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History of the Caucasus

May 19, 2023

The history of the Caucasus region may be divided by geography into the history of the North Caucasus (Ciscaucasia), historically in the sphere of influence of Scythia and of Southern Russia (Eastern Europe), and that of the South Caucasus (Transcaucasia; Caucasian Albania, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan) in the sphere of influence of Persia, Anatolia, and (for a very brief time) Assyria.

Contemporary political map of the Caucasus
Etchmiadzin Cathedral in Armenia, completed in 303 AD, UNESCO World Heritage Site, religious centre of the Armenia.
Haghpat Monastery in Armenia, completed in 10th century, UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Palace of the Shirvanshahs in Azerbaijan, completed in 13th or 14th century AD, UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Palace of Shaki Khans in Azerbaijan, UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Georgia, original building completed in the 4th century. Formerly a religious centre of monarchical Georgia, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Throughout history, Southern Caucasus and parts of the North Caucasus have come under the control of various empires, including the Achaemenid, Neo-Assyrian Empire,[1] Parthian, Roman, Sassanian, Byzantine, Mongol, Ottoman, and successive Iranian (Safavid, Afsharid, and Qajar). In 1813 and 1828 by the Treaty of Gulistan and the Treaty of Turkmenchay respectively, Qajar Iran officially ceded its territories in the Caucasus in what is now Dagestan, eastern Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the Russian Empire.[2] Russia conquered and annexed the rest of the North Caucasus in the course of the 19th century in the Caucasian Wars (1817–1864).

The North Caucasus became the scene of intense fighting during the Second World War. Nazi Germany attempted to capture the Caucasus region of Soviet Union in 1942 by a two-pronged attack towards both the western bank of the Volga (intended to seize the city of Stalingrad) and southeast towards Baku, a major center of oil production. Some parts of the North Caucasus fell under German occupation, but the Axis invasion eventually faltered as it failed to accomplish either goal, and Soviet soldiers drove the Germans back west following the Battle of Stalingrad (1942–1943).

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the Cold War, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia became independent nations. The Caucasus region has become the setting of territorial disputes in the post-Soviet era, which lead to the establishment of unrecognized states of Artsakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia.

Early history

Further information: Prehistory of the Caucasus

The Caucasus region gradually enters the historical record during the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age. Hayasa-Azzi was a Late Bronze Age confederation of two kingdoms of Armenian Highlands, Hayasa located South of Trabzon and Azzi, located north of the Euphrates and to the south of Hayasa. The Hayasa-Azzi confederation was in conflict with the Hittite Empire in the 14th century BC, leading up to the collapse of Hatti around 1190 BC

External image
  Map of Ancient Middle East - ca. 1325 BC[3]

Arme-Shupria was a Hurrian kingdom, known from Assyrian sources beginning in the 13th century BC, located in what is now known as the Armenian Highlands, to the southwest of Lake Van, bordering on Ararat proper. The capital was called Ubbumu.[4] The Diauehi were a tribal confederation in northeastern Anatolia in the post-Hittite period, mentioned in Urartian inscriptions.[5] Diauehi is a possible locus of Proto-Kartvelian; it has been described as an "important tribal formation of possible proto-Georgians" by Ronald Grigor Suny (1994),[6] although other scholars have suggested that it may have been proto-Armenian (based on the etymology of the name).[7][8][9] At the same time, during the 13th to 9th centuries BC, the Nairi appear in Assyrian and Hittite records. The Battle of Nihriya (c. 1230 BC) was the culmination of Hittite-Assyrian hostilities.

The Kingdom of Urartu rose to power in the mid-9th century BC and flourished for two centuries before it was absorbed into the Median Empire in the early 6th century BC, followed by the conquest by the Achaemenid Empire.

The Northern Caucasus enters the historical record later, being in cultural contact with the Pontic steppe. The Koban culture (ca. 1100 to 400 BC) is a late Bronze Age and Iron Age culture of the northern and central Caucasus. Its end presumably correlates with the Scythian expansion in the region.

Classical Antiquity

 
The Kingdom of Armenia at its greatest extent under Tigranes the Great
 
Ancient countries of the Caucasus - Armenia, Colchis, Iberia and Albania
 
Armenia, Mesopotamia, Babylonia and Assyria with Adjacent Regions, Karl von Spruner, published in 1865.

Middle Ages

 
Kingdom of Georgia at the peak of its power under Tamar of Georgia and George IV of Georgia (1184–1226).

During the Middle Ages Bagratid Armenia, Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget, Kingdom of Syunik, and Principality of Khachen organized local Armenian population facing multiple threats after the fall of antique Kingdom of Armenia.

Caucasian Albania maintained close ties with Armenia and the Church of Caucasian Albania shared same Christian dogmas with the Armenian Apostolic Church and had a tradition of their Catholicos being ordained through the Patriarch of Armenia.[10]

Early modern history

 
Map of the Caucasus in 1490
 
The Caucasus in 1740

By the end of the 15th century, the Kingdom of Georgia was fragmented into a number of petty client kingdoms subject to either Persia (Kingdom of Kakheti, Kingdom of Kartli) or the Ottomans (Kingdom of Imereti).[note 1] Throughout the 16th century, the Caucasus continued to serve as a battleground between Persian and Ottoman forces, with the two great powers attempting to gain control over the region. From the 1530s to the 1550s, several Transcaucasian cities became the focal point of these imperial divides. In 1555, this culminated in the Peace of Amasya, whereby Ottoman and Persian forces agreed to establish formal spheres of influence in the region.[11] As a result of the Treaty, the Safavid Empire (Persia) assumed control over lands East of the Surami Highlands, including the Georgian kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti.[11] The Ottomans received areas West of the Highlands, including the Georgian kingdom of Imereti.[11] The nascent Russian Empire gained territories in the North Caucasus in the Russo-Persian war of 1722/3. These territories were ceded back to Persia a few years later. Following the death of Nader Shah, Kartli and Kakheti were merged into the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in 1762; Erekle de facto seceded from Persian overlordship, but still de jure recognized the Persians as his suzerain. In 1783, King Erekle II concluded the Treaty of Georgievsk with the Russian Empire. Catherine the Great tried to use Georgia as a base of operations against both Iran and the Ottoman Empire. After her death, the Russians withdrew to the North Caucasus Line. The Qajar dynasty re-established Persia's traditional suzerainty over the Caucasus. A Persian invasion force defeated the Georgian army in the Battle of Krtsanisi in 1795. In 1801, a few years after the assassination of Agha Mohammad Khan, capitalizing on the eruption of instability in Iran, the Russians annexed eastern Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti).

While Georgia and Armenia remained Christian, the Chechens gradually adopted Sunni Islam.[12] The Circassians were mostly Islamized under the influence of the Crimean Tatars and the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century.

Modern history

Russian Empire and Civil War

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    Compiled in the military history department at the headquarters of the Caucasian Military District, Lieutenant Colonel Tomkiev. Tiflis 1901

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    Karte des Kaukasischen Isthmus. Entworfen und gezeichnet von J. Grassl, 1856.

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    Karachov Kazak rug, mid-19th century

Soviet Union

Recent history (1991–present)

See also

Further reading

  • Asmus, Ronald. A Little War that Shook the World: Georgia, Russia, and the Future of the West. NYU (2010). ISBN 978-0-230-61773-5
  • de Waal, Thomas. Black Garden. NYU (2003). ISBN 0-8147-1945-7
  • Gasimov, Zaur: "The Caucasus", European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: November 18, 2011.
  • Goltz, Thomas. Azerbaijan Diary: A Rogue Reporter's Adventures in an Oil-Rich, War-Torn, Post-Soviet Republic. M E Sharpe (1998). ISBN 0-7656-0244-X
  • Goltz, Thomas. Chechnya Diary: A War Correspondent's Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya. M E Sharpe (2003). ISBN 0-312-268-74-2
  • Goltz, Thomas. Georgia Diary: A Chronicle of War and Political Chaos in the Post-Soviet Caucasus. Thomas Dunne Books (2003). ISBN 0-7656-1710-2
  • Shapi, Kaziev. Caucasian highlanders (Повседневная жизнь горцев Северного Кавказа в XIX в.). Everyday life of the Caucasian highlanders. 19th century (In the co-authorship with I.Karpeev). "Molodaya Gvardiy" publishers. Moscow, 2003. ISBN 5-235-02585-7
  • Kovalevskaia, V. B. "Central Ciscaucasia in Antiquity and Early Middle Ages: Caucasian Substratum and Migrations of the Iranic-Speaking Tribes." (1988).

Notes

  1. ^ From 1258, Imereti was considered a separate kingdom within the Kingdom of Georgia (1008–1490). However, the start of the rule of the Second House of Imereti in 1455 is from where it became independent from the Kingdom of Georgia and would form its definite own entity.
  1. ^ Grayson, Albert Kirk (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions: Volume I. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. p. 108.
  2. ^ Timothy C. Dowling Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond pp 728-730 ABC-CLIO, 2 dec. 2014.ISBN 978-1598849486
  3. ^ "r/MapPorn - Ancient Middle East - 1325 BC [5906x4429] [OC]". reddit. 23 March 2019.
  4. ^ Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, Albert Kirk Grayson, p. 263.
  5. ^ A. G. Sagona. Archaeology at the North-East Anatolian Frontier, p. 30.
  6. ^ Ronald Grigor Suny (1 January 1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation. Indiana University Press. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-0-253-20915-3. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
  7. ^ Armen Petrosyan (September 1, 2010). The Armenian Elements In The Language And Onomastics Of Urartu. Association For Near Eastern And Caucasian Studies. p. 137. Retrieved 9 October 2019.
  8. ^ Hrach Martirosyan (2014). "Origins and Historical Development of the Armenian Language". Leiden University: 9. Retrieved 9 October 2019.[1]
  9. ^ A.V. Dumikyan (2016). "Taik in The Assyrian and Biainian Cuneiform Inscriptions, Ancient Greek and Early Medieval Armenian Sources (the Interpretations of the 19th Century French Armenologists)" Fundamental Armenology No. 2 4. [2]
  10. ^ "Caucasian Albanian Church celebrates its 1700th Anniversary". The Georgian Church for English Speakers. 2013-08-09. Retrieved 2018-03-02.
  11. ^ a b c King, Charles (2008). The ghost of freedom: a history of the Caucasus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195392395. OCLC 171614379.
  12. ^ Tsaroïeva, Mariel (2005). Anciennes croyances des Ingouches et des Tchétchènes: peuples du Caucase du Nord (in French). Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose. ISBN 2-7068-1792-5.

May 19, 2023
history, caucasus, this, article, multiple, issues, please, help, improve, discuss, these, issues, talk, page, learn, when, remove, these, template, messages, this, article, list, format, read, better, prose, help, converting, this, article, appropriate, editi. This article has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This article is in list format but may read better as prose You can help by converting this article if appropriate Editing help is available January 2018 This article includes a list of general references but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations November 2013 Learn how and when to remove this template message Learn how and when to remove this template message The history of the Caucasus region may be divided by geography into the history of the North Caucasus Ciscaucasia historically in the sphere of influence of Scythia and of Southern Russia Eastern Europe and that of the South Caucasus Transcaucasia Caucasian Albania Georgia Armenia Azerbaijan in the sphere of influence of Persia Anatolia and for a very brief time Assyria Contemporary political map of the Caucasus Etchmiadzin Cathedral in Armenia completed in 303 AD UNESCO World Heritage Site religious centre of the Armenia Haghpat Monastery in Armenia completed in 10th century UNESCO World Heritage Site Palace of the Shirvanshahs in Azerbaijan completed in 13th or 14th century AD UNESCO World Heritage Site Palace of Shaki Khans in Azerbaijan UNESCO World Heritage Site Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Georgia original building completed in the 4th century Formerly a religious centre of monarchical Georgia it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site Throughout history Southern Caucasus and parts of the North Caucasus have come under the control of various empires including the Achaemenid Neo Assyrian Empire 1 Parthian Roman Sassanian Byzantine Mongol Ottoman and successive Iranian Safavid Afsharid and Qajar In 1813 and 1828 by the Treaty of Gulistan and the Treaty of Turkmenchay respectively Qajar Iran officially ceded its territories in the Caucasus in what is now Dagestan eastern Georgia Azerbaijan and Armenia to the Russian Empire 2 Russia conquered and annexed the rest of the North Caucasus in the course of the 19th century in the Caucasian Wars 1817 1864 The North Caucasus became the scene of intense fighting during the Second World War Nazi Germany attempted to capture the Caucasus region of Soviet Union in 1942 by a two pronged attack towards both the western bank of the Volga intended to seize the city of Stalingrad and southeast towards Baku a major center of oil production Some parts of the North Caucasus fell under German occupation but the Axis invasion eventually faltered as it failed to accomplish either goal and Soviet soldiers drove the Germans back west following the Battle of Stalingrad 1942 1943 Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the Cold War Armenia Azerbaijan and Georgia became independent nations The Caucasus region has become the setting of territorial disputes in the post Soviet era which lead to the establishment of unrecognized states of Artsakh Abkhazia and South Ossetia Contents 1 Early history 2 Classical Antiquity 3 Middle Ages 4 Early modern history 5 Modern history 5 1 Russian Empire and Civil War 5 2 Soviet Union 5 3 Recent history 1991 present 6 See also 7 Further reading 8 NotesEarly history EditFurther information Prehistory of the CaucasusThe Caucasus region gradually enters the historical record during the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Hayasa Azzi was a Late Bronze Age confederation of two kingdoms of Armenian Highlands Hayasa located South of Trabzon and Azzi located north of the Euphrates and to the south of Hayasa The Hayasa Azzi confederation was in conflict with the Hittite Empire in the 14th century BC leading up to the collapse of Hatti around 1190 BCExternal image Map of Ancient Middle East ca 1325 BC 3 Arme Shupria was a Hurrian kingdom known from Assyrian sources beginning in the 13th century BC located in what is now known as the Armenian Highlands to the southwest of Lake Van bordering on Ararat proper The capital was called Ubbumu 4 The Diauehi were a tribal confederation in northeastern Anatolia in the post Hittite period mentioned in Urartian inscriptions 5 Diauehi is a possible locus of Proto Kartvelian it has been described as an important tribal formation of possible proto Georgians by Ronald Grigor Suny 1994 6 although other scholars have suggested that it may have been proto Armenian based on the etymology of the name 7 8 9 At the same time during the 13th to 9th centuries BC the Nairi appear in Assyrian and Hittite records The Battle of Nihriya c 1230 BC was the culmination of Hittite Assyrian hostilities The Kingdom of Urartu rose to power in the mid 9th century BC and flourished for two centuries before it was absorbed into the Median Empire in the early 6th century BC followed by the conquest by the Achaemenid Empire The Northern Caucasus enters the historical record later being in cultural contact with the Pontic steppe The Koban culture ca 1100 to 400 BC is a late Bronze Age and Iron Age culture of the northern and central Caucasus Its end presumably correlates with the Scythian expansion in the region Classical Antiquity Edit The Kingdom of Armenia at its greatest extent under Tigranes the Great Ancient countries of the Caucasus Armenia Colchis Iberia and Albania Armenia Mesopotamia Babylonia and Assyria with Adjacent Regions Karl von Spruner published in 1865 Urartu Kingdom of Colchis Persia Media 728 BC 549 BC Achaemenid Empire c 550 BC 330 BC Parthia 247 BC AD 224 Sassanid Empire 224 651 AD Neo Assyrian Empire 911 to 609 BC Kingdom of Armenia Orontid Armenia 336 BC 200 BC Artashesian Armenia 190 BC 2 BC Arshakuni Armenia 52 AD 428 AD Kingdom of Caucasian Albania Kingdom of Caucasian Iberia Kingdom of Lazica Egrisi Roman Empire 114 117 AD Middle Ages Edit Kingdom of Georgia at the peak of its power under Tamar of Georgia and George IV of Georgia 1184 1226 During the Middle Ages Bagratid Armenia Kingdom of Tashir Dzoraget Kingdom of Syunik and Principality of Khachen organized local Armenian population facing multiple threats after the fall of antique Kingdom of Armenia Caucasian Albania maintained close ties with Armenia and the Church of Caucasian Albania shared same Christian dogmas with the Armenian Apostolic Church and had a tradition of their Catholicos being ordained through the Patriarch of Armenia 10 Sassanian Empire 224 651 Byzantine Empire 330 1453 Khazars Arab Caliphates Rashidun Caliphate 632 661 Umayyad Caliphate 661 750 Abbasid Caliphate 750 1258 Kingdom of Georgia 1008 1490 Kingdom of Abkhazia 767 1014 Kingdom of Tao Klarjeti 888 1008 Kingdom of Kakheti Hereti 1020s 1104 Kingdom of Imereti 1260 1810 Samtskhe Saatabago 1266 1625 Kingdom of Kakheti 1465 1762 Kingdom of Kartli 1466 1762 Persia Sallarids Sajids Shirvanshah Kingdom of Armenia Middle Ages Seljuq dynasty 1037 1194 Ilkhanate 1256 1335 Timurid dynasty 1370 1526 Early modern history Edit Map of the Caucasus in 1490 The Caucasus in 1740 By the end of the 15th century the Kingdom of Georgia was fragmented into a number of petty client kingdoms subject to either Persia Kingdom of Kakheti Kingdom of Kartli or the Ottomans Kingdom of Imereti note 1 Throughout the 16th century the Caucasus continued to serve as a battleground between Persian and Ottoman forces with the two great powers attempting to gain control over the region From the 1530s to the 1550s several Transcaucasian cities became the focal point of these imperial divides In 1555 this culminated in the Peace of Amasya whereby Ottoman and Persian forces agreed to establish formal spheres of influence in the region 11 As a result of the Treaty the Safavid Empire Persia assumed control over lands East of the Surami Highlands including the Georgian kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti 11 The Ottomans received areas West of the Highlands including the Georgian kingdom of Imereti 11 The nascent Russian Empire gained territories in the North Caucasus in the Russo Persian war of 1722 3 These territories were ceded back to Persia a few years later Following the death of Nader Shah Kartli and Kakheti were merged into the Kingdom of Kartli Kakheti in 1762 Erekle de facto seceded from Persian overlordship but still de jure recognized the Persians as his suzerain In 1783 King Erekle II concluded the Treaty of Georgievsk with the Russian Empire Catherine the Great tried to use Georgia as a base of operations against both Iran and the Ottoman Empire After her death the Russians withdrew to the North Caucasus Line The Qajar dynasty re established Persia s traditional suzerainty over the Caucasus A Persian invasion force defeated the Georgian army in the Battle of Krtsanisi in 1795 In 1801 a few years after the assassination of Agha Mohammad Khan capitalizing on the eruption of instability in Iran the Russians annexed eastern Georgia Kartli Kakheti While Georgia and Armenia remained Christian the Chechens gradually adopted Sunni Islam 12 The Circassians were mostly Islamized under the influence of the Crimean Tatars and the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century Modern history EditRussian Empire and Civil War Edit Georgia within the Russian Empire 1801 1918 Russo Persian War 1804 13 Treaty of Kurakchay 1805 Treaty of Gulistan 1813 Russo Persian War 1826 28 Treaty of Turkmenchay 1828 Caucasian War 1817 1864 Ethnic cleansing of Circassians Caucasus Campaign Russian Civil War Volunteer Army 1918 1920 Kuban People s Republic 1918 1920 Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus 1917 1922 Democratic Republic of Georgia 1918 1921 Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic Compiled in the military history department at the headquarters of the Caucasian Military District Lieutenant Colonel Tomkiev Tiflis 1901 Karte des Kaukasischen Isthmus Entworfen und gezeichnet von J Grassl 1856 Karachov Kazak rug mid 19th centurySoviet Union Edit Soviet Union Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic First Nagorno Karabakh War 1988 1994 Ossetian Ingush conflict 1989 1991 Chechen Republic of Ichkeria 1991 2000 Republic of Georgia since 1991 Armenia since 1991 Republic of Azerbaijan since 1991 Recent history 1991 present Edit War in Abkhazia 1992 1993 First Chechen War 1994 1996 Second Chechen War 1999 2006 Russo Georgian War 2008 2020 Nagorno Karabakh WarSee also EditCaucasus Greeks North Caucasus South Caucasus History of Georgia country History of Armenia History of Azerbaijan History of Abkhazia History of Chechnya History of Nagorno Karabakh History of Nakhchivan Southern Russia Eastern Magyars North Caucasian Huns Huns Khazars Western Turkic Khaganate Portal EuropeFurther reading EditAsmus Ronald A Little War that Shook the World Georgia Russia and the Future of the West NYU 2010 ISBN 978 0 230 61773 5 de Waal Thomas Black Garden NYU 2003 ISBN 0 8147 1945 7 Gasimov Zaur The Caucasus European History Online Mainz Institute of European History 2011 retrieved November 18 2011 Goltz Thomas Azerbaijan Diary A Rogue Reporter s Adventures in an Oil Rich War Torn Post Soviet Republic M E Sharpe 1998 ISBN 0 7656 0244 X Goltz Thomas Chechnya Diary A War Correspondent s Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya M E Sharpe 2003 ISBN 0 312 268 74 2 Goltz Thomas Georgia Diary A Chronicle of War and Political Chaos in the Post Soviet Caucasus Thomas Dunne Books 2003 ISBN 0 7656 1710 2 Shapi Kaziev Caucasian highlanders Povsednevnaya zhizn gorcev Severnogo Kavkaza v XIX v Everyday life of the Caucasian highlanders 19th century In the co authorship with I Karpeev Molodaya Gvardiy publishers Moscow 2003 ISBN 5 235 02585 7 Kovalevskaia V B Central Ciscaucasia in Antiquity and Early Middle Ages Caucasian Substratum and Migrations of the Iranic Speaking Tribes 1988 Notes Edit From 1258 Imereti was considered a separate kingdom within the Kingdom of Georgia 1008 1490 However the start of the rule of the Second House of Imereti in 1455 is from where it became independent from the Kingdom of Georgia and would form its definite own entity Grayson Albert Kirk 1972 Assyrian Royal Inscriptions Volume I Wiesbaden Otto Harrassowitz p 108 Timothy C Dowling Russia at War From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan Chechnya and Beyond pp 728 730 ABC CLIO 2 dec 2014 ISBN 978 1598849486 r MapPorn Ancient Middle East 1325 BC 5906x4429 OC reddit 23 March 2019 Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles Albert Kirk Grayson p 263 A G Sagona Archaeology at the North East Anatolian Frontier p 30 Ronald Grigor Suny 1 January 1994 The Making of the Georgian Nation Indiana University Press pp 6 ISBN 978 0 253 20915 3 Retrieved 25 August 2013 Armen Petrosyan September 1 2010 The Armenian Elements In The Language And Onomastics Of Urartu Association For Near Eastern And Caucasian Studies p 137 Retrieved 9 October 2019 Hrach Martirosyan 2014 Origins and Historical Development of the Armenian Language Leiden University 9 Retrieved 9 October 2019 1 A V Dumikyan 2016 Taik in The Assyrian and Biainian Cuneiform Inscriptions Ancient Greek and Early Medieval Armenian Sources the Interpretations of the 19th Century French Armenologists Fundamental Armenology No 2 4 2 Caucasian Albanian Church celebrates its 1700th Anniversary The Georgian Church for English Speakers 2013 08 09 Retrieved 2018 03 02 a b c King Charles 2008 The ghost of freedom a history of the Caucasus Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195392395 OCLC 171614379 Tsaroieva Mariel 2005 Anciennes croyances des Ingouches et des Tchetchenes peuples du Caucase du Nord in French Paris Maisonneuve et Larose ISBN 2 7068 1792 5 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title History of the Caucasus amp oldid 1154283710, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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