Wikipedia
List of monarchs of Korea
This is a list of monarchs of Korea, arranged by dynasty. Names are romanized according to the South Korean Revised Romanization of Korean. McCune–Reischauer romanizations may be found at the articles about the individual monarchs.
| Monarchs of Korea | |
|---|---|
Sejong the Great, 4th ruler of Joseon | |
| Details | |
| First monarch | Dangun (legendary) |
| Last monarch | Sunjong |
| Formation | 2333 BC (legendary) |
| Abolition | 29 August 1910 |
| Residence | Varies according to dynasty, most recently Gyeongbok Palace in Seoul |
Gojoseon
Gojoseon (2333 BC – 108 BC) was the first Korean kingdom. According to legend, it was founded by Dangun in 2333 BC.[1]
Bronze Age archaeological evidence of Gojoseon culture is found in northern Korea and Liaoning. By the 9th to 4th century BC, various historical and archaeological evidence shows Gojoseon was a flourishing state and a self-declared kingdom.
Both Dangun and Gija are believed to be mythological figures, but recent findings suggest and theorize that since Gojoseon was a kingdom with artifacts dating back to the 4th millennium BC, Dangun and Gija may have been royal or imperial titles used for the monarchs of Gojoseon, hence the use of Dangun for 1900 years.[2]
Earliest mythological rulers
| Dangun Joseon | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| # | Portrait | Name | Period of reign | |
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Dangun Wanggeom | 단군왕검 (檀君王儉) | 2333(?) – ? BC | |
| Gija Joseon | ||||
| # | Portrait | Name | Period of reign | |
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Gija | 기자 (箕子) | 1122(?) – ? BC | |
Historical rulers
| Gojoseon | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| # | Portrait | Name | Period of reign | |
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| ? | Unknown ruler | Unknown | 4th century BC | |
··· | ··· | ··· | ··· | |
| ? | King Bu | 부왕 (否王) | 232–220 BC | |
| ? | King Jun | 준왕 (準王) | 220–195 BC | |
| Wiman Joseon | ||||
| # | Portrait | Name | Period of reign | |
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Wi Man | 위만 (衛滿) | 194–? BC | |
| 2 | Unknown (Son of Wi Man) | Unknown | ?–? | |
| 3 | King Ugeo | 우거왕 (右渠王) | ?–108 BC | |
Buyeo
Buyeo (c. 2nd century BC – 494 AD) ruled in modern-day Northeast China. Although records are sparse and contradictory, it is speculated that in the 1st century BC, Eastern Buyeo branched out, after which the original Buyeo is sometimes referred to as Northern Buyeo. Its remnants were absorbed by the neighboring and brotherhood kingdom of Goguryeo in 494.
Early Eastern Buyeo
| # | Portrait | Personal names | Period of reign | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanhan | |||
| 1 | Hae Buru | 해부루 (解夫婁) | ?–? BC | |
| 2 | Hae Geumwa | 해금와 (解金蛙) | 48–20 BC | |
| 3 | Hae Daeso | 해대소 (解臺素) | 20 BC – 22 AD | |
Galsa Buyeo
| # | Portrait | Name | Period of reign | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Founder of Galsa | 갈사왕 (曷思王) | 21–? | |
| ? | Hae Dodu | 해도두 (解都頭) | ?–68 | |
Later Northern Buyeo
| # | Portrait | Name | Period of reign | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| ? | Butae | 부태왕 (夫台王) | ?–?, 2nd century | |
··· | ··· | ··· | ··· | |
| ? | Wigutae | 위구태왕 (慰仇太王) | ?–?, 2nd century | |
| ? | Ganwigeo | 간위거왕 (簡位居王) | ?–?, 3rd century | |
| ? | Maryeo | 마려왕 (麻余王) | ?–?, 3rd century | |
··· | ··· | ··· | ··· | |
| ? | Uiryeo | 의려왕 (依慮王) | ?–285 | |
| ? | Uira | 의라왕 (依羅王) | 286–? | |
··· | ··· | ··· | ··· | |
| ? | Hyeon | 현왕 (玄王) | ?–346 | |
| ? | Yeoul | 여울왕 (餘蔚王) | ?–384 | |
··· | ··· | ··· | ··· | |
| ? | Jan | 잔 (孱) | ?–494 | |
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo rulers may have used the title of Taewang (太王, "Greatest King").
| # | Portrait | Personal names[a][b] | Period of reign | Posthumous name[c] | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Go Jumong Go Chumo Go Sanghae | 고주몽 (高朱蒙) 고추모 (高鄒牟) 고상해 (高象解) | 37–19 BC | Chumoseong[d] Dongmyeong Dongmyeongseong | 추모성왕 (鄒牟聖王) 동명왕 (東明王) 동명성왕 (東明聖王) | |
| 2 | Hae Yuri Hae Yuryu Hae Nuri | 해유리 (解琉璃) 해유류 (解孺留) 해누리 (解類利) | 19 BC – 18 AD | Yuri[e] Yurimyeong | 유리왕 (琉璃王) 유리명왕 (琉璃明王) | |
| 3 | Hae Muhyul | 해무휼 (解無恤) | 18–44 | Daemusin Daehaejuryu | 대무신왕 (大武神王) 대해주류왕 (大解朱留王) | |
| 4 | Hae Saekju | 해색주 (解色朱) | 44–48 | Minjung | 민중왕 (閔中王) | |
| 5 | Hae U Hae Aeru Hae Mangnae | 해우 (解憂) 해애루 (解愛婁) 해막래 (解莫來) | 48–53 | Mobon | 모본왕 (慕本王) | |
| 6 | Go Gung Go Eosu | 고궁 (高宮) 고어수 (高於漱) | 53–146[f] | Taejo [the Great] Gukjo | 태조[대]왕 (太祖[大]王) 국조왕 (國祖王) | |
| 7 | Go Suseong | 고수성 (高遂成) | 146–165 | Chadae | 차대왕 (次大王) | |
| 8 | Go Baekgo Go Baekgu | 고백고 (高伯固) 고백구 (高伯句) | 165–179 | Sindae | 신대왕 (新大王) | |
| 9 | Go Nam-mu | 고남무 (高男武) | 179–197 | Gogukcheon Gukyang | 고국천왕 (故國川王) 국양왕 (國襄王) | |
| 10 | Go Yeon-u Go Iimo | 고연우 (高延優) 고이이모 (高伊夷謨) | 197–227 | Sansang | 산상왕 (山上王) | |
| 11 | Go Uwigeo Go Wigung Go Gyoche | 고우위거 (高憂位居) 고위궁 (高位宮) 고교체 (高郊彘) | 227–248 | Dongcheon Dongyang | 동천왕 (東川王) 동양왕 (東襄王) | |
| 12 | Go Yeonbul | 고연불 (高然弗) | 248–270 | Jungcheon Jungyang | 중천왕 (中川王) 중양왕 (中襄王) | |
| 13 | Go Yangno Go Yagu | 고약로 (高藥盧) 고약우 (高若友) | 270–292 | Seocheon Seoyang | 서천왕 (西川王) 서양왕 (西襄王) | |
| 14 | Go Sangbu Go Sapsiru | 고상부 (高相夫) 고삽시루 (高歃矢婁) | 292–300 | Bongsang Chigal | 봉상왕 (烽上王) 치갈왕 (雉葛王) | |
| 15 | Go Eulbul Go Ubul | 고을불 (高乙弗) 고우불 (高憂弗) | 300–331 | Micheon Hoyang | 미천왕 (美川王) 호양왕 (好壤王) | |
| 16 | Go Sayu Go Yu Go Soe | 고사유 (高斯由) 고유 (高劉) 고쇠 (高釗) | 331–371 | Gogugwon | 고국원왕 (故國原王) | |
| 17 | Go Gubu | 고구부 (高丘夫) | 371–384 | Sosurim | 소수림왕 (小獸林王) | |
| 18 | Go Yiryeon Go Eojiji | 고이련 (高伊連) 고어지지 (高於只支) | 384–391 | Gogugyang | 고국양왕 (故國壤王) | |
| 19 | Go Damdeok | 고담덕 (高談德) | 391–413 | Gwanggaeto | 광개토왕 (廣開土王) | |
| 20 | Go Georyeon Go Yeon | 고거련 (高巨連) 고연 (高璉) | 413–491 | Jangsu | 장수왕 (長壽王) | |
| 21 | Go Na-un Go Un | 고나운 (高羅雲) 고운 (高雲) | 491–519 | Munjamyeong | 문자명왕 (文咨明王) | |
| 22 | Go Heung-an Go An | 고흥안 (高興安) 고안 (高安) | 519–531 | Anjang | 안장왕 (安藏王) | |
| 23 | Go Boyeon Go Yeon | 고보연 (高寶延) 고연 (高延) | 531–545 | Anwon | 안원왕 (安原王) | |
| 24 | Go Pyeongseong | 고평성 (高平成) | 545–559 | Yangwon Yanggang | 양원왕 (陽原王) 양강왕 (陽崗王) | |
| 25 | Go Yangseong Go Yang Go Tang | 고양성 (高陽成) 고양 (高陽) 고탕 (高湯) | 559–590 | Pyeongwon Pyeonggang | 평원왕 (平原王) 평강왕(平岡王) | |
| 26 | Go Won | 고원 (高元) | 590–618 | Yeongyang Pyeongyang | 영양왕 (嬰陽王) 평양왕 (平陽王) | |
| 27 | Go Geonmu Go Mu Go Seong | 고건무 (高建武) 고무 (高武) 고성 (高成) | 618–642 | Yeongnyu | 영류왕 (榮留王) | |
| 28 | Go Bojang Go Jang | 고보장 (高寶藏) 고장 (高藏) | 642–668 | None | None | |
Baekje
Baekje (18 BC – 660 AD) was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Temple names were the same as personal names, unless noted otherwise.
| # | Portrait | Personal names | Period of reign | Posthumous name | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Buyeo Onjo | 부여온조 (扶餘溫祚) | 18 BC – 28 AD | Onjo | 온조왕 (溫祚王) | |
| 2 | Buyeo Daru | 부여다루 (扶餘多婁) | 28–77 | Daru | 다루왕 (多婁王) | |
| 3 | Buyeo Giru | 부여기루 (扶餘己婁) | 77–128 | Giru | 기루왕 (己婁王) | |
| 4 | Buyeo Gaeru | 부여개루 (扶餘蓋婁) | 128–166 | Gaeru | 개루왕 (蓋婁王) | |
| 5 | Buyeo Chogo Buyeo Sogo Buyeo Sokgo | 부여초고 (扶餘肖古) 부여소고 (扶餘素古) 부여속고 (扶餘速古) | 166–214 | Chogo Sogo Sokgo | 초고왕 (肖古王) 소고왕 (素古王) 속고왕 (速古王) | |
| 6 | Buyeo Gusu Buyeo Guisu | 부여구수 (扶餘仇首) 부여귀수 (扶餘貴須) | 214–234 | Gusu Guisu | 구수왕 (仇首王) 귀수왕 (貴須王) | |
| 7 | Buyeo Saban Buyeo Sabi Buyeo Sai | 부여사반 (扶餘沙泮) 부여사비 (扶餘沙沸) 부여사이 (扶餘沙伊) | 234 | Saban Sabi Sai | 사반왕 (沙泮王) 사비왕 (沙沸王) 사이왕 (沙伊王) | |
| 8 | Buyeo Goi Buyeo Gui Buyeo Gomo | 부여고이 (扶餘古爾) 부여구이 (扶餘久爾) 부여고모 (扶餘古慕) | 234–286 | Goi Gui Gomo | 고이왕 (古爾王) 구이왕 (久爾王) 고모왕 (古慕王) | |
| 9 | Buyeo Chaekgye Buyeo Cheonggye | 부여책계 (扶餘責稽) 부여청계 (扶餘靑稽) | 286–298 | Chaekgye Cheonggye | 책계왕 (責稽王) 청계왕 (靑稽王) | |
| 10 | Buyeo Bunseo | 부여분서 (扶餘汾西) | 298–304 | Bunseo | 분서왕 (汾西王) | |
| 11 | Buyeo Biryu | 부여비류 (扶餘比流) | 304–344 | Biryu | 비류왕 (比流王) | |
| 12 | Buyeo Gye | 부여계 (扶餘契) | 344–346 | Gye | 계왕 (契王) | |
| 13 | Buyeo Gu | 부여구 (扶餘句) | 346–375 | Geunchogo Chogo Sokgo Jogo | 근초고왕 (近肖古王) 초고왕 (肖古王) 속고왕 (速古王) 조고왕 (照古王) | |
| 14 | Buyeo Su | 부여수 (扶餘須) | 375–384 | Geun-gusu Geun-guisu Guisu Guiryu Guso | 근구수왕 (近仇首王) 근귀수왕 (近貴首王) 귀수왕 (貴首王) 귀류왕 (貴流王) 구소왕 (久素王) | |
| 15 | Buyeo Chimnyu | 부여침류 (扶餘枕流) | 384–385 | Chimnyu | 침류왕 (枕流王) | |
| 16 | Buyeo Jinsa Buyeo Hwi | 부여진사 (扶餘辰斯) 부여휘 (扶餘暉) | 385–392 | Jinsa | 진사왕 (辰斯王) | |
| 17 | Buyeo Asin Buyeo Abang Buyeo Ahwa Buyeo Ami | 부여아신 (扶餘阿莘) 부여아방 (扶餘阿芳) 부여아화 (扶餘阿花) 부여아미 (扶餘阿美) | 392–405 | Asin Abang Ahwa Ami | 아신왕 (阿莘王) 아방왕 (阿芳王) 아화왕 (阿花王) 아미왕 (阿美王) | |
| 18 | Buyeo Yeong Buyeo Jeon | 부여영 (扶餘映) 부여전 (扶餘腆) | 405–420 | Jeonji Jikji Jinji | 전지왕 (腆支王) 직지왕 (直支王) 진지왕 (眞支王) | |
| 19 | Unknown | Unknown | 420–427 | Gu-isin | 구이신왕 (久爾辛王) | |
| 20 | Buyeo Biyu Buyeo Bi | 부여비유 (扶餘毗有) 부여비 (扶餘毗) | 427–455 | Biyu Piryu | 비유왕 (毗有王) 피류왕 (避流王) | |
| 21 | Buyeo Gyeong Buyeo Gyeongsa | 부여경 (扶餘慶) 부여경사 (扶餘慶司) | 455–475 | Gaero Geun-gaeru | 개로왕 (蓋鹵王) 근개루왕 (近蓋婁王) | |
| 22 | Buyeo Do Buyeo Modo | 부여도 (扶餘都) 부여모도 (扶餘牟都) | 475–477 | Munju | 문주왕 (文周王) | |
| 23 | Buyeo Samgeun Buyeo Samgeol Buyeo Imgeol | 부여삼근 (扶餘三斤) 부여삼걸 (扶餘三乞) 부여임걸 (扶餘壬乞) | 477–479 | Samgeun Mun-geun | 삼근왕 (三斤王) 문근왕 (文斤王) | |
| 24 | Buyeo Modae Buyeo Dae Buyeo Mamo Buyeo Malda | 부여모대 (扶餘牟大) 부여대 (扶餘大) 부여마모 (扶餘摩牟) 부여말다 (扶餘末多) | 479–501 | Dongseong Malda | 동성왕 (東城王) 말다왕 (末多王) | |
| 25 | Buyeo Sama Buyeo Yung | 부여사마 (扶餘斯摩) 부여융 (扶餘隆) | 501–523 | Muryeong Sama | 무령왕 (武寧王) 사마왕 (斯摩王) | |
| 26 | Buyeo Myeongnong Buyeo Myeong | 부여명농 (扶餘明禯) 부여명 (扶餘明) | 523–554 | Seong Myeong Seongmyeong | 성왕 (聖王) 명왕 (明王) 성명왕 (聖明王) | |
| 27 | Buyeo Chang | 부여창 (扶餘昌) | 554–598 | Wideok Chang | 위덕왕 (威德王) 창왕 (昌王) | |
| 28 | Buyeo Gye | 부여계 (扶餘季) | 598–599 | Hye Heon | 혜왕 (惠王) 헌왕 (獻王) | |
| 29 | Buyeo Seon Buyeo Hyosun | 부여선 (扶餘宣) 부여효순 (扶餘孝順) | 599–600 | Beop | 법왕 (法王) | |
| 30 | Buyeo Jang Buyeo Seodong | 부여장 (扶餘璋) 부여서동 (扶餘薯童) | 600–641 | Mu Mugang Mugwang | 무왕 (武王) 무강왕 (武康王) 무광왕 (武廣王) | |
| 31 | Buyeo Uija | 부여의자 (扶餘義慈) | 641–660 | None | None | |
| (32) | Buyeo Pung Buyeo Pungjang | 부여풍 (扶餘豊) 부여풍장 (扶餘豊璋) | 660–663 | None | None | |
Silla
Silla (57 BC – 935 AD) was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. In the early years, Silla was ruled by the Pak, Seok, and Kim families. Rulers of Silla had various titles, including Isageum, Maripgan, and Daewang. Like some Baekje kings, some declared themselves emperor.
- Hyeokgeose Geoseogan 혁거세 거서간 赫居世居西干 (57 BC – 4 AD)
- Namhae Chachaung 남해 차차웅 南解次次雄 (4–24)
- Yuri Isageum 유리이사금 儒理尼師今 (24–57) (Kings Yuri to Heurhae bore the Korean title Isageum, an old word for "ruler")
- Talhae Isageum 탈해이사금 脫解尼師今 (57–80)
- Pasa Isageum 파사이사금 婆娑尼師今 (80–112)
- Jima Isageum 지마이사금 祇摩尼師今 (112–134)
- Ilseong Isageum 일성이사금 逸聖尼師今 (134–154)
- Adalla Isageum 아달라이사금 阿達羅尼師今 (154–184)
- Beolhyu Isageum 벌휴이사금 伐休尼師今 (184–196)
- Naehae Isageum 내해이사금 奈解尼師今 (196–230)
- Jobun Isageum 조분이사금 助賁尼師今 (230–247)
- Cheomhae Isageum 첨해이사금 沾解尼師今 (247–261)
- Michu Isageum 미추이사금 味鄒尼師今 (262–284)
- Yurye Isageum 유례이사금 儒禮尼師今 (284–298)
- Girim Isageum 기림이사금 基臨尼師今 (298–310)
- Heulhae Isageum 흘해이사금 訖解尼師今 (310–356)
- Naemul Maripgan 내물마립간 奈勿麻立干 (356–402) (Kings Naemul to Soji bore the Korean title Maripgan, an old word for "ruler")
- Silseong Maripgan 실성마립간 實聖麻立干 (402–417)
- Nulji Maripgan 눌지마립간 訥祇麻立干 (417–458)
- Jabi Maripgan 자비마립간 慈悲麻立干 (458–479)
- Soji Maripgan 소지마립간 炤知麻立干 (479–500)
- King Jijeung 지증왕 智證王 (500–514) (Kings Jijeung to Gyeongsun bore the title Wang (the modern Korean word for "king"), with the exceptions noted below)
- King Beopheung 법흥왕 法興王 (514–540)
- King Jinheung 진흥왕 眞興王 (540–576)
- King Jinji 진지왕 眞智王 (576–579)
- King Jinpyeong 진평왕 眞平王 (579–632)
- Queen Seondeok 선덕여왕 善德王 (632–647)
- Queen Jindeok 진덕여왕 眞德王 (647–654)
- King Taejong Muyeol 태종무열왕 太宗武烈王 (654–661)
- King Munmu 문무왕 文武王 (661–681)
- King Sinmun 신문왕 神文王 (681–692)
- King Hyoso 효소왕 孝昭王 (692–702)
- King Seongdeok 성덕왕 聖德王 (702–737)
- King Hyoseong 효성왕 孝成王 (737–742)
- King Gyeongdeok 경덕왕 景德王 (742–765)
- King Hyegong 혜공왕 惠恭王 (765–780)
- King Seondeok 선덕왕 宣德王 (780–785)
- King Wonseong 원성왕 元聖王 (785–798)
- King Soseong 소성왕 昭聖王 (798–800)
- King Aejang 애장왕 哀莊王 (800–809)
- King Heondeok 헌덕왕 憲德王 (809–826)
- King Heungdeok 흥덕왕 興德王 (826–836)
- King Huigang 희강왕 僖康王 (836–838)
- King Minae 민애왕 閔哀王 (838–839)
- King Sinmu 신무왕 神武王 (839)
- King Munseong 문성왕 文聖王 (839–857)
- King Heonan 헌안왕 憲安王 (857–861)
- King Gyeongmun 경문왕 景文王 (861–875)
- King Heongang 헌강왕 憲康王 (875–886)
- King Jeonggang 정강왕 定康王 (886–887)
- Queen Jinseong 진성여왕 眞聖王 (887–897)
- King Hyogong 효공왕 孝恭王 (897–912)
- King Sindeok 신덕왕 神德王 (912–917)
- King Gyeongmyeong 경명왕 景明王 (917–924)
- King Gyeongae 경애왕 景哀王 (924–927)
- King Gyeongsun 경순왕 敬順王 (927–935)
Gaya confederacy
The Gaya confederacy (42–562) consisted of several small statelets. All rulers of Gaya bore the title Wang ("King").
Geumgwan Gaya
Geumgwan Gaya (42–532) was one of the Gaya confederacy.
| # | Portrait | Name | Period of reign[3] | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Suro | 수로왕 (首露王) | 42–199 | |
| 2 | Geodeung | 거등왕 (居登王) | 199–259 | |
| 3 | Mapum | 마품왕 (麻品王) | 259–291 | |
| 4 | Geojilmi | 거질미왕 (居叱彌王) | 291–346 | |
| 5 | Isipum | 이시품왕 (伊尸品王) | 346–407 | |
| 6 | Jwaji | 좌지왕 (坐知王) | 407–421 | |
| 7 | Chwihui | 취희왕 (吹希王) | 421–451 | |
| 8 | Jilji | 질지왕 (銍知王) | 451–492 | |
| 9 | Gyeomji | 겸지왕 (鉗知王) | 492–521 | |
| 10 | Guhyeong | 구형왕 (仇衡王) | 521–532 | |
Daegaya
Daegaya (42–562) was one of the Gaya confederacy.
| # | Portrait | Name | Period of reign | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Ijinasi | 이진아시왕 (伊珍阿豉王) | 42 AD–? | |
··· | ··· | ··· | ··· | |
| 3 or 4 | Geumnim | 금림왕 (錦林王) | ?–? | |
··· | ··· | ··· | ··· | |
| Unknown | Haji | 하지왕 (荷知王) | ?–? | |
··· | ··· | ··· | ··· | |
| 6 or 7 | Gasil | 가실왕 (嘉悉王 or 嘉實王) | ?–? | |
··· | ··· | ··· | ··· | |
| 9 | Inoe | 이뇌왕 (異腦王) | ?–? | |
| 10 or 16 | Wolgwang or Doseolji | 월광태자 (月光太子) or 도설지왕 (道設智王) | ?–562 | |
Tamna
Tamna (2337 BC(?)–938 AD) was an ancient local kingdom on the Jeju Island.
Balhae
Balhae (698–926) was an ancient Korean kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo. Balhae occupied southern parts of Northeast China, Primorsky Krai, and the northern part of the Korean peninsula.
| # | Portrait | Personal name | Period of reign | Posthumous name (諡號) | Era name (年號) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Dae Jo-yeong | 대조영 (大祚榮) | 698–719 | Go | 고왕 (高王) | None | None | |
| 2 | Dae Mu-ye | 대무예 (大武藝) | 719–737 | Mu | 무왕 (武王) | Inan | 인안 (仁安) | |
| 3 | Dae Heum-mu | 대흠무 (大欽茂) | 737–793 | Mun | 문왕 (文王) | Daeheung Boryeok | 대흥 (大興) 보력 (寶曆) | |
| 4 | Dae Won-ui | 대원의 (大元義) | 793 | None | None | None | None | |
| 5 | Dae Hwa-yeo | 대화여 (大華璵) | 793–794 | Seong | 성왕 (成王) | Jungheung | 중흥 (中興) | |
| 6 | Dae Sung-rin | 대숭린 (大嵩璘) | 794–809 | Gang | 강왕 (康王) | Jeongryeok | 정력 (正曆) | |
| 7 | Dae Won-yu | 대원유 (大元瑜) | 809–812 | Jeong | 정왕 (定王) | Yeongdeok | 영덕 (永德) | |
| 8 | Dae Eon-ui | 대언의 (大言義) | 812–817? | Hui | 희왕 (僖王) | Jujak | 주작 (朱雀) | |
| 9 | Dae Myeong-chung | 대명충 (大明忠) | 817?–818? | Gan | 간왕 (簡王) | Taesi | 태시 (太始) | |
| 10 | Dae In-su | 대인수 (大仁秀) | 818?–830 | Seon | 선왕 (宣王) | Geonheung | 건흥 (建興) | |
| 11 | Dae Ijin | 대이진 (大彝震) | 830–857 | Unknown | Unknown | Hamhwa | 함화 (咸和) | |
| 12 | Dae Geonhwang | 대건황 (大虔晃) | 857–871 | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
| 13 | Dae Hyeonseok | 대현석 (大玄錫) | 871–895 | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
| 14 | Dae Wihae | 대위해 (大瑋瑎) | 895–906 | None | None | Unknown | Unknown | |
| 15 | Dae Inseon | 대인선 (大諲譔) | 906–926 | None | None | Unknown | Unknown | |
Later Baekje
Later Baekje (900–936) was founded by Gyeon Hwon, who was a general during Later Silla's period of decline. Thus began the Later Three Kingdoms period. Later Baekje met its downfall at the hands of Gyeon Hwon himself, who later led the Goryeo armies alongside Taejo of Goryeo to capture Singeom, the prince of Later Baekje, who had betrayed Gyeon Hwon.
| # | Portrait | Personal name | Period of reign | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Gyeon Hwon | 견훤 (甄萱) | 900–935 | |
| 2 | Gyeon Singeom | 견신검 (甄神劍) | 935–936 | |
Later Goguryeo
Taebong (901–918), also known as Majin or Later Goguryeo, was established by Gung-ye, an outcast prince of Silla. Gung-Ye joined General Yang-Gil's rebellion, and rose through the ranks. He eventually assassinated Yang-Gil and established a new kingdom, naming it Later Goguryeo. Gung-Ye turned out to be a tyrant, and was overthrown by his generals, opening the way for General Wang Geon, who established Goryeo.
| # | Portrait | Personal name | Period of reign | Era name (年號) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Gung-ye | 궁예 (弓裔) | 901–918 | Mutae Seongchaek Sudeok-Manse Jeong-gae | 무태 (武泰) 성책 (聖冊) 수덕만세 (水德萬歲) 정개 (政開) | |
Goryeo dynasty
Goryeo (918–1392) was ruled by the Wang Dynasty. The first ruler had the temple name Taejo, which means "great progenitor", and was applied to the first kings of both Goryeo and Joseon, as they were also the founders of the Wang and Yi Dynasties respectively. Starting with Gwangjong, rulers of Goryeo styled themselves emperors, with the first three rulers elevated to that title posthumously. With the Mongol conquest, however, the title of the ruler was demoted to a king, or "Wang."
The next twenty-three kings (until Wonjong) are also referred to by their temple names, ending in jong. Beginning with Chungnyeol (the twenty-fifth king), all the remaining kings of Goryeo had the title Wang ("King") as part of their temple names. Era names are in bracket where available.
| # | Portrait | Personal name | Period of reign | Courtesy name (C)/ Mongol name (M) / Pseudonym (Ps) | Temple name (廟號) (T) / Posthumous name (諡號) (P) / Posthumous name given by Mongols (MP) | Era name (年號) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Wang Geon | 왕건 (王建) | 918–943 | Yakcheon (C) | 약천 (若天, C) | Taejo (T) Sinseong (P) | 태조 (太祖, T) 신성 (神聖, P) | Cheonsu | 천수 (天授) | |
| 2 | Wang Mu | 왕무 (王武) | 943–945 | Sunggeon (C) | 승건 (承乾, C) | Hyejong Uigong (P) | 혜종 (惠宗, T) 의공 (義恭, P) | |||
| 3 | Wang Yo | 왕요 (王堯) | 945–949 | Uicheon (C) | 의천 (義天, C) | Jeongjong (T) Munmyeong (P) | 정종 (定宗, T) 문명 (文明, P) | |||
| 4 | Wang So | 왕소 (王昭) | 949–975 | Ilhwa (C) | 일화 (日華, C) | Gwangjong (T) Daesung (P) | 광종 (光宗, T) 대성 (大成, P) | Gwangdeok Junpung | 광덕 (光德) 준풍 (峻豊) | |
| 5 | Wang Ju | 왕주 (王伷) | 975–981 | Jangmin (C) | 장민 (長民, C) | Gyeongjong (T) Heonhwa (P) | 경종 (景宗, T) 헌화 (獻和, P) | |||
| 6 | Wang Chi | 왕치 (王治) | 981–997 | On-go (C) | 온고 (溫古, C) | Seongjong (T) Munui (P) | 성종 (成宗, T) 문의 (文懿, P) | |||
| 7 | Wang Song | 왕송 (王訟) | 997–1009 | Hyosin (C) | 효신 (孝伸, C) | Mokjong (T) Seonyang (P) | 목종 (穆宗, T) 선양 (宣讓, P) | |||
| 8 | Wang Sun | 왕순 (王詢) | 1009–1031 | Anse (C) | 안세 (安世, C) | Hyeonjong (T) Wonmun (P) | 현종 (顯宗, T) 원문 (元文, P) | |||
| 9 | Wang Heum | 왕흠 (王欽) | 1031–1034 | Wonryang (C) | 원량 (元良, C) | Deokjong (T) Gyeonggang (P) | 덕종 (德宗, T) 경강 (敬康, P) | |||
| 10 | Wang Hyeong | 왕형 (王亨) | 1034–1046 | Sinjo (C) | 신조 (申照, C) | Jeongjong (T) Yonghye (P) | 정종 (靖宗, T) 용혜 (容惠, P) | |||
| 11 | Wang Hwi | 왕휘 (王徽) | 1046–1083 | Chok-yu (C) | 촉유 (燭幽, C) | Munjong (T) Inhyo (P) | 문종 (文宗, T) 인효 (仁孝, P) | |||
| 12 | Wang Hun | 왕훈 (王勳) | 1083 | Uigong (C) | 의공 (義恭, C) | Sunjong (T) Seonhye (P) | 순종 (順宗, T) 선혜 (宣惠, P) | |||
| 13 | Wang Un | 왕운 (王運) | 1083–1094 | Gyecheon (C) | 계천 (繼天, C) | Seonjong (T) Sahyo (P) | 선종 (宣宗, T) 사효 (思孝, P) | |||
| 14 | Wang Uk | 왕욱 (王昱) | 1094–1095 | None | None | Heonjong (T) Hoehyo (P) | 헌종 (獻宗, T) 사효 (懷孝, P) | |||
| 15 | Wang Ong | 왕옹 (王顒) | 1095–1105 | Cheonsang (C) | 천상 (天常, C) | Sukjong (T) Myeonghyo (P) | 숙종 (肅宗, T) 명효 (明孝, P) | |||
| 16 | Wang U | 왕우 (王俁) | 1105–1122 | Semin (C) | 세민 (世民, C) | Yejong (T) Munhyo (P) | 예종 (睿宗, T) 문효 (文孝, P) | |||
| 17 | Wang Hae | 왕해 (王楷) | 1122–1146 | Inpyo (C) | 인표 (仁表, C) | Injong (T) Gonghyo (P) | 인종 (仁宗, T) 공효 (恭孝, P) | |||
| 18 | Wang Hyeon | 왕현 (王晛) | 1146–1170 | Ilsung (C) | 일승 (日升, C) | Uijong (T) Janghyo (P) | 의종 (毅宗, T) 장효 (莊孝, P) | |||
| 19 | Wang Ho | 왕호 (王晧) | 1170–1197 | Jidan (C) | 지단 (之旦, C) | Myeongjong (T) Gwanghyo (P) | 명종 (明宗, T) 광효 (光孝, P) | |||
| 20 | Wang Tak | 왕탁 (王晫) | 1197–1204 | Jihwa (C) | 지화 (至華, C) | Sinjong (T) Jeonghyo (P) | 신종 (神宗, T) 정효 (靖孝, P) | |||
| 21 | Wang Yeong | 왕영 (王韺) | 1204–1211 | Bulpi (C) | 불피 (不陂, C) | Huijong (T) Seonghyo (P) | 희종 (熙宗, T) 성효 (成孝, P) | |||
| 22 | Wang O | 왕오 (王祦) | 1211–1213 | Daehwa (C) | 대화 (大華, C) | Gangjong (T) Wonhyo (P) | 강종 (康宗, T) 원효 (元孝, P) | |||
| 23 | Wang Cheol | 왕철 (王皞) | 1213–1259 | Cheon-u (C) | 천우 (天祐, C) | Gojong (T) Anhyo (P) Chungheon (MP) | 고종 (高宗, T) 안효 (安孝, P) 충헌 (忠憲, MP) | |||
| 24 | Wang Sik | 왕식 (王禃) | 1259–1274 | Ilsin (C) | 일신 (日新, C) | Wonjong (T) Sunhyo (P) Chunggyeong (MP) | 원종 (元宗, T) 순효 (順孝, P) 충경 (忠敬, MP) | |||
| 25 | Wang Geo | 왕거 (王昛) | 1274–1298 1298-1308 | None | None | Chungnyeol (MP) Gyeonghyo (P) | 충렬 (忠烈, MP) 경효 (景孝, P) | |||
| 26 | Wang Jang | 왕장 (王璋) | 1298 1308–1313 | Jungang (C) Iǰirbuka (M) | 중앙 (仲昻, C) 익지례보화 (益知禮普花, M) | Chungseon (MP) Heonhyo (P) | 충선 (忠宣, MP) 헌효 (憲孝, P) | |||
| 27 | Wang Do | 왕도 (王燾) | 1313–1330 1332–1339 | Uihyo (C) Aratnašri (M) | 의효 (宜孝, C) 아랄특눌실리 (阿剌忒訥失里, M) | Chungsuk (MP) Uihyo (P) | 충숙 (忠肅, MP) 의효 (懿孝, P) | |||
| 28 | Wang Jeong | 왕정 (王禎) | 1330–1332 1339–1344 | Buddhašri (M) | 보탑실리 (寶塔實里, M) | Chunghye (MP) Heonhyo (P) | 충혜 (忠惠, MP) 헌효 (獻孝, P) | |||
| 29 | Wang Heun | 왕흔 (王昕) | 1344–1348 | Padma dorji (M) | 팔사마타아지 (八思麻朶兒只, M) | Chungmok (MP) Hyeonghyo (P) | 충목 (忠穆, MP) 현효 (顯孝, P) | |||
| 30 | Wang Jeo | 왕저 (王㫝) | 1348–1351 | Čosgen dorji (M) | 미사감타아지 (迷思監朶兒只, M) | Chungjeong (MP) | 충정 (忠定, MP) | |||
| 31 | Wang Jeon | 왕전 (王顓) | 1351–1374 | Bayan Temür (M) Ijae / Ikdang (Ps) | 백안첩목아 (伯顔帖木兒, M) 이재 / 익당 (Ps) | Gongmin (P) Gyeonghyo (P) | 공민 (恭愍, P) 경효 (敬孝, P) | |||
| 32 | Wang U | 왕우 (王禑) | 1374–1388 | None | None | U | None | |||
| 33 | Wang Chang | 왕창 (王昌) | 1388–1389 | None | None | Chang | None | |||
| 34 | Wang Yo | 왕요 (王瑤) | 1389–1392 | None | None | Gongyang | 공양 (恭讓, P) | |||
Joseon dynasty
Joseon (1392–1910) followed Goryeo. In 1897, when Joseon became the Korean Empire, some of the Joseon kings were posthumously raised to the rank of emperors.
Joseon monarchs had temple names ending in jo or jong. Jo was given to the first kings/emperors of new lines within the dynasty, with the first king/emperor having the special name (Taejo), which means "great progenitor" (see also Goryeo). Jong was given to all other kings/emperors.
Two kings, Yeonsangun and Gwanghaegun, were not given temple names after their reigns ended.
Each monarch had a posthumous name that included either the title Wang ("King"), Hwangje ("Emperor"), Daewang ("King X the Great"), or Daeje ("Emperor X the Great"). For the sake of consistency, the title "King/Emperor" has been added to each monarch's temple name in the list below.
| # | Portrait | Personal name | Period of reign | Courtesy name (C) / Pseudonym (Ps) | Temple name (廟號) (T) / Posthumous name (諡號) (P) | Era name (年號) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Yi Seong-gye Yi Dan | 이성계 (李成桂) 이단 (李旦) | 1392–1398 | Gunjin (C) Songheon (Ps) | 군진 (君晋, C) 송헌 (松軒, Ps) | Taejo (T) Emperor Go (P) | 태조 (太祖, T) 신무 (神武, P) 고황제 (高皇帝, P) | |||
| 2 | Yi Bang-gwa Yi Gyeong | 이방과 (李芳果) 이경 (李曔) | 1398–1400 | Gwangwon (C) | 광원 (光遠, C) | Jeongjong (T) Gongjeong (P) | 정종 (定宗, T) 공정 (恭靖, P) | |||
| 3 | Yi Bang-won | 이방원 (李芳遠) | 1400–1418 | Yudeok (C) | 유덕 (遺德, C) | Taejong (T) Gongjeong (P) | 태종 (太宗, T) 공정 (恭定, P) | |||
| 4 | Yi Do | 이도 (李祹) | 1418–1450 | Wonjeong (C) | 원정 (元正, C) | Sejong (T) Jangheon (P) | 세종 (世宗, T) 장헌 (莊憲, P) | |||
| 5 | Yi Hyang | 이향 (李珦) | 1450–1452 | Hwiji (C) | 휘지 (輝之, C) | Munjong (T) Gongsun (P) | 문종 (文宗, T) 공순 (恭順, P) | |||
| 6 | Yi Hong-wi | 이홍위 (李弘暐) | 1452–1455 | None | None | Danjong (T) Gongui (P) | 단종 (端宗, T) 공의 (恭懿, P) | |||
| 7 | Yi Yu | 이유 (李瑈) | 1455–1468 | Suji (C) | 수지 (粹之, C) | Sejo (T) Hyejang (P) | 세조 (世祖, T) 혜장 (惠莊, P) | |||
| 8 | Yi Hwang | 이황 (李晄) | 1468–1469 | Myeingjo (C) Pyeongnam (C) | 명조 (明照, C) 평남 (平南, C) | Yejong (T) Yangdo (P) | 예종 (睿宗, T) 양도 (襄悼, P) | |||
| 9 | Yi Hyeol | 이혈 (李娎) | 1469–1494 | None | None | Seongjong (T) Gangjeong (P) | 성종 (成宗, T) 강정 (康靖, P) | |||
| 10 | Yi Yung | 이융 (李㦕) | 1494–1506 | None | None | Yeonsangun | 연산군 (燕山君) | |||
| 11 | Yi Yeok | 이역 (李懌) | 1506–1544 | Nakcheon (C) | 낙천 (樂天, C) | Jungjong (T) Gonghui (P) | 중종 (中宗, T) 공희 (恭僖, P) | |||
| 12 | Yi Ho | 이호 (李峼) | 1544–1545 | Cheonyun (C) | 천윤 (天胤, C) | Injong (T) Yeongjeong (P) | 인종 (仁宗, T) 영정 (榮靖, P) | |||
| 13 | Yi Hwan | 이환 (李峘) | 1545–1567 | Daeyang (C) | 대양 (對陽, C) | Myeongjong (T) Gongheon (P) | 명종 (明宗, T) 공헌 (恭憲, P) | |||
| 14 | Yi Yeon | 이연 (李昖) | 1567–1608 | None | None | Seonjo (T) Sogyeong (P) | 선조 (宣祖, T) 소경 (昭敬, P) | |||
| 15 | Yi Hon | 이혼 (李琿) | 1608–1623 | None | None | Gwanghaegun | 광해군 (光海君) | |||
| 16 | Yi Jong | 이종 (李倧) | 1623–1649 | Cheonyun (C) Hwabaek (C) Songchang (Ps) | 천윤 (天胤, C) 화백 (和伯, C) 송창 (松窓, Ps) | Injo (T) | 인조 (仁祖, T) | |||
| 17 | Yi Ho | 이호 (李淏) | 1649–1659 | Jeongyeon (C) Juk-o (Ps) | 정연 (靜淵, C) 죽오(竹梧, Ps) | Hyojong (T) | 효종 (孝宗, T) | |||
| 18 | Yi Yeon | 이연 (李棩) | 1659–1674 | Gyeongjik (C) | 경직 (景直, C) | Hyeonjong (T) | 현종 (顯宗, T) | |||
| 19 | Yi Sun | 이순 (李焞) | 1674–1720 | Myeongbo (C) | 명보 (明譜, C) | Sukjong (T) | 숙종 (肅宗, T) | |||
| 20 | Yi Yun | 이윤 (李昀) | 1720–1724 | Hwiseo (C) | 휘서 (輝瑞, C) | Gyeongjong (T) | 경종 (景宗, T) | |||
| 21 | Yi Geum | 이금 (李昑) | 1724–1776 | Gwangsuk (C) Yangseongheon (Ps) | 광숙 (光叔, C) 양성헌 (養性軒, Ps) | Yeongjo (T) | 영조 (英祖, T) | |||
| 22 | Yi San | 이산 (李祘) | 1776–1800 | Hyeongun (C) Hongjae (Ps) | 형운 (亨運, C) 홍재 (弘齋, Ps) | Jeongjo (T) | 정조 (正祖, T) | |||
| 23 | Yi Gong | 이공 (李玜) | 1800–1834 | Gongbo (C) Sunjae (Ps) | 공보(公寶, C) 순재 (純齋, Ps) | Sunjo (T) | 순조 (純祖, T) | |||
| 24 | Yi Hwan | 이환 (李烉) | 1834–1849 | Muneung (C) Wonheon (Ps) | 문응 (文應, C) 원헌 (元軒, Ps) | Heonjong (T) | 헌종 (憲宗, T) | |||
| 25 | Yi Byeon | 이변 (李昪) | 1849–1864 | Doseung (C) Daeyongjae (Ps) | 도승 (道升, C) 대용재 (大勇齋, Ps) | Cheoljong (T) | 철종 (哲宗, T) | |||
| 26 | Yi Myeong-bok Yi Hui | 이명복 (李命福) 이희 (李㷩) | 1864–1897 (1897–1907) * | Seongrim (C) Juyeon (Ps) | 성림 (聖臨, C) 주연 (珠淵, Ps) | Gojong (T) * Emperor Tae (P) * | 고종 (高宗, T) * 태황제 (太皇帝, P) * | Gaeguk Geonyang Gwangmu * | 개국 (開國) 건양 (建陽) 광무 (光武) * | |
* see Korean Empire section
Korean Empire
In 1897, King Gojong proclaimed Joseon to be the Korean Empire, which lasted until 1910. Technically, the emperors can be referred to by their era names rather than their temple names, but the latter are commonly used.
| # | Portrait | Personal name | Period of reign | Courtesy name (C) / Pseudonym (Ps) | Temple name (廟號) (T) / Posthumous name (諡號) (P) | Era name (年號) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | Westernized | Hangul/Hanja | |||
| 1 | Yi Myeong bok Yi Hui | 이명복 (李命福) 이희 (李㷩) | 1897–1907 | Seongrim (C) Juyeon (Ps) | 성림 (聖臨, C) 주연 (珠淵, Ps) | Gojong (T) Emperor Tae (P) | 고종 (高宗, T) 태황제 (太皇帝, P) | Gwangmu | 광무 (光武) | |
| 2 | Yi Cheok | 이척 (李坧) | 1907–1910 | Gundang (C) Jeongheon (Ps) | 군방 (君邦, C) 정헌 (正軒, Ps) | Sunjong (T) Emperor Hyo (P) | 순종 (純宗, T) 효황제 (孝皇帝, P) | Yunghui | 융희 (隆熙) | |
See also
- Family tree of Korean monarchs
- List of Mahan confederacy monarchs
- Prime Minister of the Korean Empire (1895–1910)
- Resident-General of Korea, List of Japanese residents-general of Korea (1905–1910)
- Governor-General of Chōsen, List of Japanese governors-general of Korea (1910–1945)
- Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, List of presidents (1919–1948)
- North Korea (1948–present), Supreme Leader (North Korean title) / List of heads of state of North Korea
- South Korea (1948–present), List of presidents of South Korea
Notes
- ^ Goguryeo kings had the surname Go, except for the second Yuri through fifth Mobon, whose surnames are recorded as Hae. All of the kings are recorded to belong to the same patrilineal bloodline. It is not clear whether the two surnames are different transcription of the same name, or evidence of a power struggle.
- ^ The Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa, and sometimes other records mention "other names," "birth names," "childhood names," or "personal names."
- ^ The king names generally derive from the location of the king's burial, and do not necessarily correspond to the Chinese concept of Posthumous name.
- ^ The Jolbon line names and dates are from the Samguk Sagi. The Wei shu History of the Wei dynasty gives the following names: 朱蒙 Jumong, 閭達 Yeodal, 始閭諧 Shiryeohae, 如栗 Yeoyul, and 莫來 Mangnae. The legendary line had already been formed with some variants in the early 5th century when king Jangsu built a monument for his father and Goguryeo made contact with the Northern Wei. The inscription of that monument gives these names: 鄒牟 Chumo, 儒留 Yuryu, and 大朱留 Daejuryu. The connections between those names are not clear.
- ^ Goguryeo kings had the surname Go, except for the second (Yuri) through fifth (Mobon), whose surnames are recorded as Hae. All of the kings are recorded to belong to the same patrilineal bloodline. It is not clear whether the two surnames are different transcription of the same name, or evidence of a power struggle.
- ^ According to the Book of the Later Han, Taejo died in 121, and his son Chadae stepped up.
References
- ^ Hyung Il Pai (2000). Constructing "Korean" Origins: A Critical Review of Archaeology, Historiography, and Racial Myth in Korean State-formation Theories. Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 89–92. ISBN 978-0-674-00244-9.
- ^
- Seth, Michael J. (2010). A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 443. ISBN 978-0-7425-6717-7.
- "An extreme manifestation of nationalism and the family cult was the revival of interest in Tangun, the mythical founder of the first Korean state... Most textbooks and professional historians, however, treat him as a myth."
- Stark, Miriam T. (2008). Archaeology of Asia. John Wiley & Sons. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-4051-5303-4.
- "Although Kija may have truly existed as a historical figure, Tangun is more problematical."
- Schmid, Andre (2013). Korea Between Empires. Columbia University Press. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-231-50630-4.
- "Most [Korean historians] treat the [Tangun] myth as a later creation."
- Peterson, Mark (2009). Brief History of Korea. Infobase Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4381-2738-5.
- "The Tangun myth became more popular with groups that wanted Korea to be independent; the Kija myth was more useful to those who wanted to show that Korea had a strong affinity to China."
- Hulbert, H. B. (2014). The History of Korea. Routledge. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-317-84941-4.
- "If a choice is to be made between them, one is faced with the fact that the Tangun, with his supernatural origin, is more clearly a mythological figure than Kija."
- ^ Il-yeon: Samguk Yusa: Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea, translated by Tae-Hung Ha and Grafton K. Mintz. Epilogue, page 354. Silk Pagoda (2006). ISBN 1-59654-348-5 - note: the dates for Geojilmi's reign go there until 344
- Byeon Tae-seop (변태섭) (1999). 韓國史通論 (Hanguksa tongnon) (Outline of Korean history), 4th ed. ISBN 978-89-445-9101-3.
- Cumings, Bruce (1997). Korea's place in the sun. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31681-0.
- Kim, Jung Bae (1997). "Formation of the ethnic Korean nation and the emergence of its ancient kingdom states". Korean history: Discovery of its characteristics and developments. Seoul: Hollym. pp. 27–36. ISBN 978-1-56591-177-2.
- Nahm, Andrew C. (1988). Korea: Tradition and Transformation — A History of the Korean People. Hollym International. ISBN 978-0-930878-56-6.
- (in Korean only)
- http://www.rulers.org