50. ^ Hill, T. (1993), Manufacturing Strategy, second edition, Macmillan, chapter 2
  51. ^ Di Stefano, Cristina; Fratocchi, Luciano; Martínez‐Mora, Carmen; Merino, Fernando (August 2, 2023). "Manufacturing reshoring and sustainable development goals: A home versus host country perspective". Sustainable Development. doi:10.1002/sd.2710. hdl:10045/136803 – via CrossRef.
  52. ^ Young, Julie. "Unit Cost Definition". investopedia.com. Investopedia. from the original on May 20, 2022. Retrieved May 20, 2022.
  53. ^ Spence, Michael (1984). "Cost Reduction, Competition, and Industry Performance". Econometrica. Econometrica – Journal of the Economic Society, Vol. 52, No. 1 (Jan. 1984). 52 (1): 101–121. doi:10.2307/1911463. JSTOR 1911463. from the original on March 5, 2022. Retrieved May 20, 2022.
  54. ^ "Manufacturing Program". Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. February 11, 2019. from the original on April 3, 2019. Retrieved March 14, 2019.
  55. ^ "National Occupational Research Agenda for Manufacturing". Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. February 4, 2019. from the original on June 18, 2019. Retrieved March 14, 2019.
  56. ^ Manufacturing and Investment Around the World: An International Survey of Factors Affecting Growth and Performance (2nd ed.). Manchester: Industrial Systems Research. 2002. ISBN 0-906321-25-5. OCLC 49552466.
  57. ^ Research, Industrial Systems (2002). Manufacturing and Investment Around the World: An International Survey of Factors Affecting Growth and Performance. ISBN 978-0-906321-25-6. from the original on April 1, 2021. Retrieved November 19, 2015.
  58. ^ David Bailey; Soyoung Kim (June 26, 2009). "GE's Immelt says U.S. economy needs industrial renewal". Reuters. from the original on December 12, 2020. Retrieved March 6, 2023.
  59. ^ . February 2012. Archived from the original on October 8, 2012.
  60. ^ Martin Crutsinger (2007). "Factory Jobs: 3 Million Lost Since 2000". USA Today. Associated Press. from the original on December 4, 2022. Retrieved March 6, 2023.
  61. ^ "UNIDO Statistics Data Portal". from the original on October 5, 2021. Retrieved October 5, 2021.
  62. ^ "Leading Manufacturing Nations". July 15, 2021. from the original on March 4, 2022. Retrieved March 14, 2022.
  63. ^ "UNIDO's Competitive Industrial Performance Index 2020: Country Profiles". unido.org. from the original on April 6, 2022. Retrieved June 21, 2022.
  64. ^ "Competitive Industrial Performance Index 2020: Country Profiles ( Report)". stat.unido.org. from the original on January 10, 2022. Retrieved June 21, 2022.
  65. ^ "Manufacturing, Value Added (Current US$)". World Bank. from the original on January 7, 2020. Retrieved July 14, 2021.

Further reading edit

External links edit

manufacturing, functional, constituency, hong, kong, constituency, creation, production, goods, with, help, equipment, labor, machines, tools, chemical, biological, processing, formulation, essence, secondary, sector, economy, unreliable, source, term, refer, . For the functional constituency in Hong Kong see Manufacturing constituency Manufacturing is the creation or production of goods with the help of equipment labor machines tools and chemical or biological processing or formulation It is the essence of the secondary sector of the economy 1 unreliable source The term may refer to a range of human activity from handicraft to high tech but it is most commonly applied to industrial design in which raw materials from the primary sector are transformed into finished goods on a large scale Such goods may be sold to other manufacturers for the production of other more complex products such as aircraft household appliances furniture sports equipment or automobiles or distributed via the tertiary industry to end users and consumers usually through wholesalers who in turn sell to retailers who then sell them to individual customers Manufacturing of an automobile by TeslaManufacturing engineering is the field of engineering that designs and optimizes the manufacturing process or the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product The manufacturing process begins with the product design and materials specification These materials are then modified through manufacturing to become the desired product Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes involved in the production and integration of a product s components Some industries such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead The manufacturing sector is closely connected with the engineering and industrial design industries Contents 1 Etymology 2 History and development 2 1 Prehistory and ancient history 2 2 Medieval and early modern 2 3 First and Second Industrial Revolutions 2 4 Modern manufacturing 3 Manufacturing strategy 4 Industrial policy 4 1 Economics of manufacturing 4 2 Finance 4 3 Safety 4 4 Manufacturing and investment 5 Major manufacturing nations 5 1 List of countries by manufacturing output 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksEtymology editThe Modern English word manufacture is likely derived from the Middle French manufacture process of making which itself originates from the Classical Latin manu hand and Middle French facture making Alternatively the English word may have been independently formed from the earlier English manufacture made by human hands and fracture 2 Its earliest usage in the English language was recorded in the mid 16th century to refer to the making of products by hand 3 4 History and development editPrehistory and ancient history edit See also Industry archaeology Prehistoric technology and Ancient technology nbsp Flint stone core for making blades in Negev Israel c 40000 BP nbsp A late Bronze Age sword or dagger blade now on display at the National Archaeological Museum in FranceHuman ancestors manufactured objects using stone and other tools long before the emergence of Homo sapiens about 200 000 years ago 5 The earliest methods of stone tool making known as the Oldowan industry date back to at least 2 3 million years ago 6 with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found in Ethiopia within the Great Rift Valley dating back to 2 5 million years ago 7 To manufacture a stone tool a core of hard stone with specific flaking properties such as flint was struck with a hammerstone This flaking produced sharp edges that could be used as tools primarily in the form of choppers or scrapers 8 These tools greatly aided the early humans in their hunter gatherer lifestyle to form other tools out of softer materials such as bone and wood 9 The Middle Paleolithic approximately 300 000 years ago saw the introduction of the prepared core technique where multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone 8 Pressure flaking in which a wood bone or antler punch could be used to shape a stone very finely was developed during the Upper Paleolithic beginning approximately 40 000 years ago 10 During the Neolithic period polished stone tools were manufactured from a variety of hard rocks such as flint jade jadeite and greenstone The polished axes were used alongside other stone tools including projectiles knives and scrapers as well as tools manufactured from organic materials such as wood bone and antler 11 Copper smelting is believed to have originated when the technology of pottery kiln allowed sufficiently high temperatures 12 The concentration of various elements such as arsenic increase with depth in copper ore deposits and smelting of these ores yields arsenical bronze which can be sufficiently work hardened to be suitable for manufacturing tools 12 Bronze is an alloy of copper with tin the latter of which being found in relatively few deposits globally delayed true tin bronze becoming widespread During the Bronze Age bronze was a major improvement over stone as a material for making tools both because of its mechanical properties like strength and ductility and because it could be cast in molds to make intricately shaped objects Bronze significantly advanced shipbuilding technology with better tools and bronze nails which replaced the old method of attaching boards of the hull with cord woven through drilled holes 13 The Iron Age is conventionally defined by the widespread manufacturing of weapons and tools using iron and steel rather than bronze 14 Iron smelting is more difficult than tin and copper smelting because smelted iron requires hot working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces The place and time for the discovery of iron smelting is not known partly because of the difficulty of distinguishing metal extracted from nickel containing ores from hot worked meteoritic iron 15 During the growth of the ancient civilizations many ancient technologies resulted from advances in manufacturing Several of the six classic simple machines were invented in Mesopotamia 16 Mesopotamians have been credited with the invention of the wheel The wheel and axle mechanism first appeared with the potter s wheel invented in Mesopotamia modern Iraq during the 5th millennium BC 17 Egyptian paper made from papyrus as well as pottery were mass produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin Early construction techniques used by the Ancient Egyptians made use of bricks composed mainly of clay sand silt and other minerals 18 Medieval and early modern edit nbsp A stocking frame at Ruddington Framework Knitters Museum in Ruddington EnglandThe Middle Ages witnessed new inventions innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production and economic growth Papermaking a 2nd century Chinese technology was carried to the Middle East when a group of Chinese papermakers were captured in the 8th century 19 Papermaking technology was spread to Europe by the Umayyad conquest of Hispania 20 A paper mill was established in Sicily in the 12th century In Europe the fiber to make pulp for making paper was obtained from linen and cotton rags Lynn Townsend White Jr credited the spinning wheel with increasing the supply of rags which led to cheap paper which was a factor in the development of printing 21 Due to the casting of cannon the blast furnace came into widespread use in France in the mid 15th century The blast furnace had been used in China since the 4th century BC 12 The stocking frame which was invented in 1598 increased a knitter s number of knots per minute from 100 to 1000 22 First and Second Industrial Revolutions edit Main articles Industrial Revolution and Second Industrial Revolution nbsp An 1835 illustration of a Roberts Loom weaving shedThe Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States from 1760 to the 1830s 23 This transition included going from hand production methods to machines new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes the increasing use of steam power and water power the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment value of output and capital invested The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods 24 40 Rapid industrialization first began in Britain starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s 25 with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800 Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century with important centres of textiles iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France 24 An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution s early innovations such as mechanized spinning and weaving slowed down and their markets matured Innovations developed late in the period such as the increasing adoption of locomotives steamboats and steamships hot blast iron smelting and new technologies such as the electrical telegraph were widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870 springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution These innovations included new steel making processes mass production assembly lines electrical grid systems the large scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam powered factories 24 26 27 28 Building on improvements in vacuum pumps and materials research incandescent light bulbs became practical for general use in the late 1870s This invention had a profound effect on the workplace because factories could now have second and third shift workers 29 Shoe production was mechanized during the mid 19th century 30 Mass production of sewing machines and agricultural machinery such as reapers occurred in the mid to late 19th century 31 The mass production of bicycles started in the 1880s 31 Steam powered factories became widespread although the conversion from water power to steam occurred in England earlier than in the U S 32 Modern manufacturing edit nbsp Bell Aircraft s assembly plant in Wheatfield New York in 1944Electrification of factories which had begun gradually in the 1890s after the introduction of the practical DC motor and the AC motor was fastest between 1900 and 1930 This was aided by the establishment of electric utilities with central stations and the lowering of electricity prices from 1914 to 1917 33 Electric motors allowed more flexibility in manufacturing and required less maintenance than line shafts and belts Many factories witnessed a 30 increase in output owing to the increasing shift to electric motors Electrification enabled modern mass production and the biggest impact of early mass production was in the manufacturing of everyday items such as at the Ball Brothers Glass Manufacturing Company which electrified its mason jar plant in Muncie Indiana U S around 1900 The new automated process used glass blowing machines to replace 210 craftsman glass blowers and helpers A small electric truck was now used to handle 150 dozen bottles at a time whereas previously used hand trucks could only carry 6 dozen bottles at a time Electric mixers replaced men with shovels handling sand and other ingredients that were fed into the glass furnace An electric overhead crane replaced 36 day laborers for moving heavy loads across the factory 34 Mass production was popularized in the late 1910s and 1920s by Henry Ford s Ford Motor Company 35 which introduced electric motors to the then well known technique of chain or sequential production Ford also bought or designed and built special purpose machine tools and fixtures such as multiple spindle drill presses that could drill every hole on one side of an engine block in one operation and a multiple head milling machine that could simultaneously machine 15 engine blocks held on a single fixture All of these machine tools were arranged systematically in the production flow and some had special carriages for rolling heavy items into machining positions Production of the Ford Model T used 32 000 machine tools 36 Lean manufacturing also known as just in time manufacturing was developed in Japan in the 1930s It is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers 37 38 It was introduced in Australia in the 1950s by the British Motor Corporation Australia at its Victoria Park plant in Sydney from where the idea later migrated to Toyota 39 News spread to western countries from Japan in 1977 in two English language articles one referred to the methodology as the Ohno system after Taiichi Ohno who was instrumental in its development within Toyota 40 The other article by Toyota authors in an international journal provided additional details 41 Finally those and other publicity were translated into implementations beginning in 1980 and then quickly multiplying throughout the industry in the United States and other countries 42 Manufacturing strategy editAccording to a traditional view of manufacturing strategy there are five key dimensions along which the performance of manufacturing can be assessed cost quality dependability flexibility and innovation 43 In regard to manufacturing performance Wickham Skinner who has been called the father of manufacturing strategy 44 adopted the concept of focus 45 with an implication that a business cannot perform at the highest level along all five dimensions and must therefore select one or two competitive priorities This view led to the theory of trade offs in manufacturing strategy 46 Similarly Elizabeth Haas wrote in 1987 about the delivery of value in manufacturing for customers in terms of lower prices greater service responsiveness or higher quality 47 The theory of trade offs has subsequently being debated and questioned 46 but Skinner wrote in 1992 that at that time enthusiasm for the concepts of manufacturing strategy had been higher noting that in academic papers executive courses and case studies levels of interest were bursting out all over 48 Manufacturing writer Terry Hill has commented that manufacturing is often seen as a less strategic business activity than functions such as marketing and finance and that manufacturing managers have come late to business strategy making discussions where as a result they make only a reactive contribution 49 50 Industrial policy editMain article Industrial policy Economics of manufacturing edit Emerging technologies have offered new growth methods in advanced manufacturing employment opportunities for example in the Manufacturing Belt in the United States Manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and also for national defense On the other hand most manufacturing processes may involve significant social and environmental costs The clean up costs of hazardous waste for example may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks These costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency reducing waste using industrial symbiosis and eliminating harmful chemicals The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally Developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws Across the globe manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the environmental costs of manufacturing activities Labor unions and craft guilds have played a historic role in the negotiation of worker rights and wages Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world Tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing These are significant dynamics in the ongoing process occurring over the last few decades of manufacture based industries relocating operations to developing world economies where the costs of production are significantly lower than in developed world economies 51 Finance edit From a financial perspective the goal of the manufacturing industry is mainly to achieve cost benefits per unit produced which in turn leads to cost reductions in product prices for the market towards end customers 52 unreliable source This relative cost reduction towards the market is how manufacturing firms secure their profit margins 53 Safety edit Manufacturing has unique health and safety challenges and has been recognized by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda NORA to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues 54 55 Manufacturing and investment edit nbsp Capacity use in manufacturing in Germany and the United StatesSurveys and analyses of trends and issues in manufacturing and investment around the world focus on such things as The nature and sources of the considerable variations that occur cross nationally in levels of manufacturing and wider industrial economic growth Competitiveness and Attractiveness to foreign direct investors In addition to general overviews researchers have examined the features and factors affecting particular key aspects of manufacturing development They have compared production and investment in a range of Western and non Western countries and presented case studies of growth and performance in important individual industries and market economic sectors 56 57 On June 26 2009 Jeff Immelt the CEO of General Electric called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20 of the workforce commenting that the U S has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand 58 Further while U S manufacturing performs well compared to the rest of the U S economy research shows that it performs poorly compared to manufacturing in other high wage countries 59 A total of 3 2 million one in six U S manufacturing jobs have disappeared between 2000 and 2007 60 In the UK EEF the manufacturers organisation has led calls for the UK economy to be rebalanced to rely less on financial services and has actively promoted the manufacturing agenda Major manufacturing nations editSee also Outline of manufacturing By country According to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNIDO China is the top manufacturer worldwide by 2019 output producing 28 7 of the total global manufacturing output followed by the United States Japan Germany and India 61 62 UNIDO also publishes a Competitive Industrial Performance CIP Index which measures the competitive manufacturing ability of different nations The CIP Index combines a nation s gross manufacturing output with other factors like high tech capability and the nation s impact on the world economy Germany topped the 2020 CIP Index followed by China South Korea the United States and Japan 63 64 List of countries by manufacturing output edit These are the top 50 countries by total value of manufacturing output in U S dollars for its noted year according to World Bank 65 List of countries by manufacturing output Rank Country or region Millions of US Year World 16 350 207 20211 nbsp China 4 975 614 20222 nbsp United States 2 497 132 20213 nbsp Japan 1 025 092 20214 nbsp Germany 752 742 20225 nbsp India 456 064 20226 nbsp South Korea 429 058 20227 nbsp Mexico 314 701 20228 nbsp Italy 306 009 20229 nbsp Russia 287 713 202210 nbsp France 265 231 202211 nbsp United Kingdom 259 314 202212 nbsp Indonesia 241 873 202213 nbsp Brazil 213 557 202214 nbsp Ireland 202 566 202215 nbsp Turkey 200 552 202216 nbsp Canada 162 160 201917 nbsp Spain 161 698 202218 nbsp Saudi Arabia 160 032 202219 nbsp Switzerland 150 631 202220 nbsp Thailand 133 867 202221 nbsp Poland 120 308 202222 nbsp Netherlands 115 189 202223 nbsp Argentina 101 318 202224 nbsp Vietnam 101 217 202225 nbsp Bangladesh 100 162 202226 nbsp Singapore 95 696 202227 nbsp Malaysia 95 218 202228 nbsp Australia 91 299 202229 nbsp Iran 82 660 202230 nbsp Sweden 79 351 202231 nbsp Egypt 76 139 202232 nbsp Austria 74 920 202233 nbsp Belgium 73 788 202234 nbsp Philippines 69 696 202235 nbsp Cuba 67 996 202236 nbsp Algeria 67 938 202237 nbsp Nigeria 64 246 202238 nbsp Czech Republic 60 989 202239 nbsp Venezuela 58 237 201440 nbsp Pakistan 51 622 202241 nbsp South Africa 49 714 202242 nbsp Israel 49 658 202143 nbsp United Arab Emirates 49 317 202244 nbsp Puerto Rico 48 796 202245 nbsp Denmark 46 654 202246 nbsp Finland 44 716 202247 nbsp Romania 39 865 202048 nbsp Colombia 39 582 202249 nbsp Portugal 31 254 202250 nbsp Hungary 30 514 2022See also edit nbsp Business portalDiscrete manufacturing Outline of manufacturing Process manufacturing 3D printingReferences edit Kenton Will Manufacturing Investopedia Archived from the original on November 17 2020 Retrieved January 16 2021 Stevenson Angus ed 2010 manufacture n Oxford English Dictionary 3rd ed Oxford Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acres 9780199571123 001 0001 ISBN 978 0199571123 Srivatsan T S Manigandan K Sudarshan T S 2018 Use of Conventional Manufacturing Techniques for Materials In Srivatsan T S Sudarshan T S Manigandan K eds Manufacturing Techniques for Materials Engineering and Engineered Boca Raton CRC Press pp 436 437 ISBN 978 1138099265 Youssef Helmi A El Hofy Hassan 2008 Machining Technology Machine Tools and Operations Boca Raton CRC Press p 1 ISBN 978 1420043396 Human Ancestors Hall Homo sapiens Smithsonian Institution Archived from the original on May 1 2009 Retrieved July 15 2021 Ancient Tool Factory Uncovered BBC News May 6 1999 Archived from the original on March 18 2007 Retrieved July 15 2021 Heinzelin Jean de Clark JD White T Hart W Renne P Woldegabriel G Beyene Y Vrba E April 1999 Environment and Behavior of 2 5 Million Year Old Bouri Hominids Science 284 5414 625 629 Bibcode 1999Sci 284 625D doi 10 1126 science 284 5414 625 PMID 10213682 a b Burke Ariane Archaeology Encyclopedia Americana Archived from the original on May 21 2008 Retrieved July 15 2021 Plummer Thomas 2004 Flaked Stones and Old Bones Biological and Cultural Evolution at the Dawn of Technology American Journal of Physical Anthropology Yearbook of Physical Anthropology Suppl 39 47 118 64 doi 10 1002 APA 20157 PMID 15605391 Haviland William A 2004 Cultural Anthropology The Human Challenge The Thomson Corporation p 77 ISBN 978 0 534 62487 3 Toth Zsuzsanna 2012 The First Neolithic Sites in Central South East European Transect Volume III The Koros Culture in Eastern Hungary In Anders Alexandra Siklosi Zsuzsanna eds Bone Antler and Tusk tools of the Early Neolithic Koros Culture Oxford BAR International Series 2334 a b c Merson John 1990 The Genius That Was China East and West in the Making of the Modern World Woodstock NY The Overlook Press p 69 ISBN 978 0 87951 397 9 Paine Lincoln 2013 The Sea and Civilization A Maritime History of the World New York Random House LLC Jane C Waldbaum 1978 From Bronze to Iron The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean Paul Astrom pp 56 58 ISBN 91 85058 79 3 OCLC 1146527679 Photos E 1989 The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel Rich Iron Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results World Archaeology 20 3 403 421 doi 10 1080 00438243 1989 9980081 JSTOR 124562 S2CID 5908149 Moorey Peter Roger Stuart 1999 Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries The Archaeological Evidence Eisenbrauns ISBN 978 1575060422 Potts D T 2012 A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East p 285 Trzcinski Jerzy Zaremba Malgorzata Rzepka Slawomir Welc Fabian Szczepanski Tomasz June 1 2016 Preliminary Report on Engineering Properties and Environmental Resistance of Ancient Mud Bricks from Tell El Retaba Archaeological Site in the Nile Delta Studia Quaternaria 33 1 47 56 doi 10 1515 squa 2016 0005 ISSN 2300 0384 S2CID 132452242 Archived PDF from the original on November 1 2023 Timeline 8th century 8th century ISBN 978 0191735516 Archived from the original on August 25 2021 Retrieved July 15 2021 de Safita Neathery July 2002 A Brief History Of Paper St Louis Community College Archived from the original on August 22 2018 Retrieved July 15 2021 Marchetti Cesare 1978 A Postmortem Technology Assessment of the Spinning Wheel The Last 1000 Years Technological Forecasting and Social Change 13 pp 91 93 PDF Technological Forecasting and Social Change Archived PDF from the original on May 2 2016 Retrieved July 15 2021 Rosen William 2012 The Most Powerful Idea in the World A Story of Steam Industry and Invention University Of Chicago Press p 237 ISBN 978 0 226 72634 2 Industrial History of European Countries European Route of Industrial Heritage Council of Europe Archived from the original on June 23 2021 Retrieved July 15 2021 a b c Landes David S 1969 The Unbound Prometheus Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge ISBN 978 0 521 09418 4 Gupta Bishnupriya Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence Lancashire India and Shifting Competitive Advantage 1600 1850 PDF International Institute of Social History Department of Economics University of Warwick Archived PDF from the original on September 10 2016 Retrieved July 15 2021 Taylor George Rogers 1951 The Transportation Revolution 1815 1860 ISBN 978 0 87332 101 3 Roe Joseph Wickham 1916 English and American Tool Builders New Haven Connecticut Yale University Press LCCN 16011753 Archived from the original on April 14 2021 Retrieved July 15 2021 Reprinted by McGraw Hill New York and London 1926 LCCN 27 24075 and by Lindsay Publications Inc Bradley Illinois ISBN 978 0 917914 73 7 Hunter Louis C 1985 A History of Industrial Power in the United States 1730 1930 Vol 2 Steam Power Charlottesville University Press of Virginia p 18 Nye David E 1990 Electrifying America Social Meanings of a New Technology Cambridge Massachusetts United States and London England The MIT Press Thomson Ross 1989 The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States University of North Carolina Press ISBN 978 0 8078 1867 1 a b Hounshell David A 1984 From the American System to Mass Production 1800 1932 The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States Baltimore Maryland Johns Hopkins University Press ISBN 978 0 8018 2975 8 LCCN 83016269 OCLC 1104810110 Hunter Louis C 1985 A History of Industrial Power in the United States 1730 1930 Vol 2 Steam Power Charlottesville University Press of Virginia Jerome Harry 1934 Mechanization in Industry National Bureau of Economic Research p xxviii Nye David E 1990 Electrifying America Social Meanings of a New Technology Cambridge Massachusetts and London England MIT Press pp 14 15 Hounshell 1984 Hounshell 1984 p 288 Ohno Taiichi 1988 Toyota Production System Beyond Large Scale Production CRC Press ISBN 978 0 915299 14 0 Shingō Shigeo 1985 A Revolution in Manufacturing The SMED System ISBN 0 915299 03 8 OCLC 12255263 Archived from the original on January 14 2022 Retrieved March 6 2023 Site of BMC Leyland Australia Manufacturing Plant Nomination as an Historic Engineering Marker PDF The Institution of Engineers Australia September 30 1999 Archived PDF from the original on September 4 2021 Retrieved July 30 2021 Ashburn A July 1977 Toyota s famous Ohno system American Machinist 120 123 Sugimori Y Kusunoki K Cho F Uchikawa S 1977 Toyota Production System and Kanban System Materialization of Just in time and Respect for human System International Journal of Production Research 15 6 553 564 doi 10 1080 00207547708943149 ISSN 0020 7543 The Founding of the Association for Manufacturing Excellence Summarized at a Meeting of its Founders February 2 2001 PDF Target Association for Manufacturing Excellence 17 3 23 24 2001 Archived PDF from the original on March 9 2021 Retrieved July 15 2021 Hayes R H Wheelwright S C and Clark K B 1988 Dynamic Manufacturing New York The Free Press quoted in Wassenhove L van and Corbett C J Trade Offs What Trade Offs A Short Essay on Manufacturing Strategy p 1 INSEAD published April 6 1991 accessed September 27 2023 R Sarmiento G Whelan M Thurer and F A Bribiescas Silva Fifty Years of the Strategic Trade Offs Model In Memory and Honor of Wickham Skinner in IEEE Engineering Management Review vol 47 no 2 pp 92 96 1 Second Quarter June 2019 doi 10 1109 EMR 2019 2915978 accessed August 22 2023 Skinner W Focused Factory Harvard Business Review published May 1 1974 a b Wassenhove L van and Corbett C J Trade Offs What Trade Offs A Short Essay on Manufacturing Strategy p 2 INSEAD published April 6 1991 accessed September 27 2023 Haas E A Breakthrough Manaufacturing Harvard Business Review March April 1987 pp 75 81 Skinner W Missing the Links in Manufacturing Strategy in Voss C A ed 1992 Manufacturing Strategy Process and Content Chapman and Hall pp 12 25 Hill T Manufacturing Strategy Developments in Approach and Analytics University of Warwick 1990 accessed 28 September 2023 Hill T 1993 Manufacturing Strategy second edition Macmillan chapter 2 Di Stefano Cristina Fratocchi Luciano Martinez Mora Carmen Merino Fernando August 2 2023 Manufacturing reshoring and sustainable development goals A home versus host country perspective Sustainable Development doi 10 1002 sd 2710 hdl 10045 136803 via CrossRef Young Julie Unit Cost Definition investopedia com Investopedia Archived from the original on May 20 2022 Retrieved May 20 2022 Spence Michael 1984 Cost Reduction Competition and Industry Performance Econometrica Econometrica Journal of the Economic Society Vol 52 No 1 Jan 1984 52 1 101 121 doi 10 2307 1911463 JSTOR 1911463 Archived from the original on March 5 2022 Retrieved May 20 2022 Manufacturing Program Centres for Disease Control and Prevention February 11 2019 Archived from the original on April 3 2019 Retrieved March 14 2019 National Occupational Research Agenda for Manufacturing Centres for Disease Control and Prevention February 4 2019 Archived from the original on June 18 2019 Retrieved March 14 2019 Manufacturing and Investment Around the World An International Survey of Factors Affecting Growth and Performance 2nd ed Manchester Industrial Systems Research 2002 ISBN 0 906321 25 5 OCLC 49552466 Research Industrial Systems 2002 Manufacturing and Investment Around the World An International Survey of Factors Affecting Growth and Performance ISBN 978 0 906321 25 6 Archived from the original on April 1 2021 Retrieved November 19 2015 David Bailey Soyoung Kim June 26 2009 GE s Immelt says U S economy needs industrial renewal Reuters Archived from the original on December 12 2020 Retrieved March 6 2023 Why Does Manufacturing Matter Which Manufacturing Matters February 2012 Archived from the original on October 8 2012 Martin Crutsinger 2007 Factory Jobs 3 Million Lost Since 2000 USA Today Associated Press Archived from the original on December 4 2022 Retrieved March 6 2023 UNIDO Statistics Data Portal Archived from the original on October 5 2021 Retrieved October 5 2021 Leading Manufacturing Nations July 15 2021 Archived from the original on March 4 2022 Retrieved March 14 2022 UNIDO s Competitive Industrial Performance Index 2020 Country Profiles unido org Archived from the original on April 6 2022 Retrieved June 21 2022 Competitive Industrial Performance Index 2020 Country Profiles Report stat unido org Archived from the original on January 10 2022 Retrieved June 21 2022 Manufacturing Value Added Current US World Bank Archived from the original on January 7 2020 Retrieved July 14 2021 Further reading editKalpakjian Serope Steven Schmid 2005 Manufacturing Engineering amp Technology Prentice Hall pp 22 36 951 988 ISBN 978 0 13 148965 3 External links edit nbsp Look up manufacturing in Wiktionary the free dictionary nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manufacturing nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Manufacturing Manufactures New International Encyclopedia 1905 EEF the manufacturers organisation industry group representing uk manufacturers Enabling the Digital Thread for Smart Manufacturing Evidences of Metal Manufacturing History Grant Thornton IBR 2008 Manufacturing industry focus How Everyday Things Are Made video presentations Manufacturing Sector of the National Occupational Research Agenda US 2018 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Manufacturing amp oldid 1204702651, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.