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List of emperors of the Han dynasty

January 01, 1970

The emperors of the Han dynasty were the supreme heads of government during the second imperial dynasty of China; the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) followed the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and preceded the Three Kingdoms (220–265 AD). The era is conventionally divided between the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and Eastern Han (25–220 AD) periods.

Western Han miniature pottery infantry (foreground) and cavalry (background); in 1990, when the tomb complex of Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157 – 141 BC) and his wife Empress Wang Zhi (d. 126 BC) was excavated north of Yangling, over 40,000 miniature pottery figures were unearthed. All of them were one-third life size, smaller than the 8,000-some fully life size soldiers of the Terracotta Army buried alongside the First Emperor of Qin. Smaller miniature figurines, on average 60 centimeters (24 in) in height, have also been found in various royal Han tombs where they were placed to guard the deceased tomb occupants in their afterlife.[1]

The Han dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader (Liu Bang), known posthumously as Emperor Gao (r. 202 –195 BC) or Gaodi. The longest reigning emperor of the dynasty was Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), or Wudi, who reigned for 54 years. The dynasty was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang, but he was killed during a rebellion on 6 October 23 AD.[2] The Han dynasty was reestablished by Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu (r. 25–57 AD) or Guangwu Di, who claimed the throne on 5 August 25 AD.[3][4] The last Han emperor, Emperor Xian (r. 189–220 AD), was a puppet monarch of Chancellor Cao Cao (155–220 AD), who dominated the court and was made King of Wei.[5] On 11 December 220, Cao's son Pi usurped the throne as Emperor Wen of Wei (r. 220–226 AD) and ended the Han dynasty.[6]

The emperor was the supreme head of government.[7] He appointed all of the highest-ranking officials in central, provincial, commandery, and county administrations.[8] He also functioned as a lawgiver, the highest court judge, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and high priest of the state-sponsored religious cults.[9]

Naming conventions edit

Emperor edit

 
Emperor Guangwu of Han (r. 25–57 AD), as depicted by the Tang artist Yan Liben (600–673 AD)
 
A gilded bronze handle (with traces of red pigment) in the shape of a dragon's head, made during the Eastern Han; depending on circumstance, the dragon could be a symbol of either good or bad omen for the Han emperors.[10]

In ancient China, the rulers of the Shang (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC) and Zhou (c. 1050 – 256 BC) dynasties were referred to as kings (王 wang).[11] By the time of the Zhou dynasty, they were also referred to as Sons of Heaven (天子 Tianzi).[11] By 221 BC, the King of Qin, Ying Zheng, conquered and united all the Warring States of ancient China. To elevate himself above the Shang and Zhou kings of old, he accepted the new title of emperor (皇帝 huangdi) and is known to posterity as the First Emperor of Qin (Qin Shi Huang). The new title of emperor was created by combining the titles for the Three Sovereigns (Sanhuang) and Five Emperors (Wudi) from Chinese mythology.[12] This title was used by each successive ruler of China until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911.[13]

Posthumous, temple, and era names edit

From the Shang to Sui (581–618 AD) dynasties, Chinese rulers (both kings and emperors) were referred to by their posthumous names in records and historical texts.[13] Temple names, first used during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157–141 BC), were used exclusively in later records and historical texts when referring to emperors who reigned during the Tang (618–907 AD), Song (960–1279 AD), and Yuan (1271–1368 AD) dynasties.[14] During the Ming (1368–1644 AD) and Qing (1644–1911 AD) dynasties, a single era name was used for each emperor's reign and became the preferred way to refer to Ming and Qing emperors in historical texts.[14]

Use of the era name was formally adopted during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC), yet its origins can be traced back further. The oldest method of recording years—which had existed since the Shang—set the first year of a ruler's reign as year one.[14] When an emperor died, the first year of a new reign period would begin.[14] This system was changed by the 4th century BC when the first year of a new reign period did not begin until the first day of the lunar New Year following a ruler's death.[14] When Duke Huiwen of Qin assumed the title of king in 324 BC, he changed the year count of his reign back to the first year.[14] For his newly adopted calendar established in 163 BC, Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157 BC) also set the year count of his reign back to the beginning.[15]

Since six was considered a lucky number, Han Emperors Jing and Wu changed the year count of their reigns back to the beginning every six years.[15] Since every six-year period was successively marked as yuannian (元年), eryuan (二元), sanyuan (三元), and so forth, this system was considered too cumbersome by the time it reached the fifth cycle wuyuan sannian (五元三年) in 114 BC.[15] In that year a government official suggested that the Han court retrospectively rename every "beginning" with new characters, a reform Emperor Wu accepted in 110 BC.[16] Since Emperor Wu had just performed the religious feng (封) sacrifice at Mount Taishan, he named the new era yuanfeng (元封). This event is regarded as the formal establishment of era names in Chinese history.[16] Emperor Wu changed the era name once more when he established the 'Great Beginning' (太初 Taichu) calendar in 104 BC.[17] From this point until the end of Western Han, the court established a new era name every four years of an emperor's reign. By Eastern Han there was no set interval for establishing new era names, which were often introduced for political reasons and celebrating auspicious events.[17]

Regents and empress dowagers edit

 
The story of Jin Midi. Wu Liang shrines, Jiaxiang, Shandong province, China, 2nd century AD; an ink rubbing of an Eastern-Han stone-carved relief

At times, especially when an infant emperor was placed on the throne, a regent, often the empress dowager or one of her male relatives, would assume the duties of the emperor until he reached his majority. Sometimes the empress dowager's faction—the consort clan—was overthrown in a coup d'état. For example, Empress Lü Zhi (d. 180 BC) was the de facto ruler of the court during the reigns of the child emperors Qianshao (r. 188–184 BC) and Houshao (r. 184–180 BC).[18] Her faction was overthrown during the Lü Clan Disturbance of 180 BC and Liu Heng was named emperor (posthumously known as Emperor Wen).[19] Before Emperor Wu died in 87 BC, he had invested Huo Guang (d. 68 BC), Jin Midi (d. 86 BC), and Shangguan Jie (上官桀)(d. 80 BC) with the power to govern as regents over his successor Emperor Zhao of Han (r. 87–74 BC). Huo Guang and Shangguan Jie were both grandfathers to Empress Shangguan (d. 37 BC), wife of Emperor Zhao, while the ethnically-Xiongnu Jin Midi was a former slave who had worked in an imperial stable. After Jin died and Shangguan was executed for treason, Huo Guang was the sole ruling regent. Following his death, the Huo-family faction was overthrown by Emperor Xuan of Han (r. 74–49 BC), in revenge for Huo Guang poisoning his wife Empress Xu Pingjun (d. 71 BC) so that he could marry Huo's daughter Empress Huo Chengjun (d. 54 BC).[20]

Since regents and empress dowagers were not officially counted as emperors of the Han dynasty, they are excluded from the list of emperors below.

List of emperors edit

See also: Han emperors family tree

Below is a complete list of emperors of the Han dynasty, including their personal, posthumous, and era names. Excluded from the list are de facto rulers such as regents and empress dowagers.

Han dynasty sovereigns
Sovereign Personal name Reigned from Reigned until Posthumous name[a] Temple name Era name Range of years[b]
Western Han dynasty (202 BC–9 AD)
Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang 劉邦 28 February[22]
202 BC 		1 June[23]
195 BC[24] 		Emperor Gao 高皇帝 Taizu 太祖 did not exist[25]
Emperor Hui Liu Ying 劉盈 23 June[26]
195 BC 		26 September[27]
188 BC[28] 		Emperor Xiaohui 孝惠皇帝 - did not exist[25]
Emperor Qianshao Liu Gong 劉恭 19 October[27]
188 BC 		15 June[29]
184 BC[30] 		did not exist - did not exist[25]
Emperor Houshao Liu Hong 劉弘 15 June[29]
184 BC 		14 November[31]
180 BC[30] 		did not exist - did not exist[25]
Emperor Wen Liu Heng 劉恆 14 November[26]
180 BC 		6 July[32]
157 BC[33] 		Emperor Xiaowen 孝文皇帝 Taizong 太宗 Qianyuan 前元 179–164 BC[34]
Houyuan 後元 163–156 BC[34]
Emperor Jing Liu Qi 劉啟 14 July[35]
157 BC 		9 March[36]
141 BC[33] 		Emperor Xiaojing 孝景皇帝 - Qianyuan 前元 156–150 BC[37]
Zhongyuan 中元 149–143 BC[37]
Houyuan 後元 143–141 BC[37]
Emperor Wu Liu Che 劉徹 10 March[26]
141 BC 		29 March[38]
87 BC[39] 		Emperor Xiaowu 孝武皇帝 Shizong 世宗 Jianyuan 建元 141–135 BC[40]
Yuanguang 元光 134–129 BC[40]
Yuanshuo 元朔 128–123 BC[40]
Yuanshou 元狩 122–117 BC[40]
Yuanding 元鼎 116–111 BC[40]
Yuanfeng 元封 110–105 BC[40]
Taichu 太初 104–101 BC[40]
Tianhan 天漢 100–97 BC[40]
Taishi 太始 96–93 BC[40]
Zhenghe 征和 92–89 BC[40]
Houyuan 後元 88–87 BC[40]
Emperor Zhao Liu Fuling 劉弗陵 30 March[35]
87 BC 		5 June[35]
74 BC[41] 		Emperor Xiaozhao 孝昭皇帝 - Shiyuan 始元 86–80 BC[42]
Yuanfeng 元鳳 80–75 BC[42]
Yuanping 元平 74 BC[42]
Marquis of Haihun Liu He 劉賀 18 July[35]
74 BC 		14 August[35]
74 BC[30] 		did not exist - Yuanping 元平 74 BC[43]
Emperor Xuan Liu Bingyi 劉病已 10 September[35]
74 BC 		10 January[32]
49 BC[41] 		Emperor Xiaoxuan 孝宣皇帝 Zhongzong 中宗 Benshi 本始 73–70 BC[44]
Dijie 地節 69–66 BC[44]
Yuankang 元康 65–61 BC[44]
Shenjue 神爵 61–58 BC[44]
Wufeng 五鳳 57–54 BC[44]
Ganlu 甘露 53–50 BC[44]
Huanglong 黃龍 49 BC[44]
Emperor Yuan Liu Shi 劉奭 29 January[35]
49 BC 		8 July[45]
33 BC[46] 		Emperor Xiaoyuan 孝元皇帝 Gaozong 高宗 Chuyuan 初元 48–44 BC[47]
Yongguang 永光 43–39 BC[47]
Jianzhao 建昭 38–34 BC[47]
Jingning 竟寧 33 BC[47]
Emperor Cheng Liu Ao 劉驁 4 August[48]
33 BC 		17 April[49]
7 BC[46] 		Emperor Xiaocheng 孝成皇帝 Tongzong 統宗 Jianshi 建始 32–28 BC[50]
Heping 河平 28–25 BC[50]
Yangshuo 陽朔 24–21 BC[50]
Hongjia 鴻嘉 20–17 BC[50]
Yongshi 永始 16–13 BC[50]
Yuanyan 元延 12–9 BC[50]
Suihe 綏和 8–7 BC[50]
Emperor Ai Liu Xin 劉欣 7 May[51]
7 BC 		15 August[49]
1 BC[46] 		Emperor Xiao'ai 孝哀皇帝 - Jianping 建平 6–3 BC[52]
Yuanshou 元壽 2–1 BC[52]
Emperor Ping Liu Kan 劉衎 17 October[53]
1 BC 		3 February[54]
6 AD[46] 		Emperor Xiaoping 孝平皇帝 Yuanzong 元宗 Yuanshi 元始 1–5 AD[55]
Ruzi Ying[c] Liu Ying 劉嬰 17 April[56]
6 AD 		10 January[56]
9 AD[46] 		did not exist - Jushe 居攝 6–8 AD[57]
Chushi 初始 9 AD
Xin dynasty (9–23 AD)
Continuation of Han dynasty
Gengshi Emperor Liu Xuan 劉玄 11 March[58]
23 AD 		November[58]
25 AD[59] 		King Wushun of Huaiyang 淮陽王 Yanzong 延宗 Gengshi 更始 23–25 AD[60]
Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD)
Emperor Guangwu Liu Xiu 劉秀 5 August[61]
25 AD 		29 March[62]
57 AD[63] 		Emperor Guangwu 光武皇帝 Shizu 世祖 Jianwu 建武 25–56 AD[64]
Jianwu-
zhongyuan 		建武中元 56–57 AD[64]
Emperor Ming Liu Zhuang 劉莊 29 March[61]
57 AD 		5 September[62]
75 AD[65] 		Emperor Xiaoming 孝明皇帝 Xianzong 顯宗 Yongping 永平 57–75 AD[66]
Emperor Zhang Liu Da 劉炟 5 September[61]
75 AD 		9 April[62]
88 AD[67] 		Emperor Xiaozhang 孝章皇帝 Suzong 肃宗 Jianchu 建初 76–84 AD[68]
Yuanhe 元和 84–87 AD[68]
Zhanghe 章和 87–88 AD[68]
Emperor He Liu Zhao 劉肇 9 April[61]
88 AD 		13 February[62]
106 AD[69] 		Emperor Xiaohe 孝和皇帝 Muzong 穆宗 Yongyuan 永元 89–105 AD[70]
Yuanxing 元興 105 AD[71]
Emperor Shang Liu Long 劉隆 13 February[61]
106 AD 		21 September[62]
106 AD[72] 		Emperor Xiaoshang 孝殤皇帝 - Yanping 延平 106 AD[73]
Emperor An Liu Hu 劉祜 23 September[61]
106 AD 		30 April[62]
125 AD[74] 		Emperor Xiao'an 孝安皇帝 Gongzong 恭宗 Yǒngchū 永初 107–113 AD[75]
Yuanchu 元初 114–120 AD[75]
Yongning 永寧 120–121 AD[75]
Jianguang 建光 121–122 AD[75]
Yanguang 延光 122–125 AD[75]
Marquess of Beixiang Liu Yi 劉懿 18 May[61]
125 AD 		10 December[62]
125 AD[76] 		did not exist - Yanguang 延光 125 AD[77]
Emperor Shun Liu Bao 劉保 16 December[61]
125 AD 		20 September[62]
144 AD[78] 		Emperor Xiaoshun 孝順皇帝 Jingzong 敬宗 Yongjian 永建 126–132 AD[79]
Yangjia 陽嘉 132–135 AD[79]
Yonghe 永和 136–141 AD[79]
Han'an 漢安 142–144 AD[79]
Jiankang 建康 144 AD[79]
Emperor Chong Liu Bing 劉炳 20 September[61]
144 AD 		15 February[62]
145 AD[80] 		Emperor Xiaochong 孝沖皇帝 - Yongxi 永熹 145 AD[81]
Emperor Zhi Liu Zuan 劉纘 6 March[61]
145 AD 		26 July[62]
146 AD[80] 		Emperor Xiaozhi 孝質皇帝 - Benchu 本初 146 AD[81]
Emperor Huan Liu Zhi 劉志 1 August[61]
146 AD 		25 January[62]
168 AD[82] 		Emperor Xiaohuan 孝桓皇帝 Weizong 威宗 Jianhe 建和 147–149 AD[83]
Heping 和平 150 AD[83]
Yuanjia 元嘉 151–153 AD[83]
Yongxing 永興 153–154 AD[83]
Yongshou 永壽 155–158 AD[83]
Yanxi 延熹 158–167 AD[83]
Yongkang 永康 167 AD[83]
Emperor Ling Liu Hong 劉宏 17 February[61]
168 AD 		13 May[62]
189 AD[84] 		Emperor Xiaoling 孝靈皇帝 - Jianning 建寧 168–172 AD[85]
Xiping 熹平 172–178 AD[85]
Guanghe 光和 178–184 AD[85]
Zhongping 中平 184–189 AD[85]
Emperor Shao Liu Bian 劉辯 15 May[61]
189 AD 		28 September[62]
189 AD[76] 		King Huai of Hongnong 少皇帝 - Guangxi 光熹 189 AD[86]
Zhaoning 昭寧 189 AD[86]
Emperor Xian Liu Xie 劉協 28 September[61]
189 AD 		11 December[d]
220 AD[87] 		Emperor Xiaoxian 孝獻皇帝 - Yonghan 永漢 189 AD[88]
Chuping 初平 190–193 AD[88]
Xingping 興平 194–195 AD[88]
Jian'an 建安 196–220 AD[88]
Yankang 延康 220 AD[88]

Timeline edit

Emperor Xian of HanLiu BianEmperor Ling of HanEmperor Huan of HanEmperor Zhi of HanEmperor Chong of HanEmperor Shun of HanMarquess of BeixiangEmperor An of HanEmperor Shang of HanEmperor He of HanEmperor Zhang of HanEmperor Ming of HanEmperor Guangwu of HanLiu PenziGengshi EmperorRuzi YingEmperor Ping of HanEmperor Ai of HanEmperor Cheng of HanEmperor Yuan of HanEmperor Xuan of HanMarquis of HaihunEmperor Zhao of HanEmperor Wu of HanEmperor Jing of HanEmperor Wen of HanEmperor Houshao of HanEmperor Qianshao of HanEmperor Hui of HanEmperor Gaozu of Han

Legend:

  • Orange denotes Western Han monarchs
  • Teal denotes Han monarchs following the collapse of the Xin dynasty but prior to the Eastern Han
  • Pink denotes Eastern Han monarchs

See also edit

References edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Besides Liu Bang and Liu Xiu, the word Xiao (孝 "filial") was prefixed to all posthumous names, although it is usually omitted by scholars. The word huangdi (皇帝 emperor) is also abbreviated. Commonly only the second character is used; e.g., Wudi (武帝, Emperor Wu) for Xiaowu Huangdi (孝武皇帝).[21]
  2. ^ The years of the Chinese lunisolar calendar do not correspond exactly with the years given in the column for era names. Some years given in the table also belong to two reign periods because some era names were adopted before the beginning of the following year.
  3. ^ Ruzi was prince, rather than emperor of Han. Officially, the throne of emperor of Han was vacant during 6 AD to 9 AD.
  4. ^ de Crespigny, Rafe (2010). A Biography of Cao Cao 155-220 AD. Brill. p. 450. ISBN 978-90-04-18830-3. On 11 December [...] Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi received the abdication of the last emperor of Han. [...] Some authorities give the date of abdication as 25 November [...] This is the date upon which Emperor Xian issued an edict acalling upon Cao Pi to take the throne, but the ceremonial transfer of sovereignty was carried out two weeks later

Citations edit

  1. ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 34–36.
  2. ^ de Crespigny 2006, p. 568.
  3. ^ Hymes 2000, p. 36.
  4. ^ Beck 1990, p. 21.
  5. ^ Beck 1990, pp. 354–355.
  6. ^ Hymes 2000, p. 16.
  7. ^ de Crespigny 2006; Bielenstein 1980, p. 143; Hucker 1975, pp. 149–150.
  8. ^ Wang 1949, pp. 141–142.
  9. ^ Wang 1949, pp. 141–143; Ch'ü 1972, p. 71; de Crespigny 2006, pp. 1216–1217.
  10. ^ de Visser 2003, pp. 43–49.
  11. ^ a b Wilkinson 1998, p. 105.
  12. ^ Wilkinson 1998, pp. 105–106.
  13. ^ a b Wilkinson 1998, p. 106.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Wilkinson 1998.
  15. ^ a b c Wilkinson 1998, p. 177; Sato 1991, p. 278.
  16. ^ a b Wilkinson 1998, p. 177; Sato 1991, pp. 278–279.
  17. ^ a b Wilkinson 1998, p. 178.
  18. ^ Loewe & Twitchett 1986, p. 135; Hansen 2000, pp. 115–116.
  19. ^ Loewe & Twitchett 1986, pp. 136–137; Torday 1997, p. 78.
  20. ^ Loewe & Twitchett 1986, pp. 174–187; Huang 1988, p. 44–46.
  21. ^ Dubs 1945, p. 29.
  22. ^ Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xix–xx; Hulsewé 1995, pp. 226–230.
  23. ^ Grand Scribe's Records, p. 108.
  24. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), p. 28
  25. ^ a b c d Bo Yang 1977, pp. 433–443.
  26. ^ a b c Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xix–xx; Hulsewé 1995, pp. 226–230; Vervoorn 1990, pp. 311–312.
  27. ^ a b Grand Scribe's Records, pp. 114–115.
  28. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), p. 28, 31
  29. ^ a b Grand Scribe's Records, p. 122.
  30. ^ a b c Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Loewe & Twitchett (1986), p. xxxix
  31. ^ Grand Scribe's Records, pp. 136.
  32. ^ a b Vervoorn 1990, p. 312.
  33. ^ a b Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 28, 33.
  34. ^ a b Bo Yang (1977), 444–447.
  35. ^ a b c d e f g Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xix–xx; Vervoorn 1990, p. 312.
  36. ^ Grand Scribe's Records, p. 213.
  37. ^ a b c Bo Yang (1977), 447–452.
  38. ^ Hymes 2000, p. 11; Hulsewé 1995, pp. 226–230.
  39. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 28, 36 and Loewe (2000), 273–280.
  40. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Bo Yang (1977), 452–471.
  41. ^ a b Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 40.
  42. ^ a b c Bo Yang (1977), 471–473.
  43. ^ Bo Yang (1977), 473.
  44. ^ a b c d e f g Bo Yang (1977), 473–480.
  45. ^ Loewe & Twitchett 1986, p. 225.
  46. ^ a b c d e Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 40, 42.
  47. ^ a b c d Bo Yang (1977), 481–484.
  48. ^ Loewe & Twitchett 1986, p. 225; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313; Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xx.
  49. ^ a b Loewe & Twitchett 1986, p. 227; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313.
  50. ^ a b c d e f g Bo Yang (1977), 485–489.
  51. ^ Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xx; Vervoorn 1990, p. 312.
  52. ^ a b Bo Yang (1977), 490.
  53. ^ Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xx; Hymes 2000, p. 12; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313.
  54. ^ Hymes 2000, p. 13; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313.
  55. ^ Bo Yang (1977), 495. While traditional sources do not give an exact date when the Yuanshi era was announced, it was implied that the first year of Yuanshi did not start until the first month of the lunar calendar — ergo, in 1 AD. See, e.g., Ban Gu, Book of Han, vol. 12.
  56. ^ a b Loewe & Twitchett 1986, p. 231; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313.
  57. ^ Bo Yang (1977), 495–496.
  58. ^ a b Loewe & Twitchett 1986, pp. 246–251; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313.
  59. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from de Crespigny (2007), 558–560.
  60. ^ Bo Yang (1977) 500–501.
  61. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xx; de Crespigny 2006, p. xxxiii; Loewe & Twitchett 1986, pp. xl–xli.
  62. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Loewe & Twitchett 1986, pp. xl–xli; de Crespigny 2006, p. xxxiii.
  63. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 44 and de Crespigny (2006), 557–566.
  64. ^ a b Bo Yang (1977), 501–509.
  65. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 44, 49 and de Crespigny (2007), 604–609.
  66. ^ Bo Yang (1977), 509–513.
  67. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 44, 49 and de Crespigny (2007), 495–500.
  68. ^ a b c Bo Yang (1977), 514–516.
  69. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50 and de Crespigny (2007), 588–592.
  70. ^ Bo Yang (1977), 517–523.
  71. ^ Bo Yang (1977), 523.
  72. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50 and de Crespigny (2007), 531.
  73. ^ Bo Yang (1977), 524.
  74. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50 and de Crespigny (2007), 580–583.
  75. ^ a b c d e Bo Yang (1977), 524–529.
  76. ^ a b Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Twitchett and Loewe (1986), xl.
  77. ^ Bo Yang (1977), 529.
  78. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50–51 and de Crespigny (2007), 473–478.
  79. ^ a b c d e Bo Yang (1977), 530–534.
  80. ^ a b Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50–51.
  81. ^ a b Bo Yang (1977), 535.
  82. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50–51 and de Crespigny (2007), 595–603
  83. ^ a b c d e f g Bo Yang (1977), 535–541.
  84. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50, 52 and de Crespigny (2007), 511–517.
  85. ^ a b c d Bo Yang (1977), 541–547.
  86. ^ a b Bo Yang (1977), 547
  87. ^ Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50, 55.
  88. ^ a b c d e Bo Yang (1977), 547–564.

Sources edit

  • Barbieri-Low, Anthony J.; Yates, Robin D.S. (2015). "Recognized Rulers of the Qin and Han Dynasties and the Xin Period". Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-30053-8.
  • Beck, B. J. Mansvelt (1990). The Treatises of Later Han: Their Author, Sources, Contents, and Place in Chinese Historiography. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-08895-5.
  • Bielenstein, Hans (1980). The Bureaucracy of Han Times. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22510-6.
  • Bo Yang (1977). 中國歷史年表 [Timeline of Chinese History]. Sing-Kuang Book Company Ltd.
  • Ch'ü, T'ung-tsu (1972). Han Dynasty China: Volume 1: Han Social Structure. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-95068-6.
  • de Crespigny, Rafe (2006). "Chronology Part II: Later Han". A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.
  • Dubs, Homer H. (1945). "Chinese Imperial Designations". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 65 (1): 26–33. doi:10.2307/594743. JSTOR 594743.
  • Hulsewé, Anthony François Paulus (1995). Remnants of Han Law. Sinica Leidensia, ed. Institutum Sinologicum Lugduno Batavum, Vol 9. Brill Publishers. pp. 226–230.
  • Hansen, Valerie (2000). The Open Empire: A History of China to 1600. New York & London: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-97374-7.
  • Huang, Ray (1988). China: A Macro History. Armonk & London: M.E. Sharpe Inc., an East Gate Book. ISBN 978-0-87332-452-6.
  • Hucker, Charles O. (1975). China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0887-6.
  • Hymes, Robert (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11004-4..
  • Loewe, Michael; Twitchett, Denis, eds. (1986). The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
  • Loewe, Michael (2000). A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han, and Xin Periods (221 BC - AD 24). Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10364-1.
  • Paludan, Ann. (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: the Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05090-3.
  • Sato, Masayuki (1991). "Comparative Ideas of Chronology". History and Theory. 30 (2): 275–301. doi:10.2307/2505559. JSTOR 2505559.
  • Torday, Laszlo (1997). Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History. Durham: Durham Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-900838-03-0.
  • Vervoorn, Aat Emile (1990). "Chronology of Dynasties and Reign Periods". Men of the Cliffs and Caves. Chinese University Press. ISBN 978-962-201-415-2.
  • de Visser, M.W. (2003). Dragon in China and Japan. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7661-5839-9.
  • Wang, Yu-ch'uan (1949). "An Outline of the Central Government of the Former Han Dynasty". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 12 (1/2): 134–187. doi:10.2307/2718206. JSTOR 2718206.
  • Wilkinson, Endymion (1998). Chinese History: A Manual. Harvard University Asia Center of the Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-12378-6.
  • Sima, Qian (1994) [c. 91 BC]. The Grand Scribe's Records. Vol. 2. Translated by W.H. Nienhauser; W. Cao; Scott W. Galer; W.H. Nienhauser; D.W. Pankenier. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34022-1.

External links edit

  • Chinese History - Han Dynasty 漢 (206 BC-8 AD, 25–220) emperors and rulers, from Chinaknowledge.de
  •   Media related to Han Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons

January 01, 1970
list, emperors, dynasty, emperors, dynasty, were, supreme, heads, government, during, second, imperial, dynasty, china, dynasty, followed, dynasty, preceded, three, kingdoms, conventionally, divided, between, western, eastern, periods, western, miniature, pott. The emperors of the Han dynasty were the supreme heads of government during the second imperial dynasty of China the Han dynasty 202 BC 220 AD followed the Qin dynasty 221 206 BC and preceded the Three Kingdoms 220 265 AD The era is conventionally divided between the Western Han 202 BC 9 AD and Eastern Han 25 220 AD periods Western Han miniature pottery infantry foreground and cavalry background in 1990 when the tomb complex of Emperor Jing of Han r 157 141 BC and his wife Empress Wang Zhi d 126 BC was excavated north of Yangling over 40 000 miniature pottery figures were unearthed All of them were one third life size smaller than the 8 000 some fully life size soldiers of the Terracotta Army buried alongside the First Emperor of Qin Smaller miniature figurines on average 60 centimeters 24 in in height have also been found in various royal Han tombs where they were placed to guard the deceased tomb occupants in their afterlife 1 The Han dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader Liu Bang known posthumously as Emperor Gao r 202 195 BC or Gaodi The longest reigning emperor of the dynasty was Emperor Wu r 141 87 BC or Wudi who reigned for 54 years The dynasty was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang but he was killed during a rebellion on 6 October 23 AD 2 The Han dynasty was reestablished by Liu Xiu known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu r 25 57 AD or Guangwu Di who claimed the throne on 5 August 25 AD 3 4 The last Han emperor Emperor Xian r 189 220 AD was a puppet monarch of Chancellor Cao Cao 155 220 AD who dominated the court and was made King of Wei 5 On 11 December 220 Cao s son Pi usurped the throne as Emperor Wen of Wei r 220 226 AD and ended the Han dynasty 6 The emperor was the supreme head of government 7 He appointed all of the highest ranking officials in central provincial commandery and county administrations 8 He also functioned as a lawgiver the highest court judge commander in chief of the armed forces and high priest of the state sponsored religious cults 9 Contents 1 Naming conventions 1 1 Emperor 1 2 Posthumous temple and era names 2 Regents and empress dowagers 3 List of emperors 4 Timeline 5 See also 6 References 6 1 Notes 6 2 Citations 6 3 Sources 7 External linksNaming conventions editEmperor edit nbsp Emperor Guangwu of Han r 25 57 AD as depicted by the Tang artist Yan Liben 600 673 AD nbsp A gilded bronze handle with traces of red pigment in the shape of a dragon s head made during the Eastern Han depending on circumstance the dragon could be a symbol of either good or bad omen for the Han emperors 10 In ancient China the rulers of the Shang c 1600 c 1050 BC and Zhou c 1050 256 BC dynasties were referred to as kings 王 wang 11 By the time of the Zhou dynasty they were also referred to as Sons of Heaven 天子 Tianzi 11 By 221 BC the King of Qin Ying Zheng conquered and united all the Warring States of ancient China To elevate himself above the Shang and Zhou kings of old he accepted the new title of emperor 皇帝 huangdi and is known to posterity as the First Emperor of Qin Qin Shi Huang The new title of emperor was created by combining the titles for the Three Sovereigns Sanhuang and Five Emperors Wudi from Chinese mythology 12 This title was used by each successive ruler of China until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 13 Posthumous temple and era names edit From the Shang to Sui 581 618 AD dynasties Chinese rulers both kings and emperors were referred to by their posthumous names in records and historical texts 13 Temple names first used during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han r 157 141 BC were used exclusively in later records and historical texts when referring to emperors who reigned during the Tang 618 907 AD Song 960 1279 AD and Yuan 1271 1368 AD dynasties 14 During the Ming 1368 1644 AD and Qing 1644 1911 AD dynasties a single era name was used for each emperor s reign and became the preferred way to refer to Ming and Qing emperors in historical texts 14 Use of the era name was formally adopted during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han r 141 87 BC yet its origins can be traced back further The oldest method of recording years which had existed since the Shang set the first year of a ruler s reign as year one 14 When an emperor died the first year of a new reign period would begin 14 This system was changed by the 4th century BC when the first year of a new reign period did not begin until the first day of the lunar New Year following a ruler s death 14 When Duke Huiwen of Qin assumed the title of king in 324 BC he changed the year count of his reign back to the first year 14 For his newly adopted calendar established in 163 BC Emperor Wen of Han r 180 157 BC also set the year count of his reign back to the beginning 15 Since six was considered a lucky number Han Emperors Jing and Wu changed the year count of their reigns back to the beginning every six years 15 Since every six year period was successively marked as yuannian 元年 eryuan 二元 sanyuan 三元 and so forth this system was considered too cumbersome by the time it reached the fifth cycle wuyuan sannian 五元三年 in 114 BC 15 In that year a government official suggested that the Han court retrospectively rename every beginning with new characters a reform Emperor Wu accepted in 110 BC 16 Since Emperor Wu had just performed the religious feng 封 sacrifice at Mount Taishan he named the new era yuanfeng 元封 This event is regarded as the formal establishment of era names in Chinese history 16 Emperor Wu changed the era name once more when he established the Great Beginning 太初 Taichu calendar in 104 BC 17 From this point until the end of Western Han the court established a new era name every four years of an emperor s reign By Eastern Han there was no set interval for establishing new era names which were often introduced for political reasons and celebrating auspicious events 17 Regents and empress dowagers edit nbsp The story of Jin Midi Wu Liang shrines Jiaxiang Shandong province China 2nd century AD an ink rubbing of an Eastern Han stone carved relief At times especially when an infant emperor was placed on the throne a regent often the empress dowager or one of her male relatives would assume the duties of the emperor until he reached his majority Sometimes the empress dowager s faction the consort clan was overthrown in a coup d etat For example Empress Lu Zhi d 180 BC was the de facto ruler of the court during the reigns of the child emperors Qianshao r 188 184 BC and Houshao r 184 180 BC 18 Her faction was overthrown during the Lu Clan Disturbance of 180 BC and Liu Heng was named emperor posthumously known as Emperor Wen 19 Before Emperor Wu died in 87 BC he had invested Huo Guang d 68 BC Jin Midi d 86 BC and Shangguan Jie 上官桀 d 80 BC with the power to govern as regents over his successor Emperor Zhao of Han r 87 74 BC Huo Guang and Shangguan Jie were both grandfathers to Empress Shangguan d 37 BC wife of Emperor Zhao while the ethnically Xiongnu Jin Midi was a former slave who had worked in an imperial stable After Jin died and Shangguan was executed for treason Huo Guang was the sole ruling regent Following his death the Huo family faction was overthrown by Emperor Xuan of Han r 74 49 BC in revenge for Huo Guang poisoning his wife Empress Xu Pingjun d 71 BC so that he could marry Huo s daughter Empress Huo Chengjun d 54 BC 20 Since regents and empress dowagers were not officially counted as emperors of the Han dynasty they are excluded from the list of emperors below List of emperors editSee also Han emperors family tree Below is a complete list of emperors of the Han dynasty including their personal posthumous and era names Excluded from the list are de facto rulers such as regents and empress dowagers Han dynasty sovereigns Sovereign Personal name Reigned from Reigned until Posthumous name a Temple name Era name Range of years b Western Han dynasty 202 BC 9 AD Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang 劉邦 28 February 22 202 BC 1 June 23 195 BC 24 Emperor Gao 高皇帝 Taizu 太祖 did not exist 25 Emperor Hui Liu Ying 劉盈 23 June 26 195 BC 26 September 27 188 BC 28 Emperor Xiaohui 孝惠皇帝 did not exist 25 Emperor Qianshao Liu Gong 劉恭 19 October 27 188 BC 15 June 29 184 BC 30 did not exist did not exist 25 Emperor Houshao Liu Hong 劉弘 15 June 29 184 BC 14 November 31 180 BC 30 did not exist did not exist 25 Emperor Wen Liu Heng 劉恆 14 November 26 180 BC 6 July 32 157 BC 33 Emperor Xiaowen 孝文皇帝 Taizong 太宗 Qianyuan 前元 179 164 BC 34 Houyuan 後元 163 156 BC 34 Emperor Jing Liu Qi 劉啟 14 July 35 157 BC 9 March 36 141 BC 33 Emperor Xiaojing 孝景皇帝 Qianyuan 前元 156 150 BC 37 Zhongyuan 中元 149 143 BC 37 Houyuan 後元 143 141 BC 37 Emperor Wu Liu Che 劉徹 10 March 26 141 BC 29 March 38 87 BC 39 Emperor Xiaowu 孝武皇帝 Shizong 世宗 Jianyuan 建元 141 135 BC 40 Yuanguang 元光 134 129 BC 40 Yuanshuo 元朔 128 123 BC 40 Yuanshou 元狩 122 117 BC 40 Yuanding 元鼎 116 111 BC 40 Yuanfeng 元封 110 105 BC 40 Taichu 太初 104 101 BC 40 Tianhan 天漢 100 97 BC 40 Taishi 太始 96 93 BC 40 Zhenghe 征和 92 89 BC 40 Houyuan 後元 88 87 BC 40 Emperor Zhao Liu Fuling 劉弗陵 30 March 35 87 BC 5 June 35 74 BC 41 Emperor Xiaozhao 孝昭皇帝 Shiyuan 始元 86 80 BC 42 Yuanfeng 元鳳 80 75 BC 42 Yuanping 元平 74 BC 42 Marquis of Haihun Liu He 劉賀 18 July 35 74 BC 14 August 35 74 BC 30 did not exist Yuanping 元平 74 BC 43 Emperor Xuan Liu Bingyi 劉病已 10 September 35 74 BC 10 January 32 49 BC 41 Emperor Xiaoxuan 孝宣皇帝 Zhongzong 中宗 Benshi 本始 73 70 BC 44 Dijie 地節 69 66 BC 44 Yuankang 元康 65 61 BC 44 Shenjue 神爵 61 58 BC 44 Wufeng 五鳳 57 54 BC 44 Ganlu 甘露 53 50 BC 44 Huanglong 黃龍 49 BC 44 Emperor Yuan Liu Shi 劉奭 29 January 35 49 BC 8 July 45 33 BC 46 Emperor Xiaoyuan 孝元皇帝 Gaozong 高宗 Chuyuan 初元 48 44 BC 47 Yongguang 永光 43 39 BC 47 Jianzhao 建昭 38 34 BC 47 Jingning 竟寧 33 BC 47 Emperor Cheng Liu Ao 劉驁 4 August 48 33 BC 17 April 49 7 BC 46 Emperor Xiaocheng 孝成皇帝 Tongzong 統宗 Jianshi 建始 32 28 BC 50 Heping 河平 28 25 BC 50 Yangshuo 陽朔 24 21 BC 50 Hongjia 鴻嘉 20 17 BC 50 Yongshi 永始 16 13 BC 50 Yuanyan 元延 12 9 BC 50 Suihe 綏和 8 7 BC 50 Emperor Ai Liu Xin 劉欣 7 May 51 7 BC 15 August 49 1 BC 46 Emperor Xiao ai 孝哀皇帝 Jianping 建平 6 3 BC 52 Yuanshou 元壽 2 1 BC 52 Emperor Ping Liu Kan 劉衎 17 October 53 1 BC 3 February 54 6 AD 46 Emperor Xiaoping 孝平皇帝 Yuanzong 元宗 Yuanshi 元始 1 5 AD 55 Ruzi Ying c Liu Ying 劉嬰 17 April 56 6 AD 10 January 56 9 AD 46 did not exist Jushe 居攝 6 8 AD 57 Chushi 初始 9 AD Xin dynasty 9 23 AD Continuation of Han dynasty Gengshi Emperor Liu Xuan 劉玄 11 March 58 23 AD November 58 25 AD 59 King Wushun of Huaiyang 淮陽王 Yanzong 延宗 Gengshi 更始 23 25 AD 60 Eastern Han dynasty 25 220 AD Emperor Guangwu Liu Xiu 劉秀 5 August 61 25 AD 29 March 62 57 AD 63 Emperor Guangwu 光武皇帝 Shizu 世祖 Jianwu 建武 25 56 AD 64 Jianwu zhongyuan 建武中元 56 57 AD 64 Emperor Ming Liu Zhuang 劉莊 29 March 61 57 AD 5 September 62 75 AD 65 Emperor Xiaoming 孝明皇帝 Xianzong 顯宗 Yongping 永平 57 75 AD 66 Emperor Zhang Liu Da 劉炟 5 September 61 75 AD 9 April 62 88 AD 67 Emperor Xiaozhang 孝章皇帝 Suzong 肃宗 Jianchu 建初 76 84 AD 68 Yuanhe 元和 84 87 AD 68 Zhanghe 章和 87 88 AD 68 Emperor He Liu Zhao 劉肇 9 April 61 88 AD 13 February 62 106 AD 69 Emperor Xiaohe 孝和皇帝 Muzong 穆宗 Yongyuan 永元 89 105 AD 70 Yuanxing 元興 105 AD 71 Emperor Shang Liu Long 劉隆 13 February 61 106 AD 21 September 62 106 AD 72 Emperor Xiaoshang 孝殤皇帝 Yanping 延平 106 AD 73 Emperor An Liu Hu 劉祜 23 September 61 106 AD 30 April 62 125 AD 74 Emperor Xiao an 孝安皇帝 Gongzong 恭宗 Yǒngchu 永初 107 113 AD 75 Yuanchu 元初 114 120 AD 75 Yongning 永寧 120 121 AD 75 Jianguang 建光 121 122 AD 75 Yanguang 延光 122 125 AD 75 Marquess of Beixiang Liu Yi 劉懿 18 May 61 125 AD 10 December 62 125 AD 76 did not exist Yanguang 延光 125 AD 77 Emperor Shun Liu Bao 劉保 16 December 61 125 AD 20 September 62 144 AD 78 Emperor Xiaoshun 孝順皇帝 Jingzong 敬宗 Yongjian 永建 126 132 AD 79 Yangjia 陽嘉 132 135 AD 79 Yonghe 永和 136 141 AD 79 Han an 漢安 142 144 AD 79 Jiankang 建康 144 AD 79 Emperor Chong Liu Bing 劉炳 20 September 61 144 AD 15 February 62 145 AD 80 Emperor Xiaochong 孝沖皇帝 Yongxi 永熹 145 AD 81 Emperor Zhi Liu Zuan 劉纘 6 March 61 145 AD 26 July 62 146 AD 80 Emperor Xiaozhi 孝質皇帝 Benchu 本初 146 AD 81 Emperor Huan Liu Zhi 劉志 1 August 61 146 AD 25 January 62 168 AD 82 Emperor Xiaohuan 孝桓皇帝 Weizong 威宗 Jianhe 建和 147 149 AD 83 Heping 和平 150 AD 83 Yuanjia 元嘉 151 153 AD 83 Yongxing 永興 153 154 AD 83 Yongshou 永壽 155 158 AD 83 Yanxi 延熹 158 167 AD 83 Yongkang 永康 167 AD 83 Emperor Ling Liu Hong 劉宏 17 February 61 168 AD 13 May 62 189 AD 84 Emperor Xiaoling 孝靈皇帝 Jianning 建寧 168 172 AD 85 Xiping 熹平 172 178 AD 85 Guanghe 光和 178 184 AD 85 Zhongping 中平 184 189 AD 85 Emperor Shao Liu Bian 劉辯 15 May 61 189 AD 28 September 62 189 AD 76 King Huai of Hongnong 少皇帝 Guangxi 光熹 189 AD 86 Zhaoning 昭寧 189 AD 86 Emperor Xian Liu Xie 劉協 28 September 61 189 AD 11 December d 220 AD 87 Emperor Xiaoxian 孝獻皇帝 Yonghan 永漢 189 AD 88 Chuping 初平 190 193 AD 88 Xingping 興平 194 195 AD 88 Jian an 建安 196 220 AD 88 Yankang 延康 220 AD 88 Timeline editLegend Orange denotes Western Han monarchs Teal denotes Han monarchs following the collapse of the Xin dynasty but prior to the Eastern Han Pink denotes Eastern Han monarchsSee also editDynasties in Chinese history List of Chinese monarchsReferences editNotes edit Besides Liu Bang and Liu Xiu the word Xiao 孝 filial was prefixed to all posthumous names although it is usually omitted by scholars The word huangdi 皇帝 emperor is also abbreviated Commonly only the second character is used e g Wudi 武帝 Emperor Wu for Xiaowu Huangdi 孝武皇帝 21 The years of the Chinese lunisolar calendar do not correspond exactly with the years given in the column for era names Some years given in the table also belong to two reign periods because some era names were adopted before the beginning of the following year Ruzi was prince rather than emperor of Han Officially the throne of emperor of Han was vacant during 6 AD to 9 AD de Crespigny Rafe 2010 A Biography of Cao Cao 155 220 AD Brill p 450 ISBN 978 90 04 18830 3 On 11 December Cao Cao s son and successor Cao Pi received the abdication of the last emperor of Han Some authorities give the date of abdication as 25 November This is the date upon which Emperor Xian issued an edict acalling upon Cao Pi to take the throne but the ceremonial transfer of sovereignty was carried out two weeks later Citations edit Paludan 1998 pp 34 36 de Crespigny 2006 p 568 Hymes 2000 p 36 Beck 1990 p 21 Beck 1990 pp 354 355 Hymes 2000 p 16 de Crespigny 2006 Bielenstein 1980 p 143 Hucker 1975 pp 149 150 Wang 1949 pp 141 142 Wang 1949 pp 141 143 Ch u 1972 p 71 de Crespigny 2006 pp 1216 1217 de Visser 2003 pp 43 49 a b Wilkinson 1998 p 105 Wilkinson 1998 pp 105 106 a b Wilkinson 1998 p 106 a b c d e f Wilkinson 1998 a b c Wilkinson 1998 p 177 Sato 1991 p 278 a b Wilkinson 1998 p 177 Sato 1991 pp 278 279 a b Wilkinson 1998 p 178 Loewe amp Twitchett 1986 p 135 Hansen 2000 pp 115 116 Loewe amp Twitchett 1986 pp 136 137 Torday 1997 p 78 Loewe amp Twitchett 1986 pp 174 187 Huang 1988 p 44 46 Dubs 1945 p 29 Barbieri Low amp Yates 2015 pp xix xx Hulsewe 1995 pp 226 230 Grand Scribe s Records p 108 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range come from Paludan 1998 p 28 a b c d Bo Yang 1977 pp 433 443 a b c Barbieri Low amp Yates 2015 pp xix xx Hulsewe 1995 pp 226 230 Vervoorn 1990 pp 311 312 a b Grand Scribe s Records pp 114 115 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range come from Paludan 1998 p 28 31 a b Grand Scribe s Records p 122 a b c Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range come from Loewe amp Twitchett 1986 p xxxix Grand Scribe s Records pp 136 a b Vervoorn 1990 p 312 a b Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range come from Paludan 1998 28 33 a b Bo Yang 1977 444 447 a b c d e f g Barbieri Low amp Yates 2015 pp xix xx Vervoorn 1990 p 312 Grand Scribe s Records p 213 a b c Bo Yang 1977 447 452 Hymes 2000 p 11 Hulsewe 1995 pp 226 230 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range come from Paludan 1998 28 36 and Loewe 2000 273 280 a b c d e f g h i j k Bo Yang 1977 452 471 a b Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range come from Paludan 1998 40 a b c Bo Yang 1977 471 473 Bo Yang 1977 473 a b c d e f g Bo Yang 1977 473 480 Loewe amp Twitchett 1986 p 225 a b c d e Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 40 42 a b c d Bo Yang 1977 481 484 Loewe amp Twitchett 1986 p 225 Vervoorn 1990 p 313 Barbieri Low amp Yates 2015 pp xx a b Loewe amp Twitchett 1986 p 227 Vervoorn 1990 p 313 a b c d e f g Bo Yang 1977 485 489 Barbieri Low amp Yates 2015 pp xx Vervoorn 1990 p 312 a b Bo Yang 1977 490 Barbieri Low amp Yates 2015 pp xx Hymes 2000 p 12 Vervoorn 1990 p 313 Hymes 2000 p 13 Vervoorn 1990 p 313 Bo Yang 1977 495 While traditional sources do not give an exact date when the Yuanshi era was announced it was implied that the first year of Yuanshi did not start until the first month of the lunar calendar ergo in 1 AD See e g Ban Gu Book of Han vol 12 a b Loewe amp Twitchett 1986 p 231 Vervoorn 1990 p 313 Bo Yang 1977 495 496 a b Loewe amp Twitchett 1986 pp 246 251 Vervoorn 1990 p 313 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from de Crespigny 2007 558 560 Bo Yang 1977 500 501 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Barbieri Low amp Yates 2015 pp xx de Crespigny 2006 p xxxiii Loewe amp Twitchett 1986 pp xl xli a b c d e f g h i j k l m Loewe amp Twitchett 1986 pp xl xli de Crespigny 2006 p xxxiii Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 44 and de Crespigny 2006 557 566 a b Bo Yang 1977 501 509 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 44 49 and de Crespigny 2007 604 609 Bo Yang 1977 509 513 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 44 49 and de Crespigny 2007 495 500 a b c Bo Yang 1977 514 516 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 50 and de Crespigny 2007 588 592 Bo Yang 1977 517 523 Bo Yang 1977 523 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 50 and de Crespigny 2007 531 Bo Yang 1977 524 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 50 and de Crespigny 2007 580 583 a b c d e Bo Yang 1977 524 529 a b Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Twitchett and Loewe 1986 xl Bo Yang 1977 529 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 50 51 and de Crespigny 2007 473 478 a b c d e Bo Yang 1977 530 534 a b Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 50 51 a b Bo Yang 1977 535 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 50 51 and de Crespigny 2007 595 603 a b c d e f g Bo Yang 1977 535 541 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 50 52 and de Crespigny 2007 511 517 a b c d Bo Yang 1977 541 547 a b Bo Yang 1977 547 Latin spelling Chinese characters and date range from Paludan 1998 50 55 a b c d e Bo Yang 1977 547 564 Sources edit Barbieri Low Anthony J Yates Robin D S 2015 Recognized Rulers of the Qin and Han Dynasties and the Xin Period Law State and Society in Early Imperial China BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 30053 8 Beck B J Mansvelt 1990 The Treatises of Later Han Their Author Sources Contents and Place in Chinese Historiography Brill ISBN 978 90 04 08895 5 Bielenstein Hans 1980 The Bureaucracy of Han Times Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 22510 6 Bo Yang 1977 中國歷史年表 Timeline of Chinese History Sing Kuang Book Company Ltd Ch u T ung tsu 1972 Han Dynasty China Volume 1 Han Social Structure Seattle and London University of Washington Press ISBN 978 0 295 95068 6 de Crespigny Rafe 2006 Chronology Part II Later Han A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23 220 AD Leiden Koninklijke Brill ISBN 978 90 04 15605 0 Dubs Homer H 1945 Chinese Imperial Designations Journal of the American Oriental Society 65 1 26 33 doi 10 2307 594743 JSTOR 594743 Hulsewe Anthony Francois Paulus 1995 Remnants of Han Law Sinica Leidensia ed Institutum Sinologicum Lugduno Batavum Vol 9 Brill Publishers pp 226 230 Hansen Valerie 2000 The Open Empire A History of China to 1600 New York amp London W W Norton amp Company ISBN 978 0 393 97374 7 Huang Ray 1988 China A Macro History Armonk amp London M E Sharpe Inc an East Gate Book ISBN 978 0 87332 452 6 Hucker Charles O 1975 China s Imperial Past An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 0887 6 Hymes Robert 2000 Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 11004 4 Loewe Michael Twitchett Denis eds 1986 The Cambridge History of China Volume I the Ch in and Han Empires 221 B C A D 220 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 24327 8 Loewe Michael 2000 A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin Former Han and Xin Periods 221 BC AD 24 Boston Brill ISBN 978 90 04 10364 1 Paludan Ann 1998 Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors the Reign by Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China London Thames amp Hudson ISBN 978 0 500 05090 3 Sato Masayuki 1991 Comparative Ideas of Chronology History and Theory 30 2 275 301 doi 10 2307 2505559 JSTOR 2505559 Torday Laszlo 1997 Mounted Archers The Beginnings of Central Asian History Durham Durham Academic Press ISBN 978 1 900838 03 0 Vervoorn Aat Emile 1990 Chronology of Dynasties and Reign Periods Men of the Cliffs and Caves Chinese University Press ISBN 978 962 201 415 2 de Visser M W 2003 Dragon in China and Japan Kessinger Publishing ISBN 978 0 7661 5839 9 Wang Yu ch uan 1949 An Outline of the Central Government of the Former Han Dynasty Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 12 1 2 134 187 doi 10 2307 2718206 JSTOR 2718206 Wilkinson Endymion 1998 Chinese History A Manual Harvard University Asia Center of the Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 12378 6 Sima Qian 1994 c 91 BC The Grand Scribe s Records Vol 2 Translated by W H Nienhauser W Cao Scott W Galer W H Nienhauser D W Pankenier Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 34022 1 External links editChinese History Han Dynasty 漢 206 BC 8 AD 25 220 emperors and rulers from Chinaknowledge de nbsp Media related to Han Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title List of emperors of the Han dynasty amp oldid 1225660380, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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