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Gerboise Bleue (nuclear test)

February 03, 2023

For the 2009 documentary film, see Gerboise bleue (film).

Gerboise Bleue (French: [ʒɛʁbwaz blø]; lit. 'Blue Jerboa') was the codename of the first French nuclear test. It was conducted by the Nuclear Experiments Operational Group (GOEN), a unit of the Joint Special Weapons Command[1] on 13 February 1960, at the Saharan Military Experiments Centre near Reggane, French Algeria in the Sahara desert region of Tanezrouft, during the Algerian War.[2][3] General Pierre Marie Gallois was instrumental in the endeavour, and earned the nickname of père de la bombe A ("father of the A-bomb").

Gerboise Bleue
Location of the test site
Information
Country France
Test seriesReggane series
Test siteReggane, French Algeria
Coordinates26°18′42″N 00°03′26″W / 26.31167°N 0.05722°W / 26.31167; -0.05722
Date13 February 1960; 62 years ago (1960-02-13)
Test typeAtmospheric
Test altitude100 m
Device typeA-bomb
Yield70 kt (292.88 TJ)[a]
Test chronology

Name

Gerboise is the French word for jerboa, a desert rodent found in the Sahara. The color blue (Bleue) adjuncted is said to come from the first colour of the French Flag.[4]

Test

Explosion

On April 11, 1958, French Prime Minister Félix Gaillard ordered a nuclear test in the first quarter of 1960. President Charles de Gaulle reaffirmed the decision after the French Fourth Republic collapsed in the May 1958 crisis.[5]

On 13 February 1960 at 7:04:00 UTC,[6] the plutonium filled bomb was detonated atop a steel tower with an altitude of 100 metres. The command post was located 16 kilometres away from the blast. In order to study the immediate effects, military equipment was placed at varying distances from the epicenter, while jets flew overhead to take samples of radioactive particles. No journalists were allowed on site; instead, an eyewitness account was given to the French press, saying "the desert was lit up by a vast flash, followed 45 seconds later by an appreciable shock-wave"; an "enormous ball of bluish fire with an orange-red centre" gave way to the typical mushroom cloud.[7]

With Gerboise Bleue, France became the fourth nuclear power, after the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom. Prior to this test, there had been no nuclear detonations for 15 months. Gerboise Bleue was by far the largest first test bomb up to that date, larger than the American "Trinity" (20 kt), the Soviet "RDS-1" (22 kt), or the British "Hurricane" (25 kt). The yield was 70 kilotons,[8] bigger than these three bombs put together; In comparison, Fat Man, the Nagasaki bomb, was 22 kilotons, one-third as powerful.

As the atomic yield of a new bomb design cannot be precisely predicted, the French army planned an explosion between 60 and 70 kt. Gerboise Bleue was a total success, yielding the full designed power.[9] However, because of the bomb's irregularly high yield, some experts believe that the bomb may have been "overfilled with plutonium to assure success".[10]

Only two other A-bombs tested in the Sahara facilities were more powerful: Rubis (<100 kt, 20 October 1963), and Saphir (<150 kt, 25 February 1965). Both were detonated underground at the In Ekker facilities.

According to Lieutenant Colonel Warner D. Farr in a report to the USAF Counterproliferation Center "Progress in nuclear science and technology in France and Israel remained closely linked throughout the early fifties." Furthermore, according to Farr, "There were several Israeli observers at the French nuclear tests and the Israelis had 'unrestricted access to French nuclear test explosion data.'"[11]

Fallout

Initial monitoring reported a radiation dose of 10 rad/h at 0.8 km from ground zero one hour after the blast, 10 rad/h at 28.5 km and 3 rad/h at 570 km. Monitoring at Fort Lamy (now N'Djamena), around 2,400 km from Reggane, reported 10−9 Ci/m3.[8]

For decades, documentation of the Gerboise tests remained heavily classified by the French government. The Ministry of the Armed Forces had maintained that the radioactive effects on humans present at the site would be "weak", and "well below annual doses."[12] However, persons present at the site have since stated that protection gear was extremely minimal at the time of testing. In addition, ex-military officers have come forward with stories of being used as test subjects to study the effects of nuclear radiation on humans. Immediately following the explosion of Gerboise Verte (which yielded <1 kiloton), soldiers were sent within a 1 km radius of the explosion site, where they practiced combat exercises and drove tanks around the area. In total, these subjects were exposed to high levels of radiation for three hours. Following the exercises, the soldiers state that they were given showers as the only means of decontamination.[13]

Subsequent tests

After Gerboise Bleue in February 1960, France conducted until April 1961 three additional atmospheric tests in Reggane facility's Saharan Military Experiments Centre. They were only "emergency devices", with yields deliberately reduced to less than 5 kilotons.

Shortly after the final Gerboise bomb (Gerboise Verte), the French moved their nuclear testing to the mountainous In Ekker region, which housed an underground facility. In 1962, the Algerian War ended with the signing of the Évian Accords. Although the French military agreed to withdraw from Algeria within 12 months, Chapter III of the Évian Accords granted France "the use of a number of military airfields, the terrains, sites and installations necessary to her."[14] It was because of this stipulation that France was able to continue nuclear testing in Algeria until 1966. With the underground tests the sequence designation was changed to jewel names, starting in November 1961 with Agate (<20 kt). On 1 May 1962, during the second test, the Béryl incident occurred, which was declassified many years later.

Five months after the last Gerboise A-bomb, the Soviet Union responded by breaking its atmospheric tests moratorium, settled de facto since late 1958 with the United States and the United Kingdom. The USSR conducted many improvement tests, starting in September 1961 with a series of 136 large H-bombs. The series included the most powerful bomb ever tested, the 50-megaton (50,000 kt) "Tsar Bomba", which was detonated over Novaya Zemlya.

Following the USSR, the United States reactivated its own atmospheric test program with a series of 40 explosions from April 1962 to November 1962. This series included two powerful H-bombs topping 7.45 Mt and 8.3 Mt.[2]

China also launched its own nuclear program, resulting in the A-bomb "596" (22 kt) tested on 16 October 1964, and the H-bomb Test No. 6 (3.3 Mt), tested 17 June 1967.

In 1968, France detonated its first thermonuclear weapon, Canopus (2.6 Mt), at the new facility at Fangataufa, a desert atoll in French Polynesia.

All other French atomic-bomb tests, including Canopus, were carried out in French Polynesia from 1966 to 1996. The last bomb, Xouthos (<120 kt), was detonated on 27 January 1996.

See also List of nuclear weapons tests of France.

International reactions

 
Students from Mali protesting in Leipzig against the French nuclear test

In France, the news of Gerboise Bleues success was generally met with satisfaction and national pride. President De Gaulle stated:

Hurray for France! Since this morning, she is stronger and prouder.[15][16]

However, the nation faced many international critics following the nuclear test, especially from Africa. Just days after the test, all French assets in Ghana were frozen, "until such time as the effects of the present explosion and the future experiments referred to by the French Prime Minister become known."[7] Morocco, which lays claim to the portion of the Sahara where the bomb was detonated, withdrew its ambassador from Paris just two days after the event. Other African nations expressed their disappointment with France's decision to test nuclear weapons in the Sahara, citing fears of radioactive fallout and the safety of their citizens.

Programme

 
Synthesis of the aerial tests ([9])
  • 13 February 1960: Gerboise Bleue ("blue jerboa"): 70 kt
  • 1 April 1960: Gerboise Blanche ("white jerboa"): <5 kt
  • 27 December 1960: Gerboise Rouge ("red jerboa"): <5 kt
  • 25 April 1961: Gerboise Verte ("green jerboa"): <1 kt

Gerboise Rouge was followed by a joint exercise, in which infantry, helicopters and armour reconnoitered the contaminated area.[13]

Gerboise Verte was intended to yield between 6 and 18 kilotonnes, but effectively yielded less than 1.[13] Like Gerboise Rouge, it was followed by a joint exercise in the contaminated area, codenamed Garigliano.[13] The test had been patched up hastily and fired prematurely because of the Algiers putsch, as it was feared that the nuclear bomb could fall in the hands of seditious elements.[17] As a result, the bomb yielded less than 1 kiloton, 10 times less than the intended output.

Later effects

After the tests, nuclear fallout was detected as far away as Senegal, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso and Sudan.[18]

In 2005, the Algerian government asked for a study to assess the radioactivity of former nuclear testing sites. The International Atomic Energy Agency published the report suggesting that Gerboise Bleue explosion site had the second highest caesium-137 surface levels of the four tests of the series, with a residual surface activity between 0.02 and 2.0 MBq/m2 over a surface area of about 1 km2.[19] The same report showed that the fallout of the bomb were contained in a circular area of less than 1 km in diameter.[20] It also stated that these levels were not enough to warrant intervention and did not pose a threat to visitors of the area or inhabitants of Reggane.

In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims who had been exposed to nuclear radiation as a result of the testing in Algeria and French Polynesia. The government also agreed to release additional documents which detailed how the tests had been carried out.[21]

According to the French NGO ACRO, Saharan dust blown northwards by strong seasonal winds to France in early 2021 carried measurable levels of radioactive caesium-137 attributable to the Gerboise tests.[22]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Physician Pierre Billaud reported a yield of 60 kt. See External links.

References

  1. ^ Sokolski, Henry D.; Tertrais, Bruno (2013). Nuclear Weapons Security Crises: What Does History Teach?. Strategic Studies Institute and U.S. Army War College Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-5848-7574-1.
  2. ^ a b Senate of the French Republic (15 December 1997). "French Senate report #179: The first French tests in the Sahara". senat.fr (in French). Retrieved 8 August 2020.
  3. ^ Garrett, Benjamin C. (2017). Historical Dictionary of Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Warfare. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-5381-0684-6.
  4. ^ Kutchesfahani, Sara Z (2018). Global Nuclear Order. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-3519-9962-5.
  5. ^ "The Sprinters: Soviet Union, France, and China", Seeking the Bomb, Princeton University Press, pp. 127–175, 2020-12-31, doi:10.1515/9780691223063-006, ISBN 978-0-691-22306-3, S2CID 245890893, retrieved 2022-01-20
  6. ^ French Nuclear Testing, 1960-1988 (Technical report). Natural Defense Resources Council. 1989. p. 25. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
  7. ^ a b . Keesing's Record of World Events. 6 (2): 17279. February 1960. Archived from the original on 2018-04-08. Retrieved 2018-04-08.
  8. ^ a b Rapport sur les essais nucléaires français (1960-1996) (PDF) (Technical report). Government of the French Republic. p. 118. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
  9. ^ a b French Senate report
  10. ^ Reed, Thomas; Stillman, Danny (2009). The nuclear express : a political history of the bomb and its proliferation. Zenith Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-7603-3502-4.
  11. ^ Farr, Warner D (September 1999), The Third Temple's holy of holies: Israel's nuclear weapons, The Counterproliferation Papers, Future Warfare Series, vol. 2, USAF Counterproliferation Center, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, retrieved July 2, 2006
  12. ^ Merchet, Jean-Dominique (2010-02-16). "Essais nucléaires : Gerboise verte, la bombe et le scoop qui font plouf... (actualisé-3)". Libération.
  13. ^ a b c d Essais nucléaires : Gerboise verte, la bombe et le scoop qui font plouf... (actualisé) 2014-11-29 at the Wayback Machine, Jean-Dominique Merchet, Libération
  14. ^ "Algeria: France-Algeria independence agreements (Evian agreements)". International Legal Materials. 1 (2): 214–230. October 1962. JSTOR 20689578.
  15. ^ Hourra pour la France ! Depuis ce matin, elle est plus forte et plus fière.
  16. ^ Il y a cinquante ans, la France réalisait son premier essai nucléaire, Jean-Dominique Merchet, Libération, 13 February 2010
  17. ^ Sahara: les cobayes de «Gerboise verte», Le Nouvel Observateur, Vincent Jauvert, 5 February 1998
  18. ^ "France-Algeria relations: The lingering fallout from nuclear tests in the Sahara". BBC News. 26 April 2021.
  19. ^ Radiological Conditions at the Former French Nuclear Test Sites in Algeria: Preliminary Assessment and Recommendations (PDF) (Technical report). Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency. 1 March 2005. p. 9. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
  20. ^ Radiological Conditions at the Former French Nuclear Test Sites in Algeria: Preliminary Assessment and Recommendations (PDF) (Technical report). Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency. 1 March 2005. p. 10. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
  21. ^ Cowell, Alan (2009-03-24). "France to Pay Nuclear Test Victims". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-04-08.
  22. ^ Cereceda, Rafael. "Irony as Saharan dust returns radiation from French nuclear tests in the 1960s". euronews. Retrieved 3 March 2021.

External links

  • Report of Pierre Billaud, physician present at the test
  • French Assembly report n°3571
  • (fr)
  • (fr)
  • Podcast BBC Witness History: France’s nuclear tests in Algeria (9 minutes, 19 January 2023)

February 03, 2023
gerboise, bleue, nuclear, test, 2009, documentary, film, gerboise, bleue, film, gerboise, bleue, french, ʒɛʁbwaz, blø, blue, jerboa, codename, first, french, nuclear, test, conducted, nuclear, experiments, operational, group, goen, unit, joint, special, weapon. For the 2009 documentary film see Gerboise bleue film Gerboise Bleue French ʒɛʁbwaz blo lit Blue Jerboa was the codename of the first French nuclear test It was conducted by the Nuclear Experiments Operational Group GOEN a unit of the Joint Special Weapons Command 1 on 13 February 1960 at the Saharan Military Experiments Centre near Reggane French Algeria in the Sahara desert region of Tanezrouft during the Algerian War 2 3 General Pierre Marie Gallois was instrumental in the endeavour and earned the nickname of pere de la bombe A father of the A bomb Gerboise BleueLocation of the test siteInformationCountryFranceTest seriesReggane seriesTest siteReggane French AlgeriaCoordinates26 18 42 N 00 03 26 W 26 31167 N 0 05722 W 26 31167 0 05722Date13 February 1960 62 years ago 1960 02 13 Test typeAtmosphericTest altitude100 mDevice typeA bombYield70 kt 292 88 TJ a Test chronologyGerboise Blanche Contents 1 Name 2 Test 2 1 Explosion 2 2 Fallout 3 Subsequent tests 4 International reactions 5 Programme 6 Later effects 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External linksName EditGerboise is the French word for jerboa a desert rodent found in the Sahara The color blue Bleue adjuncted is said to come from the first colour of the French Flag 4 Test EditExplosion Edit On April 11 1958 French Prime Minister Felix Gaillard ordered a nuclear test in the first quarter of 1960 President Charles de Gaulle reaffirmed the decision after the French Fourth Republic collapsed in the May 1958 crisis 5 On 13 February 1960 at 7 04 00 UTC 6 the plutonium filled bomb was detonated atop a steel tower with an altitude of 100 metres The command post was located 16 kilometres away from the blast In order to study the immediate effects military equipment was placed at varying distances from the epicenter while jets flew overhead to take samples of radioactive particles No journalists were allowed on site instead an eyewitness account was given to the French press saying the desert was lit up by a vast flash followed 45 seconds later by an appreciable shock wave an enormous ball of bluish fire with an orange red centre gave way to the typical mushroom cloud 7 With Gerboise Bleue France became the fourth nuclear power after the United States the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom Prior to this test there had been no nuclear detonations for 15 months Gerboise Bleue was by far the largest first test bomb up to that date larger than the American Trinity 20 kt the Soviet RDS 1 22 kt or the British Hurricane 25 kt The yield was 70 kilotons 8 bigger than these three bombs put together In comparison Fat Man the Nagasaki bomb was 22 kilotons one third as powerful As the atomic yield of a new bomb design cannot be precisely predicted the French army planned an explosion between 60 and 70 kt Gerboise Bleue was a total success yielding the full designed power 9 However because of the bomb s irregularly high yield some experts believe that the bomb may have been overfilled with plutonium to assure success 10 Only two other A bombs tested in the Sahara facilities were more powerful Rubis lt 100 kt 20 October 1963 and Saphir lt 150 kt 25 February 1965 Both were detonated underground at the In Ekker facilities According to Lieutenant Colonel Warner D Farr in a report to the USAF Counterproliferation Center Progress in nuclear science and technology in France and Israel remained closely linked throughout the early fifties Furthermore according to Farr There were several Israeli observers at the French nuclear tests and the Israelis had unrestricted access to French nuclear test explosion data 11 Fallout Edit Initial monitoring reported a radiation dose of 10 rad h at 0 8 km from ground zero one hour after the blast 10 rad h at 28 5 km and 3 rad h at 570 km Monitoring at Fort Lamy now N Djamena around 2 400 km from Reggane reported 10 9 Ci m3 8 For decades documentation of the Gerboise tests remained heavily classified by the French government The Ministry of the Armed Forces had maintained that the radioactive effects on humans present at the site would be weak and well below annual doses 12 However persons present at the site have since stated that protection gear was extremely minimal at the time of testing In addition ex military officers have come forward with stories of being used as test subjects to study the effects of nuclear radiation on humans Immediately following the explosion of Gerboise Verte which yielded lt 1 kiloton soldiers were sent within a 1 km radius of the explosion site where they practiced combat exercises and drove tanks around the area In total these subjects were exposed to high levels of radiation for three hours Following the exercises the soldiers state that they were given showers as the only means of decontamination 13 Subsequent tests EditAfter Gerboise Bleue in February 1960 France conducted until April 1961 three additional atmospheric tests in Reggane facility s Saharan Military Experiments Centre They were only emergency devices with yields deliberately reduced to less than 5 kilotons Shortly after the final Gerboise bomb Gerboise Verte the French moved their nuclear testing to the mountainous In Ekker region which housed an underground facility In 1962 the Algerian War ended with the signing of the Evian Accords Although the French military agreed to withdraw from Algeria within 12 months Chapter III of the Evian Accords granted France the use of a number of military airfields the terrains sites and installations necessary to her 14 It was because of this stipulation that France was able to continue nuclear testing in Algeria until 1966 With the underground tests the sequence designation was changed to jewel names starting in November 1961 with Agate lt 20 kt On 1 May 1962 during the second test the Beryl incident occurred which was declassified many years later Five months after the last Gerboise A bomb the Soviet Union responded by breaking its atmospheric tests moratorium settled de facto since late 1958 with the United States and the United Kingdom The USSR conducted many improvement tests starting in September 1961 with a series of 136 large H bombs The series included the most powerful bomb ever tested the 50 megaton 50 000 kt Tsar Bomba which was detonated over Novaya Zemlya Following the USSR the United States reactivated its own atmospheric test program with a series of 40 explosions from April 1962 to November 1962 This series included two powerful H bombs topping 7 45 Mt and 8 3 Mt 2 China also launched its own nuclear program resulting in the A bomb 596 22 kt tested on 16 October 1964 and the H bomb Test No 6 3 3 Mt tested 17 June 1967 In 1968 France detonated its first thermonuclear weapon Canopus 2 6 Mt at the new facility at Fangataufa a desert atoll in French Polynesia All other French atomic bomb tests including Canopus were carried out in French Polynesia from 1966 to 1996 The last bomb Xouthos lt 120 kt was detonated on 27 January 1996 See also List of nuclear weapons tests of France International reactions Edit Students from Mali protesting in Leipzig against the French nuclear testIn France the news of Gerboise Bleues success was generally met with satisfaction and national pride President De Gaulle stated Hurray for France Since this morning she is stronger and prouder 15 16 However the nation faced many international critics following the nuclear test especially from Africa Just days after the test all French assets in Ghana were frozen until such time as the effects of the present explosion and the future experiments referred to by the French Prime Minister become known 7 Morocco which lays claim to the portion of the Sahara where the bomb was detonated withdrew its ambassador from Paris just two days after the event Other African nations expressed their disappointment with France s decision to test nuclear weapons in the Sahara citing fears of radioactive fallout and the safety of their citizens Programme Edit Synthesis of the aerial tests 9 13 February 1960 Gerboise Bleue blue jerboa 70 kt 1 April 1960 Gerboise Blanche white jerboa lt 5 kt 27 December 1960 Gerboise Rouge red jerboa lt 5 kt 25 April 1961 Gerboise Verte green jerboa lt 1 ktGerboise Rouge was followed by a joint exercise in which infantry helicopters and armour reconnoitered the contaminated area 13 Gerboise Verte was intended to yield between 6 and 18 kilotonnes but effectively yielded less than 1 13 Like Gerboise Rouge it was followed by a joint exercise in the contaminated area codenamed Garigliano 13 The test had been patched up hastily and fired prematurely because of the Algiers putsch as it was feared that the nuclear bomb could fall in the hands of seditious elements 17 As a result the bomb yielded less than 1 kiloton 10 times less than the intended output Later effects EditAfter the tests nuclear fallout was detected as far away as Senegal Ivory Coast Burkina Faso and Sudan 18 In 2005 the Algerian government asked for a study to assess the radioactivity of former nuclear testing sites The International Atomic Energy Agency published the report suggesting that Gerboise Bleue explosion site had the second highest caesium 137 surface levels of the four tests of the series with a residual surface activity between 0 02 and 2 0 MBq m2 over a surface area of about 1 km2 19 The same report showed that the fallout of the bomb were contained in a circular area of less than 1 km in diameter 20 It also stated that these levels were not enough to warrant intervention and did not pose a threat to visitors of the area or inhabitants of Reggane In 2009 the French government agreed to compensate victims who had been exposed to nuclear radiation as a result of the testing in Algeria and French Polynesia The government also agreed to release additional documents which detailed how the tests had been carried out 21 According to the French NGO ACRO Saharan dust blown northwards by strong seasonal winds to France in early 2021 carried measurable levels of radioactive caesium 137 attributable to the Gerboise tests 22 See also EditAgate French first underground A bomb Canopus French first atmospheric H bomb Force de Frappe List of nuclear weapons tests of France List of states with nuclear weapons Nuclear weapons and France History of nuclear weaponsNotes Edit Physician Pierre Billaud reported a yield of 60 kt See External links References Edit Sokolski Henry D Tertrais Bruno 2013 Nuclear Weapons Security Crises What Does History Teach Strategic Studies Institute and U S Army War College Press p 31 ISBN 978 1 5848 7574 1 a b Senate of the French Republic 15 December 1997 French Senate report 179 The first French tests in the Sahara senat fr in French Retrieved 8 August 2020 Garrett Benjamin C 2017 Historical Dictionary of Nuclear Biological and Chemical Warfare Rowman amp Littlefield p 124 ISBN 978 1 5381 0684 6 Kutchesfahani Sara Z 2018 Global Nuclear Order Routledge ISBN 978 1 3519 9962 5 The Sprinters Soviet Union France and China Seeking the Bomb Princeton University Press pp 127 175 2020 12 31 doi 10 1515 9780691223063 006 ISBN 978 0 691 22306 3 S2CID 245890893 retrieved 2022 01 20 French Nuclear Testing 1960 1988 Technical report Natural Defense Resources Council 1989 p 25 Retrieved 10 August 2020 a b Nuclear Device exploded in the Sahara Afro Asian Reactions Ghana freezes French Assets Moroccan Ambassador withdrawn from Paris Keesing s Record of World Events 6 2 17279 February 1960 Archived from the original on 2018 04 08 Retrieved 2018 04 08 a b Rapport sur les essais nucleaires francais 1960 1996 PDF Technical report Government of the French Republic p 118 Retrieved 10 August 2020 a b French Senate report Reed Thomas Stillman Danny 2009 The nuclear express a political history of the bomb and its proliferation Zenith Press p 111 ISBN 978 0 7603 3502 4 Farr Warner D September 1999 The Third Temple s holy of holies Israel s nuclear weapons The Counterproliferation Papers Future Warfare Series vol 2 USAF Counterproliferation Center Air War College Air University Maxwell Air Force Base retrieved July 2 2006 Merchet Jean Dominique 2010 02 16 Essais nucleaires Gerboise verte la bombe et le scoop qui font plouf actualise 3 Liberation a b c d Essais nucleaires Gerboise verte la bombe et le scoop qui font plouf actualise Archived 2014 11 29 at the Wayback Machine Jean Dominique Merchet Liberation Algeria France Algeria independence agreements Evian agreements International Legal Materials 1 2 214 230 October 1962 JSTOR 20689578 Hourra pour la France Depuis ce matin elle est plus forte et plus fiere Il y a cinquante ans la France realisait son premier essai nucleaire Jean Dominique Merchet Liberation 13 February 2010 Sahara les cobayes de Gerboise verte Le Nouvel Observateur Vincent Jauvert 5 February 1998 France Algeria relations The lingering fallout from nuclear tests in the Sahara BBC News 26 April 2021 Radiological Conditions at the Former French Nuclear Test Sites in Algeria Preliminary Assessment and Recommendations PDF Technical report Vienna Austria International Atomic Energy Agency 1 March 2005 p 9 Retrieved 10 August 2020 Radiological Conditions at the Former French Nuclear Test Sites in Algeria Preliminary Assessment and Recommendations PDF Technical report Vienna Austria International Atomic Energy Agency 1 March 2005 p 10 Retrieved 10 August 2020 Cowell Alan 2009 03 24 France to Pay Nuclear Test Victims The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2018 04 08 Cereceda Rafael Irony as Saharan dust returns radiation from French nuclear tests in the 1960s euronews Retrieved 3 March 2021 External links EditReport of Pierre Billaud physician present at the test French Assembly report n 3571 Les premiers essais francais au Sahara 1960 1966 fr The failed atomic destiny of the French Algeria fr Podcast BBC Witness History France s nuclear tests in Algeria 9 minutes 19 January 2023 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Gerboise Bleue nuclear test amp oldid 1134595730, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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