fbpx
Wikipedia

Geography of Tuvalu

April 28, 2023

The Western Pacific nation of Tuvalu, formerly known as the Ellice Islands, is situated 4,000 kilometers (2,500 mi) northeast of Australia and is approximately halfway between Hawaii and Australia. It lies east-northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands (belonging to the Solomons), southeast of Nauru, south of Kiribati, west of Tokelau, northwest of Samoa and Wallis and Futuna and north of Fiji. It is a very small island country of 26 km2 (10 sq mi). Due to the spread out islands it has the 38th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 749,790 km2 (289,500 sq mi).

Geography of Tuvalu
ContinentPacific Ocean
RegionWestern Pacific
Coordinates5°41′S 176°12′E / 5.683°S 176.200°E / -5.683; 176.200
AreaRanked 191st
 • Total26 km2 (10 sq mi)
 • Land100%
 • Water0%
Coastline24 km (15 mi)
BordersNone
Highest pointNiulakita
4.6 metres (15 ft)
Lowest pointPacific Ocean
0 metres (0 ft)
Exclusive economic zone749,790 km2 (289,500 sq mi)

The Coral reefs of Tuvalu consists of three reef islands and six atolls, containing approximately 710 km2 (270 sq mi) of reef platforms.[1] The reef islands have a different structure to the atolls, and are described as reef platforms as they are smaller tabular reef platforms that do not have a salt-water lagoon,[2] although they have a completely closed rim of dry land, with the remnants of a lagoon that has no connection to the open sea or that may be drying up.[3] For example, Niutao has two lakes, which are brackish to saline; and are the degraded lagoon as the result of coral debris filling the lagoon.

The Tuvalu islands have poor soil and a total land area of only about 26 km2, less than 10 sq mi (30 km2). The land is very low-lying, with narrow coral atolls. The highest elevation is 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level on Niulakita. Over 4 decades, there had been a net increase in land area of the islets of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes are not uniform, with 74% increasing and 27% decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.[4] The rising sea levels are identified as creating an increased transfer of wave energy across reef surfaces, which shifts sand, resulting in accretion to island shorelines,[5] although this process does not result in additional habitable land.[6] but as of March 2018 Enele Sopoaga, the prime minister of Tuvalu, stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land.[6]

Tuvalu experiences two distinct seasons, a wet season from November to April and a dry season from May to October.[7] Westerly gales and heavy rain are the predominant weather conditions from October to March, the period that is known as Tau-o-lalo, with tropical temperatures moderated by easterly winds from April to November. In terms of size, it is the second-smallest country in Oceania.[8]

Geography

 
Funafuti wharf and beach (2013)

Location: Oceania, island group of nine islands comprising three reef islands and six true atolls in the South Pacific Ocean.[9] The islands of Tuvalu are spread out between the latitude of 5° to 10° south and longitude of 176° to 180°, west of the International Date Line.[9]

Geographic coordinates: 5°41′S 176°12′E / 5.683°S 176.200°E / -5.683; 176.200 to 10°45′S 179°51′E / 10.750°S 179.850°E / -10.750; 179.850

Map references: Oceania

Area:
total: 26 km2
land: 26 km2
water: 0 km2

Area – comparative: 0.1 times the size of Washington, DC

Land boundaries: 0 km

Coastline: 24 kilometres (15 mi)

Maritime claims:
contiguous zone: 24 nmi (44 km)
exclusive economic zone: 749,790 km2 (289,500 sq mi) and 200 nmi (370 km)
territorial sea: 12 nmi (22 km)

Tuvalu's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) covers an oceanic area of approximately 749,790 km2 (289,500 sq mi).[10]

On 29 August 2012 an Agreement between Tuvalu and Kiribati concerning their Maritime Boundary, was signed by their respective leaders that determined the boundary as being seaward of Nanumea and Niutao in Tuvalu on the one hand and Tabiteuea, Tamana and Arorae in Kiribati on the other hand, along the geodesics connecting the points of latitude and longitude set out in the agreement.[11]

In October 2014 the prime ministers of Fiji and Tuvalu signed the Fiji-Tuvalu Maritime Boundary Treaty, which establishes the extent of the national areas of jurisdiction between Fiji and Tuvalu as recognized in international law under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.[12][13]

Climate: tropical; moderated by easterly trade winds (March to November); westerly gales and heavy rain (November to March).

Terrain: low-lying and narrow coral atolls.

Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location, 4.6 metres (15 ft) on Niulakita.

Extreme points:

This is a list of the extreme points of Tuvalu, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location:

See also: Islands of Tuvalu and List of villages and neighbourhoods in Tuvalu

Natural resources: fish

Land use:
arable land: 0%
permanent crops: 60%
other: 40% (2011)

Irrigated land: NA km2

Trees and shrubs

Most common trees

Thaman (2016) described about 362 species or distinct varieties of vascular plants that have been recorded at some time on Tuvalu, of which only about 59 (16%) are possibly indigenous.[14] The most common trees found on all islands are coconut (Cocos nucifera) stands, hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus), papaya (Carica papaya), pandanus (Pandanus tectorius), salt bush (Scaevola taccada), Premna serratifolia, Tournefortia samoensis, zebra wood (Guettarda speciosa), Kanava (Cordia subcordata), (beach cordia) and terminalia (Terminalia samoensis). Indigenous broadleaf species, including Fetau (Calophyllum inophyllum), make up single trees or small stands around the coastal margin.[15] While Coconut palms are common in Tuvalu, they are usually cultivated rather than naturally seeding and growing. Tuvaluan traditional histories are that the first settlers of the islands planted Coconut palms as they were not found on the islands.

The two recorded mangrove species in Tuvalu are the common Togo (Rhizophora stylosa) and the red-flowered mangrove Sagale (Lumnitzera littorea), which is only reported on Nanumaga, Niutao, Nui and Vaitupu. Mangrove ecosystems are protected under Tuvaluan law.[16]

Native broadleaf forest

 
Scaevola taccada and Guettarda speciosa grow near the beach on Nanumea Atoll
 
Fualefeke Islet

The native broadleaf forest is limited to 4.1% of the vegetation types on the islands of Tuvalu.[17] The islets of the Funafuti Conservation Area have 40% of the remaining native broadleaf forest on Funafuti atoll. The native broadleaf forest of Funafuti would include the following species, that were described by Charles Hedley in 1896,[18] which include the Tuvaluan name (some of which may follow Samoan plant names):

The blossoms that are valued for their scent and for use in flower necklaces and headdresses include: Fetau, (Calophyllum inophyllum); Jiali, (Gardenia taitensis); Boua (Guettarda speciosa); and Crinum.[18]

Donald Gilbert Kennedy, the resident District Officer in the administration of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony from 1932 to 1938, identified other trees found in the broadleaf forest:[19]

Charles Hedley (1896) identified the uses of plants and trees from the native broadleaf forest as including:[20]

Thaman (1992) provides a literature review of the ethnobiology of the Pacific Islands.[21]

Climate and natural hazards

El Niño and La Niña

Tuvalu experiences the effects of El Niño and La Niña that flow from changes in ocean temperatures in equatorial and central Pacific. El Niño effects increase the chances of tropical storms and cyclones; while La Niña effects increase the chances of drought conditions in Tuvalu. On 3 October 2011, drought conditions resulted in a state of emergency being declared as water reserves ran low.[22][23][24] Typically the islands of Tuvalu receive between 200mm to 400mm of rainfall per month, however a weak La Niña effect causes a drought by cooling the surface of the sea around Tuvalu.

See also: 2011 Tuvalu drought

Tropical cyclones

Severe tropical cyclones are usually rare, but the low level of islands makes them very sensitive to sea-level rise. Tuvalu experienced an average of three cyclones per decade between the 1940s and 1970s, however eight occurred in the 1980s.[25] The impact of individual cyclones is subject to variables including the force of the winds and also whether a cyclone coincides with high tides. A warning system, which uses the Iridium satellite network, was introduced in 2016 in order to allow outlying islands to be better prepare for natural disasters.[26]

George Westbrook recorded a cyclone that struck Funafuti on 23–24 December 1883.[27][28] A cyclone struck Nukulaelae on 17–18 March 1886.[27] Captain Davis of HMS Royalist, who visited the Ellice Group in 1892, recorded in the ship's diary that in February 1891 the Ellice Group was devastated by a severe cyclone.[29] A cyclone caused severe damage to the islands in 1894.[30]

Cyclone Bebe caused severe damage to Funafuti during the 1972–73 South Pacific cyclone season.[31] Funafuti's Tepuka Vili Vili islet was devastated by Cyclone Meli in 1979, with all its vegetation and most of its sand swept away during the cyclone.[32] Cyclone Gavin was first identified during 2 March 1997, and was the first of three tropical cyclones to affect Tuvalu during the 1996–97 cyclone season with Cyclones Hina and Keli following later in the season. Cyclone Ofa had a major impact on Tuvalu in late January and early February 1990.[33] On Vaitupu Island around 85 percent of residential homes, trees and food crops were destroyed, while residential homes were also destroyed on the islands of Niutao, Nui and Nukulaelae. The majority of the islands in Tuvalu reported damage to vegetation and crops especially bananas, coconuts and breadfruit, with the extent of damage ranging from 10 to 40 percent. In Funafuti sea waves flattened the Hurricane Bebe bank at the southern end of the airstrip, which caused sea flooding and prompted the evacuation of several families from their homes. In Nui and Niulakita there was a minor loss of the landscape because of sea flooding while there were no lives lost. Soon after the systems had impacted Tuvalu, a Disaster Rehabilitation Sub-Committee was appointed to evaluate the damage caused and make recommendations to the National Disaster Committee and to the Cabinet of Tuvalu, on what should be done to help rehabilitate the affected areas.

In March 2015 Cyclone Pam, the Category 5 cyclone that devastated Vanuatu, caused damage to houses, crops and infrastructure on the outer islands.[34][35][36][37] A state of emergency was subsequently declared on 13 March.[38][39] An estimated 45 percent of the nation's nearly 10,000 people were displaced, according to Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga.[40][41] The three northern islands, Nanumea, Nanumanga and Niutao were badly affected by flooding as the result of storm surges. More than 400 people from the northern island of Nanumanga were moved to emergency accommodation in the school buildings, as well as another 85 families from Nukulaelae in the south of Tuvalu. On Nui the storm surges contaminated the water supplies and damaged septic tanks and grave sites. The central islands of Vaitupu and Nukufetau were also affected by flooding caused by storm surges.[42][43][44] The Situation Report published on 30 March reported that on Nukufetau all the displaced people have returned to their homes.[45]

Nui suffered the most damage of the three central islands (Nui, Nukufetau and Vaitupu);[46] with both Nui and Nukufetau suffering the loss of 90% of the crops.[45] Of the three northern islands (Nanumanga, Niutao, Nanumea), Nanumanga suffered the most damage, with 60–100 houses flooded and damage to the health facility.[45][47] Vasafua islet, part of the Funafuti Conservation Area, was severely damaged by Cyclone Pam. The coconut palms were washed away, leaving the islet as a sand bar.[48][49]

Tsunami

Nui was struck by a giant wave on 16 February 1882;[50] earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occurring in the basin of the Pacific Ocean and along the Pacific Ring of Fire are a possible cause of a tsunami. There is earthquake activity in the Solomon Islands, where earthquakes occurred in relation to the New Hebrides Trench,[51][52] and movement along the boundary of the Pacific Plate with, respectively, the Indo-Australia, Woodlark, and Solomon Sea plates.[53]

Tuvalu has the third lowest tsunami risk of Pacific Island countries, with a maximum tsunami amplitude of 1.6m for a 2000-year return period (comparatively, the highest is 5.2m for PNG, and the lowest is 1m for Nauru).[54] The assessment of the tsunami risk of Tuvalu was that major source of risk was activity associated with the New Hebrides trench. The orientation of the trench vis-à-vis the islands of Tuvalu results in the conclusion that most of the energy originating from New Hebrides trench is likely to be directed towards the southern islands of Tuvalu, so that the tsunami risk is lower for the northern islands when compared to the southern islands.[54][51][55]

Climate data

Climate data for Funafuti (Köppen Af)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 33.8
(92.8) 		34.4
(93.9) 		34.4
(93.9) 		33.2
(91.8) 		33.9
(93.0) 		33.9
(93.0) 		32.8
(91.0) 		32.9
(91.2) 		32.8
(91.0) 		34.4
(93.9) 		33.9
(93.0) 		33.9
(93.0) 		34.4
(93.9)
Average high °C (°F) 30.7
(87.3) 		30.8
(87.4) 		30.6
(87.1) 		31.0
(87.8) 		30.9
(87.6) 		30.6
(87.1) 		30.4
(86.7) 		30.4
(86.7) 		30.7
(87.3) 		31.0
(87.8) 		31.2
(88.2) 		31.0
(87.8) 		30.8
(87.4)
Daily mean °C (°F) 28.2
(82.8) 		28.1
(82.6) 		28.1
(82.6) 		28.2
(82.8) 		28.4
(83.1) 		28.3
(82.9) 		28.1
(82.6) 		28.1
(82.6) 		28.2
(82.8) 		28.2
(82.8) 		28.4
(83.1) 		28.3
(82.9) 		28.2
(82.8)
Average low °C (°F) 25.5
(77.9) 		25.3
(77.5) 		25.4
(77.7) 		25.7
(78.3) 		25.8
(78.4) 		25.9
(78.6) 		25.7
(78.3) 		25.8
(78.4) 		25.8
(78.4) 		25.7
(78.3) 		25.8
(78.4) 		25.7
(78.3) 		25.8
(78.4)
Record low °C (°F) 22.0
(71.6) 		22.2
(72.0) 		22.8
(73.0) 		23.0
(73.4) 		20.5
(68.9) 		23.0
(73.4) 		21.0
(69.8) 		16.1
(61.0) 		20.0
(68.0) 		21.0
(69.8) 		22.8
(73.0) 		22.8
(73.0) 		16.1
(61.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 413.7
(16.29) 		360.6
(14.20) 		324.3
(12.77) 		255.8
(10.07) 		259.8
(10.23) 		216.6
(8.53) 		253.1
(9.96) 		275.9
(10.86) 		217.5
(8.56) 		266.5
(10.49) 		275.9
(10.86) 		393.9
(15.51) 		3,512.6
(138.29)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 20 19 20 19 18 19 19 18 16 18 17 19 223
Average relative humidity (%) 82 82 82 82 82 82 83 82 81 81 80 81 82
Mean monthly sunshine hours 179.8 161.0 186.0 201.0 195.3 201.0 195.3 220.1 210.0 232.5 189.0 176.7 2,347.7
Mean daily sunshine hours 5.8 5.7 6.0 6.7 6.3 6.7 6.3 7.1 7.0 7.5 6.3 5.7 6.4
Source: Deutscher Wetterdienst[56]

Environment

Island, reef and lagoon habitats

 
Nukufetau atoll.
See also: Coral reefs of Tuvalu

Tuvalu consists of three reef islands and six true atolls. Its small, scattered group of atolls have poor soil and a total land area of only about 26 square kilometres (less than 10 sq. mi.) making it the fourth smallest country in the world. The islets that form the atolls are very low-lying. Nanumaga, Niutao, Niulakita are reef islands and the six true atolls are Funafuti, Nanumea, Nui, Nukufetau, Nukulaelae and Vaitupu. Funafuti is the largest atoll of the nine low reef islands and atolls that form the Tuvalu volcanic island chain. It comprises numerous islets around a central lagoon that is approximately 25.1 kilometres (15.6 mi) (N–S) by 18.4 kilometres (11.4 mi) (W-E), centred on 179°7’E and 8°30’S. On the atolls an annular reef rim surrounds the lagoon, with several natural reef channels.[57] A standard definition of an atoll is "an annular reef enclosing a lagoon in which there are no promontories other than reefs and islets composed of reef detritus".[57] The northern part of the Funafuti lagoon has a deep basin (maximum depth recorded of 54.7 m) basin, and the southern part of the lagoon has very narrow shallow basin.[58]

The eastern shoreline of Fongafale in the Funafuti lagoon (Te Namo) was modified during World War II; several piers were constructed, beach areas filled, and deep water access channels were excavated. These alternations to the reef and shoreline have resulted in changes to wave patterns with less sand accumulating to form the beaches as compared to former times; and the shoreline is now exposed to wave action.[59] Several attempts to stabilize the shoreline have not achieved the desired effect.[60]

The rising population results in increased demand on fish stocks, which are under stress;[61] although the creation of the Funafuti Conservation Area has provided a fishing exclusion area that helps sustain fish populations across the Funafuti lagoon. Population pressure on the resources of Funafuti and in-adequation sanitation systems have resulted in pollution.[62][63] The Waste Operations and Services Act 2009 provides the legal framework for the waste management and pollution control projects funded by the European Union that are directed to organic waste composting in eco-sanitation systems.[64] Plastic waste is also a problem as much imported food and other commodities is supplied in plastic containers or packaging.

Surveys were carried out in May 2010 of the reef habitats of Nanumea, Nukulaelae and Funafuti (including the Funafuti Conservation Area) and a total of 317 fish species were recorded during this Tuvalu Marine Life study. The surveys identified 66 species that had not previously been recorded in Tuvalu, which brings the total number of identified species to 607.[65][66]

The terrestrial invertebrates are land and shore crabs, including Paikea (Discoplax rotunda), Tupa (Cardisoma carnifex), Kamakama (Grapsus albolineatus), a range of hermit crabs, Uga (Coenobita spp) and the coconut crab, Uu (Birgus latro).[16] Also important are a range of land snails, misa (Melampus spp) used to make shell leis (ula) and traditional handicrafts,[67] which includes the decoration of mats, fans and wall hangings.[68]

Environment – climate change issues

Main article: Climate change in Tuvalu

Since there are no streams or rivers and groundwater is not potable, most water needs must be met by catchment systems with storage facilities; beachhead erosion because of the use of sand for building materials; excessive clearance of forest undergrowth for use as fuel; damage to coral reefs from the bleaching of the coral as a consequence of the increase of the ocean temperatures and acidification from increased levels of carbon dioxide; Tuvalu is very concerned about global increases in greenhouse gas emissions and their effect on rising sea levels, which threaten the country's underground water table. Tuvalu has adopted a national plan of action as the observable transformations over the last ten to fifteen years show Tuvaluans that there have been changes to the sea levels.[69]

Because of the low elevation, the islands that make up this nation are threatened by current and future sea level rise.[62] The highest elevation is 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level on Niulakita,[70] which gives Tuvalu the second-lowest maximum elevation of any country (after the Maldives). However, the highest elevations are typically in narrow storm dunes on the ocean side of the islands which are prone to over topping in tropical cyclones, such as occurred on Funafuti with Cyclone Bebe.[71]

 
Ocean side of Funafuti atoll showing the storm dunes, the highest point on the atoll.

Tuvalu is mainly composed of coral debris eroded from encircling reefs and pushed up onto the islands by winds and waves.[72] Paul Kench at the University of Auckland in New Zealand and Arthur Webb at the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission in Fiji released a study in 2010 on the dynamic response of reef islands to sea level rise in the central Pacific. Tuvalu was mentioned in the study, and Webb and Kench found that seven islands in one of its nine atolls have spread by more than 3 per cent on average since the 1950s.[73] One island, Funamanu, gained 0.44 hectares, or nearly 30 per cent of its previous area. In contrast, Tepuka Vili Vili has suffered a net loss in area of 22 percent since 1896. The shape and orientation of the reef has also changed over time.[72]

Further research by Kench et al., published in 2018 identifies rising sea levels as creating an increased transfer of wave energy across the reef surfaces of the atolls of Tuvalu, which shifts sand, resulting in accretion to island shorelines. Over 4 decades, there had been a net increase in land area of the islets of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes are not uniform, with 74% increasing and 27% decreasing in size.[5] However, this process does not result in additional habitable land.[6]

The storm surge resulting from a tropical cyclone can dramatically shift coral debris. In 1972 Funafuti was in the path of Cyclone Bebe. Tropical Cyclone Bebe was a pre-season tropical cyclone that impacted the Gilbert, Ellice Islands, and Fiji island groups.[74] The storm surge created a wall of coral rubble along the ocean side of Fongafale and Funafala that was about 10 miles (16 km) long, and about 10 feet (3.0 m) to 20 feet (6.1 m) thick at the bottom.[75] The cyclone knocked down about 90% of the houses and trees on Funafuti and contaminated sources of drinking water as a result of the system's storm surge and fresh water flooding.

Tuvalu is affected by perigean spring tide events which raise the sea level higher than a normal high tide.[76] The highest peak tide recorded by the Tuvalu Meteorological Service was 3.4 metres (11 ft) on 24 February 2006 and again on 19 February 2015.[77] As a result of historical sea level rise, the king tide events lead to flooding of low-lying areas, which is compounded when sea levels are further raised by La Niña effects or local storms and waves. In the future, sea level rise may threaten to submerge the nation entirely as it is estimated that a sea level rise of 20–40 centimetres (8–16 inches) in the next 100 years could make Tuvalu uninhabitable.[78][79]

Tuvalu experiences westerly gales and heavy rain from October to March – the period that is known as Tau-o-lalo; with tropical temperatures moderated by easterly winds from April to November. Drinking water is mostly obtained from rainwater collected on roofs and stored in tanks; these systems are often poorly maintained, resulting in lack of water.[80] Aid programs of Australia and the European Union have been directed to improving the storage capacity on Funafuti and in the outer islands.[81]

Borrow Pits Remediation (BPR) project

When the airfield, which is now Funafuti International Airport, was constructed during World War II. The coral base of the atoll was used as fill to create the runway. The resulting borrow pits impacted the fresh-water aquifer. In the low areas of Funafuti the sea water can be seen bubbling up through the porous coral rock to form pools with each high tide.[82][83][84] Since 1994 a project has been in development to assess the environmental impact of transporting sand from the lagoon to fill all the borrow pits and low-lying areas on Fongafale. In 2013 a feasibility study was carried out and in 2014 the Tuvalu Borrow Pits Remediation (BPR) project was approved, so that all ten borrow pits would be filled, leaving Tafua Pond, which is a natural pond.[85] The New Zealand Government funded the BPR project.[86] The project was carried out in 2015 with 365,000 sqm of sand being dredged from the lagoon to fill the holes and improve living conditions on the island. This project increased the usable land space on Fongafale by eight per cent.[87]

Environment – international agreements

Tuvalu is a party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none

Tuvalu ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1993.[88]

Tuvalu signed the Pacific Islands Cetaceans Memorandum of Understanding on 9 September 2010.

Funafuti atoll

Structure of Funafuti atoll

 
Funafuti atoll

Funafuti atoll consists of a narrow sweep of land between 20 and 400 metres (66 and 1,312 feet) wide, encircling a large lagoon (Te Namo) of about 18 km (11 miles) long and 14 km (9 miles) wide. The average depth in the Funafuti lagoon is about 20 fathoms (36.5 metres or 120 feet).[89] With a surface of 275 square kilometres (106.2 sq mi), it is by far the largest lagoon in Tuvalu. The northern part of the lagoon has a deep basin (maximum depth recorded of 54.7 m) basin, and the southern part of the lagoon has very narrow shallow basin.[58] The land area of the 33 islets aggregates to 2.4 square kilometres (0.9 sq mi), less than one percent of the total area of the atoll.

The boreholes on Fongafale islet at the site now called Darwin's Drill,[90] are the result of drilling conducted by the Royal Society of London for the purpose of investigating the formation of coral reefs to determine whether traces of shallow water organisms could be found at depth in the coral of Pacific atolls. This investigation followed the work on The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs conducted by Charles Darwin in the Pacific. Drilling occurred in 1896, 1897 and 1898.[91] Professor Edgeworth David of the University of Sydney was a member of the 1896 "Funafuti Coral Reef Boring Expedition of the Royal Society", under Professor William Sollas and lead the expedition in 1897.[92] However, the geologic history of atolls is more complex than Darwin (1842) and Davis (1928)[93] envisioned.[94][95] The survey of the atoll published in 1970 described its structure as being:

“Funafuti is an almost circular and conical submarine mountain 12,000 feet high, originally volcanic, and of immense geological age, much older than the relatively young and active mountains of the New Hebrides and Solomons. At its base on the ocean bed it is 30 miles wide in one of the directions tested, and 28 miles wide on the other. It rises in a gentle slope which gradually steepens to a point 2,400 feet below water level, after which it rises at an angle of 80 degrees to 840 feet below water level. From this point it rises vertically, like an enormous pillar, till reaches the surface in the form of a reef enclosing a lagoon of irregular size, but of which the extremities give a measurement of 13.5 by 10.0 miles".[89]

Aquifer salinization of Fongafale Islet, Funafuti

The investigation of groundwater dynamics of Fongafale Islet, Funafuti, show that tidal forcing results in salt water contamination of the surficial aquifer during spring tides.[96] The degree of aquifer salinization depends on the specific topographic characteristics and the hydrologic controls in the sub-surface of the atoll. About half of Fongafale islet is reclaimed swamp that contains porous, highly permeable coral blocks that allow the tidal forcing of salt water.[97] There was extensive swamp reclamation during World War II to create the air field that is now the Funafuti International Airport. As a consequence of the specific topographic characteristics of Fongafale, unlike other atoll islands of a similar size, Fongafale does not have a thick freshwater lens.[97] The narrow fresh water and brackish water sheets in the sub-surface of Fongafale islet results in the taro swamps and the fresh groundwater resources of the islet being highly vulnerable to salinization resulting from the rising sea-level.[97]

In addition to the increased risk of salinized by the sea-level rise, the freshwater lens is at risk from over extraction due to the large population that now occupies Fongafale islet; the increased extraction can be exacerbated by a decrease of the rainfall recharge rate associated with the climate change.[96] Water pollution is also a chronic problem, with domestic wastewater identified as the primary pollution source.[98] Approximately 92% of households on Fongafale islet have access to septic tanks and pit toilets. However these sanitary facilities are not built as per the design specifications or they are not suitable for the geophysical characteristics, which results in seepage into the fresh water lens and run off into coastal waters.[98]

On Funafuti and on the other islands, rainwater collected off the corrugated iron roofs of buildings is now the primary source of fresh water. On Funafuti a desalination unit that was donated by Japan in 2006 also provides fresh water.[99] In response to the 2011 drought, Japan funded the purchase of a 100 m³/d desalination plant and two portable 10 m³/d plants as part of its Pacific Environment Community (PEC) program.[100][101] Aid programs from the European Union[81][102] and Australia also provided water tanks as part of the longer-term solution for the storage of available fresh water.

Aquifer salinization and the impact on Pulaka production

Swamp taro (Cyrtosperma merkusii), known in Tuvalu as Pulaka, is grown in large pits of composted soil below the water table,[103] Pulaka has been the main source for carbohydrates,[103] it is similar to taro, but "with bigger leaves and larger, coarser roots".[104]

In recent years the Tuvaluan community have raised concerns over increased salinity of the groundwater in pits that are used to cultivate pulaka.[105] Pits on all islands of Tuvalu (except Niulakita) were surveyed in 2006. Nukulaelae and Niutao each had one pit area in which salinity concentrations thought to be too high for successful swamp taro growth. However, on Fongafale in Funafuti all pits surveyed were either too saline or very marginal for swamp taro production, although a more salt tolerant species of taro (Colocasia esculenta) was being grown in Fongafale.[106]

The extent of the salinization of the aquifer on Fongafale Islet is the result of both man-made changes to the topography that occurred when the air field was built in World War II by reclaiming swamp land and excavating coral rock from other parts of the islet. These topographic changes are exacerbated by the groundwater dynamics of the islet, as tidal forcing pushes salt water into the surficial aquifer during spring tides.[96]

The freshwater lens of each atoll is a fragile system. Tropical cyclones and other storm events also result in wave wash over and extreme high water also occurs during spring tides. These events can result in salt water contamination of the fresh groundwater lens. Periods of low rainfall can also result in contraction of the freshwater lens as the coconut trees and other vegetation draw up the water at a greater than recharge than it can be recharged. The over extraction of ground water to supply human needs has a similar result as drought conditions.[107]

See also

References

  1. ^ Morris, C., & Mackay, K. (2008). Status of coral reefs in the Southwest Pacific: Fiji, Nauru, New Caledonia, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu (Report). Status of coral reefs of the world (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science). pp. 177–188.{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ Paul S. Kench, Murray R. Ford & Susan D. Owen (9 February 2018). "Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations (Supplementary Note 1)". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 605. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9..605K. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-02954-1. PMC 5807422. PMID 29426825.
  3. ^ Hedley, Charles (1896). "General account of the Atoll of Funafuti" (PDF). Australian Museum Memoir. 3 (2): 1–72. doi:10.3853/j.0067-1967.3.1896.487.
  4. ^ Paul S. Kench, Murray R. Ford & Susan D. Owen (9 February 2018). "Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations (Supplementary Note 2)". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 605. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9..605K. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-02954-1. PMC 5807422. PMID 29426825.
  5. ^ a b Paul S. Kench, Murray R. Ford & Susan D. Owen (9 February 2018). "Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 605. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9..605K. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-02954-1. PMC 5807422. PMID 29426825.
  6. ^ a b c "TUVALU PM REFUTES AUT RESEARCH". 19 March 2018. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  7. ^ "Current and Future Climate of Tuvalu" (PDF). Tuvalu Meteorological Service, Australian Bureau of Meteorology & Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  8. ^ Rodgers, K. A., and Carol Cantrell. The biology and geology of Tuvalu: an annotated bibliography. No. 1. Australian Museum, 1988.
  9. ^ a b "Maps of Tuvalu". Retrieved 15 January 2021.
  10. ^ A J Tilling; Ms E Fihaki (17 November 2009). Tuvalu National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (PDF). Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. p. 7.
  11. ^ "Agreement between Tuvalu and Kiribati concerning their Maritime Boundary" (PDF). U.N. 29 August 2012.
  12. ^ "Fiji Tuvalu Maritime Boundary Treaty". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Fiji. 17 October 2014. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
  13. ^ "Fiji and Tuvalu sign maritime boundary agreement". Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) Geoscience Division. 24 October 2014. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
  14. ^ Thaman, Randolph (October 2016). "The Flora of Tuvalu: Lakau Mo Mouku o Tuvalu". Atoll Research Bulletin (611): xii-129. doi:10.5479/si.0077-5630.611. S2CID 89181901.
  15. ^ FCG ANZDEC Ltd (7 October 2020). Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project: Environmental and Social Impact Assessment - Funafuti (Report). The Pacific Community. p. 53. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  16. ^ a b FCG ANZDEC Ltd (7 August 2020). Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project: Environmental and Social Impact Assessment - Nanumaga and Nanumea (Report). The Pacific Community. p. 66. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  17. ^ Randy Thaman, Feagaiga Penivao, Faoliu Teakau, Semese Alefaio, Lamese Saamu, Moe Saitala, Mataio Tekinene and Mile Fonua (2017). "Report on the 2016 Funafuti Community-Based Ridge-To-Reef (R2R)" (PDF). Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Conservation Status of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (BES) In Tuvalu. Retrieved 25 May 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ a b Hedley, Charles (1896). General account of the Atoll of Funafuti (PDF). Australian Museum Memoir 3(2): 1–72. pp. 30–40.
  19. ^ Kennedy, Donald (1931). The Ellice Islands Canoe Journal of the Polynesian Society Memoir no. 9. Journal of the Polynesian Society. pp. 71–100.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g Hedley, Charles (1896). General account of the Atoll of Funafuti (PDF). Australian Museum Memoir 3(2): 1–72. pp. 40–41.
  21. ^ Thaman, R.R. (May 1992). "Batiri Kei Baravi: The Ethnobotany of Pacific Island Coastal Plants" (PDF). Atoll Research Bulletin. National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. 361 (361): 1–62. doi:10.5479/si.00775630.361.1. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
  22. ^ "Tuvalu's crippling drought offers important lessons to the Pacific". Secretariat of the Pacific Community. 6 October 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2015.
  23. ^ Benns, Matthew (3 October 2011). "Tuvalu 'to run out of water by Tuesday'". The Telegraph. London.
  24. ^ Macrae, Alistair (11 October 2011). "Tuvalu in a fight for its life". The Drum – Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 12 October 2011.
  25. ^ Connell, John (2015). "Vulnerable Islands: Climate Change, Techonic Change, and Changing Livelihoods in the Western Pacific" (PDF). The Contemporary Pacific. 27 (1): 1–36. doi:10.1353/cp.2015.0014.
  26. ^ "Tuvalu to introduce new early warning system". Radio New Zealand. 10 June 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
  27. ^ a b McLean, R.F. and Munro, D. (1991). "Late 19th century Tropical Storms and Hurricanes in Tuvalu" (PDF). South Pacific Journal of Natural History. 11: 213–219.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Resture, Jane. Hurricane 1883. Tuvalu and the Hurricanes: 'Gods Who Die' by Julian Dana as told by George Westbrook.
  29. ^ Resture, Jane (17 May 2004). "Tuvalu and the hurricanes". Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  30. ^ Taafaki, Pasoni (1983). "Chapter 2 – The Old Order". In Laracy, Hugh (ed.). Tuvalu: A History. Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific and Government of Tuvalu. p. 27.
  31. ^ "Life bounce back in the Ellice". 44(5) Pacific Islands Monthly. 1 May 1966. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
  32. ^ "Kogatapu Funafuti Conservation Area". Tuvaluislands.com. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
  33. ^ Koop, Neville L; Fiji Meteorological Service (Winter 1991). DeAngellis, Richard M (ed.). Samoa Depression (Mariners Weather Log). Vol. 35. United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Oceanographic Data Service. p. 53. ISSN 0025-3367. OCLC 648466886.
  34. ^ "Wild weather in Tuvalu". Tuvalu Solar Project Team Blog. 11 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  35. ^ "Flooding in Vanuatu, Kiribati and Tuvalu as Cyclone Pam strengthens". SBS Australia. 13 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  36. ^ "State of emergency in Tuvalu". Radio New Zealand International. 14 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  37. ^ "45 percent of Tuvalu population displaced – PM". Radio New Zealand International. 15 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  38. ^ "Press Release issued by the Office of the Prime Minister" (PDF). Fenui News. 13 March 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2018.
  39. ^ "State of emergency in Tuvalu". Radio New Zealand International. 14 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  40. ^ "45 percent of Tuvalu population displaced – PM". Radio New Zealand International. 15 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  41. ^ "International assistance due today in Tuvalu". Radio New Zealand International. 17 March 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  42. ^ Emergency Plan of Action (EPoA) Tuvalu: Tropical Cyclone Pam (PDF). International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (Report). ReliefWeb. 16 March 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  43. ^ "One Tuvalu island evacuated after flooding from Pam". Radio New Zealand International. 18 March 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  44. ^ "Tuvalu: Tropical Cyclone Pam Situation Report No. 1 (as of 22 March 2015)". Relief Web. 22 March 2015. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
  45. ^ a b c "Tuvalu: Tropical Cyclone Pam Situation Report No. 2 (as of 30 March 2015)". Relief Web. 30 March 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
  46. ^ "Forgotten paradise under water". United Nations Development Programme. 1 May 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
  47. ^ "Tuvalu situation update: Securing health from disastrous impacts of cyclone Pam in Tuvalu". Relief Web/World health Organisation – Western Pacific Region. 3 April 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
  48. ^ Wilson, David (4 July 2015). "Vasafua Islet vanishes". Tuvalu-odyssey.net. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  49. ^ Endou, Shuuichi (28 March 2015). "バサフア島、消失・・・(Vasafua Islet vanishes)". Tuvalu Overview (Japanese). Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  50. ^ Pape, Sotaga (1983). "10". In Laracy, Hugh (ed.). Tuvalu: A History (Chapter 10) Nui. Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific and Government of Tuvalu. p. 76.
  51. ^ a b FCG ANZDEC Ltd (7 October 2020). Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project: Environmental and Social Impact Assessment - Funafuti (Report). The Pacific Community. p. 50. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  52. ^ FCG ANZDEC Ltd (7 August 2020). Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project: Environmental and Social Impact Assessment - Nanumaga and Nanumea (Report). The Pacific Community. p. 61. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  53. ^ "Magnitude 8.1 – SOLOMON ISLANDS – Summary". USGS Earthquake Hazards Program. from the original on 6 April 2007. Retrieved 2 April 2007.
  54. ^ a b Thomas, C.; Burbidge, D (2009). A Probabilistic Tsunami Hazard. Assessment of the Southwest Pacific Nations. Geoscience Australia Professional Opinion No.2009/02. Rereleased 2011/11 (PDF) (Report). Geoscience Australia (GA). Retrieved 12 February 2021.
  55. ^ FCG ANZDEC Ltd (7 August 2020). Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project: Environmental and Social Impact Assessment - Nanumaga and Nanumea (Report). The Pacific Community. p. 61. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
  56. ^ "Klimatafel von Funafuti / Tuvalu (Ellice-Inseln)" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
  57. ^ a b McNeil, F. S. (1954). "Organic reefs and banks and associated detrital sediments". Am. J. Sci. 252 (7): 385–401. Bibcode:1954AmJS..252..385M. doi:10.2475/ajs.252.7.385.
  58. ^ a b "EU-SOPAC Project Report 50: TUVALU TECHNICAL REPORT High-Resolution Bathymetric Survey Fieldwork undertaken from 19 September to 24 October 2004" (PDF). Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission c/o SOPAC Secretariat. October 2018. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
  59. ^ "Fogafale: Then and Now (1941 & 2003)". tuvaluislands.com. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
  60. ^ Carter, Ralf (4 July 1986). "Wind and Sea Analysis – Funafuti Lagoon, Tuvalu". South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme and UNDP Project RAS/81/102 (Technical. Report No. 58 of PE/TU.3). Retrieved 2 January 2020.
  61. ^ Lusama, Tafue (29 November 2011). "Tuvalu plight must be heard by UNFCC". The Drum – Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
  62. ^ a b Krales, Amelia Holowaty (18 October 2011). "As Danger Laps at Its Shores, Tuvalu Pleads for Action". The New York Times – Green: A Blog about Energy and the Environment. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  63. ^ Baarsch, Florent (4 March 2011). "Warming oceans and human waste hit Tuvalu's sustainable way of life". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  64. ^ "Tuvalu / Water, Waste and Sanitation Project (TWWSP): CRIS FED/2009/021-195, ANNEX" (PDF). European Union. 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  65. ^ Sandrine Job; Daniela Ceccarelli (December 2011). "Tuvalu Marine Life Synthesis Report" (PDF). Alofa Tuvalu project with the Tuvalu Fisheries Department. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  66. ^ Sandrine Job; Daniela Ceccarelli (December 2012). "Tuvalu Marine Life Scientific Report" (PDF). Alofa Tuvalu project with the Tuvalu Fisheries Department. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
  67. ^ Randy Thaman, Feagaiga Penivao, Faoliu Teakau, Semese Alefaio, Lamese Saamu, Moe Saitala, Mataio Tekinene and Mile Fonua (2017). "Report on the 2016 Funafuti Community-Based Ridge-To-Reef (R2R)" (PDF). Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Conservation Status of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (BES) in Tuvalu. Retrieved 13 February 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  68. ^ Tiraa-Passfield, Anna (September 1996). "The uses of shells in traditional Tuvaluan handicrafts" (PDF). SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin #7. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  69. ^ "Tuvalu's National Adaptation Programme of Action" (PDF). Department of Environment of Tuvalu. May 2007. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  70. ^ Lewis, James (December 1989). "Sea level rise: Some implications for Tuvalu". The Environmentalist. 9 (4): 269–275. doi:10.1007/BF02241827. S2CID 84796023.
  71. ^ Tropical Cyclones in the Northern Australian Regions 1971–1972. 1975 Bureau of Meteorology, Australian Government Publishing Service.
  72. ^ a b Warne, Kennedy (13 February 2015). "Will Pacific Island Nations Disappear as Seas Rise? Maybe Not – Reef islands can grow and change shape as sediments shift, studies show". National Geographic. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
  73. ^ Plumer, Bradford (7 June 2010). "Pacific Islands Defying Sea-Level Rise—For Now". New Republic. Retrieved 11 October 2015.
  74. ^ Bureau of Meteorology (1975) Tropical Cyclones in the Northern Australian Regions 1971–1972 Australian Government Publishing Service
  75. ^ Resture, Jane (5 October 2009). "Hurricane Bebe 1972". Tuvalu and the Hurricanes: 'The Hurricane in Funafuti, Tuvalu' by Pasefika Falani (Pacific Frank). Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  76. ^ Shukman, David (22 January 2008). "Tuvalu struggles to hold back tide". BBC News. Retrieved 5 August 2008.
  77. ^ "Tuvalu surveys road damage after king tides". Radio New Zealand. 24 February 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  78. ^ Patel SS (2006). "A sinking feeling" (PDF). Nature. 440 (7085): 734–736. Bibcode:2006Natur.440..734P. doi:10.1038/440734a. PMID 16598226. S2CID 1174790.
  79. ^ Hunter, J. A. 2002. Note on Relative Sea Level Change at Funafuti, Tuvalu 7 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 13 May 2006.
  80. ^ Kingston, P.A. (2004). "Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality in the Pacific Islands: Situation Analysis and Needs Assessment". Situation Analysis and Needs Assessment, Country Reports, WHO. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
  81. ^ a b "Tuvalu – 10th European Development Fund". Delegation of the European Union. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
  82. ^ Laafai, Monise (October 2005). "Funafuti King Tides". Retrieved 14 October 2011.
  83. ^ Mason, Moya K. "Tuvalu: Flooding, Global Warming, and Media Coverage". Retrieved 13 October 2011.
  84. ^ Holowaty Krales, Amelia (20 February 2011). "Chasing the Tides, parts I & II". Retrieved 20 November 2012.
  85. ^ Silafaga Lalua Melton (28 October 2014). "73 years of waiting finally pays off for Funafuti". Fenui News. Retrieved 1 April 2014.
  86. ^ "Tuvalu to Benefit from International Dredging Aid". Dredging News. 1 April 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2014.
  87. ^ "Coast contractor completes aid project in remote Tuvalu". SunshineCoastDaily. 27 November 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  88. ^ Compiled by Randy Thaman with assistance from Faoliu Teakau, Moe Saitala, Epu Falega, Feagaiga Penivao, Mataio Tekenene and Semese Alefaio (2016). "Tuvalu National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan: Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity" (PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Trade, Tourism, Environment and Labour Government of Tuvalu. Retrieved 25 May 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  89. ^ a b Coates, A. (1970). Western Pacific Islands. H.M.S.O. p. 349.
  90. ^ Lal, Andrick. (PDF). SPC Applied Geoscience and Technology Division (SOPAC Division of SPC). pp. 35 & 40. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 February 2014.
  91. ^ "TO THE EDITOR OF THE HERALD". The Sydney Morning Herald. National Library of Australia. 11 September 1934. p. 6. Retrieved 20 June 2012.
  92. ^ David, Mrs Edgeworth, Funafuti or Three Months on a Coral Atoll: an unscientific account of a scientific expedition, London: John Murray, 1899
  93. ^ Davis, W.M. (1928). "The coral reef problem". American Geographical Society Special Publication. 9: 1–596.
  94. ^ Stoddart, D. R. (1994). "Theory and Reality: The Success and Failure of the Deductive Method in Coral Reef Studies–Darwin to Davis". Earth Sciences History. 13 (1): 21–34. doi:10.17704/eshi.13.1.wp354u3281532021.
  95. ^ Dickinson, William R. (2009). "Pacific Atoll Living: How Long Already and Until When?" (PDF). GSA Today. 19 (3): 4–10. doi:10.1130/GSATG35A.1.
  96. ^ a b c Nakada S.; Yamano H.; Umezawa Y.; Fujita M.; Watanabe M.; Taniguchi M. (2010). "Evaluation of Aquifer Salinization in the Atoll Islands by Using Electrical Resistivity". Journal of the Remote Sensing Society of Japan. 30: 317–330. doi:10.11440/rssj.30.317.
  97. ^ a b c Nakada S, Umezawa Y, Taniguchi M, Yamano H (July–August 2012). "Groundwater dynamics of Fongafale Islet, Funafuti Atoll, Tuvalu". Groundwater. 50 (4): 639–44. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6584.2011.00874.x. PMID 22035506. S2CID 32336745.
  98. ^ a b Fujita M., Suzuki J., Sato D., Kuwahara Y., Yokoki H., Kayanne, Y. (2013). "Anthropogenic impacts on water quality of the lagoonal coast of Fongafale Islet, Funafuti Atoll, Tuvalu" (PDF). Sustainability Science. 8 (3): 381–390. doi:10.1007/s11625-013-0204-x. S2CID 127909606.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  99. ^ "Japan Provides Desalination Plant to relieve Tuvalu's water problems". Embassy of Japan in the Republic of the Fiji Islands. 2 June 2006. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
  100. ^ "Japan-New Zealand Aid Cooperation in response to severe water shortage in Tuvalu". Department of Foreign Affairs of Japan. 4 November 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
  101. ^ "Japanese fund three desalination plants for Tuvalu". The International Desalination & Water Reuse Quarterly industry website. 17 October 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
  102. ^ "Tuvalu / Water, Waste and Sanitation Project (TWWSP): CRIS FED/2009/021-195, ANNEX" (PDF). European Union. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  103. ^ a b Koch, Gerd (1983). The material culture of Tuvalu. Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific. p. 46. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
  104. ^ "Leaflet No. 1 – Revised 1992 – Taro". Food and Agriculture Organization. 1992. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
  105. ^ "Tuvalu could lose root crop". Radio New Zealand. 17 September 2008. Retrieved 10 May 2010.
  106. ^ Webb, Dr Arthur (March 2007). "Tuvalu Technical Report: Assessment of Salinity of Groundwater in Swamp Taro (Cyrtosperma Chamissonis) "Pulaka" Pits in Tuvalu". Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission, EU EDF8-SOPAC Project Report 75: Reducing Vulnerability of Pacific ACP States. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
  107. ^ Nakada S, Umezawa Y, Taniguchi M, Yamano H (2012). "Groundwater dynamics of Fongafale Islet, Funafuti Atoll, Tuvalu". Groundwater. 50 (4): 639–44. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6584.2011.00874.x. PMID 22035506. S2CID 32336745.

Further reading

  • (in English) Kench, Thompson, Ford, Ogawa and McLean (2015). "GSA DATA REPOSITORY 2015184 (Changes in planform characteristics of 29 islands located on Funafuti's atoll rim)" (PDF). The Geological Society of America. Retrieved 22 January 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Compiled by Randy Thaman with assistance from Faoliu Teakau, Moe Saitala, Epu Falega, Feagaiga Penivao, Mataio Tekenene and Semese Alefaio (2016). "Tuvalu National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan: Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity" (PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Trade, Tourism, Environment and Labour Government of Tuvalu. Retrieved 25 May 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Thaman, Randolph (October 2016). "The Flora of Tuvalu: Lakau Mo Mouku o Tuvalu". Atoll Research Bulletin (611): xii-129. doi:10.5479/si.0077-5630.611. S2CID 89181901.

  This article incorporates public domain material from World Factbook. CIA.

April 28, 2023
geography, tuvalu, western, pacific, nation, tuvalu, formerly, known, ellice, islands, situated, kilometers, northeast, australia, approximately, halfway, between, hawaii, australia, lies, east, northeast, santa, cruz, islands, belonging, solomons, southeast, . The Western Pacific nation of Tuvalu formerly known as the Ellice Islands is situated 4 000 kilometers 2 500 mi northeast of Australia and is approximately halfway between Hawaii and Australia It lies east northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands belonging to the Solomons southeast of Nauru south of Kiribati west of Tokelau northwest of Samoa and Wallis and Futuna and north of Fiji It is a very small island country of 26 km2 10 sq mi Due to the spread out islands it has the 38th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 749 790 km2 289 500 sq mi Geography of TuvaluContinentPacific OceanRegionWestern PacificCoordinates5 41 S 176 12 E 5 683 S 176 200 E 5 683 176 200AreaRanked 191st Total26 km2 10 sq mi Land100 Water0 Coastline24 km 15 mi BordersNoneHighest pointNiulakita 4 6 metres 15 ft Lowest pointPacific Ocean 0 metres 0 ft Exclusive economic zone749 790 km2 289 500 sq mi The Coral reefs of Tuvalu consists of three reef islands and six atolls containing approximately 710 km2 270 sq mi of reef platforms 1 The reef islands have a different structure to the atolls and are described as reef platforms as they are smaller tabular reef platforms that do not have a salt water lagoon 2 although they have a completely closed rim of dry land with the remnants of a lagoon that has no connection to the open sea or that may be drying up 3 For example Niutao has two lakes which are brackish to saline and are the degraded lagoon as the result of coral debris filling the lagoon The Tuvalu islands have poor soil and a total land area of only about 26 km2 less than 10 sq mi 30 km2 The land is very low lying with narrow coral atolls The highest elevation is 4 6 metres 15 ft above sea level on Niulakita Over 4 decades there had been a net increase in land area of the islets of 73 5 ha 2 9 although the changes are not uniform with 74 increasing and 27 decreasing in size The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3 9 mm per year which is approximately twice the global average 4 The rising sea levels are identified as creating an increased transfer of wave energy across reef surfaces which shifts sand resulting in accretion to island shorelines 5 although this process does not result in additional habitable land 6 but as of March 2018 Enele Sopoaga the prime minister of Tuvalu stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land 6 Tuvalu experiences two distinct seasons a wet season from November to April and a dry season from May to October 7 Westerly gales and heavy rain are the predominant weather conditions from October to March the period that is known as Tau o lalo with tropical temperatures moderated by easterly winds from April to November In terms of size it is the second smallest country in Oceania 8 Contents 1 Geography 2 Trees and shrubs 2 1 Most common trees 2 2 Native broadleaf forest 3 Climate and natural hazards 3 1 El Nino and La Nina 3 2 Tropical cyclones 3 3 Tsunami 3 4 Climate data 4 Environment 4 1 Island reef and lagoon habitats 4 2 Environment climate change issues 4 3 Borrow Pits Remediation BPR project 4 4 Environment international agreements 5 Funafuti atoll 5 1 Structure of Funafuti atoll 5 2 Aquifer salinization of Fongafale Islet Funafuti 5 3 Aquifer salinization and the impact on Pulaka production 6 See also 7 References 8 Further readingGeography Edit Funafuti wharf and beach 2013 Location Oceania island group of nine islands comprising three reef islands and six true atolls in the South Pacific Ocean 9 The islands of Tuvalu are spread out between the latitude of 5 to 10 south and longitude of 176 to 180 west of the International Date Line 9 Geographic coordinates 5 41 S 176 12 E 5 683 S 176 200 E 5 683 176 200 to 10 45 S 179 51 E 10 750 S 179 850 E 10 750 179 850Map references OceaniaArea total 26 km2land 26 km2water 0 km2Area comparative 0 1 times the size of Washington DCLand boundaries 0 kmCoastline 24 kilometres 15 mi Maritime claims contiguous zone 24 nmi 44 km exclusive economic zone 749 790 km2 289 500 sq mi and 200 nmi 370 km territorial sea 12 nmi 22 km Tuvalu s Exclusive Economic Zone EEZ covers an oceanic area of approximately 749 790 km2 289 500 sq mi 10 On 29 August 2012 an Agreement between Tuvalu and Kiribati concerning their Maritime Boundary was signed by their respective leaders that determined the boundary as being seaward of Nanumea and Niutao in Tuvalu on the one hand and Tabiteuea Tamana and Arorae in Kiribati on the other hand along the geodesics connecting the points of latitude and longitude set out in the agreement 11 In October 2014 the prime ministers of Fiji and Tuvalu signed the Fiji Tuvalu Maritime Boundary Treaty which establishes the extent of the national areas of jurisdiction between Fiji and Tuvalu as recognized in international law under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 12 13 Climate tropical moderated by easterly trade winds March to November westerly gales and heavy rain November to March Terrain low lying and narrow coral atolls Elevation extremes lowest point Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point unnamed location 4 6 metres 15 ft on Niulakita Extreme points Lat and Long 8 19 S 179 08 E 8 32 S 179 13 E 8 32 179 13 Funafuti This is a list of the extreme points of Tuvalu the points that are farther north south east or west than any other location Northernmost point Lakena islet Nanumea Easternmost point Niuoko islet Nukulaelae Southernmost point Niulakita Westernmost point Lakena islet NanumeaSee also Islands of Tuvalu and List of villages and neighbourhoods in Tuvalu Natural resources fishLand use arable land 0 permanent crops 60 other 40 2011 Irrigated land NA km2Trees and shrubs EditMost common trees Edit Thaman 2016 described about 362 species or distinct varieties of vascular plants that have been recorded at some time on Tuvalu of which only about 59 16 are possibly indigenous 14 The most common trees found on all islands are coconut Cocos nucifera stands hibiscus Hibiscus tiliaceus papaya Carica papaya pandanus Pandanus tectorius salt bush Scaevola taccada Premna serratifolia Tournefortia samoensis zebra wood Guettarda speciosa Kanava Cordia subcordata beach cordia and terminalia Terminalia samoensis Indigenous broadleaf species including Fetau Calophyllum inophyllum make up single trees or small stands around the coastal margin 15 While Coconut palms are common in Tuvalu they are usually cultivated rather than naturally seeding and growing Tuvaluan traditional histories are that the first settlers of the islands planted Coconut palms as they were not found on the islands The two recorded mangrove species in Tuvalu are the common Togo Rhizophora stylosa and the red flowered mangrove Sagale Lumnitzera littorea which is only reported on Nanumaga Niutao Nui and Vaitupu Mangrove ecosystems are protected under Tuvaluan law 16 Native broadleaf forest Edit Scaevola taccada and Guettarda speciosa grow near the beach on Nanumea Atoll Fualefeke Islet The native broadleaf forest is limited to 4 1 of the vegetation types on the islands of Tuvalu 17 The islets of the Funafuti Conservation Area have 40 of the remaining native broadleaf forest on Funafuti atoll The native broadleaf forest of Funafuti would include the following species that were described by Charles Hedley in 1896 18 which include the Tuvaluan name some of which may follow Samoan plant names Fala or Screw Pine Pandanus Puka or pouka Hernandia peltata Futu Barringtonia asiatica Fetau Calophyllum inophyllum Ferra Ficus aspem native fig Fau or Fo fafini or woman s fibre tree Hibiscus tiliaceus Lakoumonong Wedelia strigulosa Lou Cardamine sarmentosa Meili Polypodium fern bird s nest fern Asplenium nidus Milo or miro Thespesia populnea Ngashu or Naupaka Scaevola taccada Ngia or Ingia Pemphis acidula bush Nonou or nonu Morinda citrifolia Pukavai Pisonia grandis Sageta Dioclea violacea vine Talla talla gemoa Psilotum triquetrum fern Tausunu or tausoun Heliotropium foertherianum Tonga or tongo Rhizophora mucronata found around swamps Tulla tulla Triumfetta procumbens whose prostrate stems trailed for several feet over the ground Valla valla Premna tahitensis The blossoms that are valued for their scent and for use in flower necklaces and headdresses include Fetau Calophyllum inophyllum Jiali Gardenia taitensis Boua Guettarda speciosa and Crinum 18 Donald Gilbert Kennedy the resident District Officer in the administration of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony from 1932 to 1938 identified other trees found in the broadleaf forest 19 Pua Guettarda speciosa Kanava Cordia subcordata Charles Hedley 1896 identified the uses of plants and trees from the native broadleaf forest as including 20 Food plants Coconut and Ferra native fig Ficus aspem 20 Fibre Coconut Ferra Fala Screw Pine Pandanus Fau or Fo fafini or woman s fibre tree Hibiscus tiliaceus 20 Timber Fau or Fo fafini Pouka Hernandia peltata Ngia or Ingia Pemphis acidula Miro Thespesia populnea and Tonga Rhizophora mucronata 20 Dye Valla valla Premna tahitensis Tonga Rhizophora mucronata and Nonou Morinda citrifolia 20 Scent Fetau Calophyllum inophyllum Jiali Gardenia taitensis and Boua Guettarda speciosa Valla valla Premna tahitensis and Crinum 20 Medicinal Tulla tulla Triumfetta procumbens Nonou Morinda citrifolia Tausoun Heliotropium foertherianum Valla valla Premna tahitensis Talla talla gemoa Psilotum triquetrum Lou Cardamine sarmentosa and Lakoumonong Wedelia strigulosa 20 Thaman 1992 provides a literature review of the ethnobiology of the Pacific Islands 21 Climate and natural hazards EditEl Nino and La Nina Edit Tuvalu experiences the effects of El Nino and La Nina that flow from changes in ocean temperatures in equatorial and central Pacific El Nino effects increase the chances of tropical storms and cyclones while La Nina effects increase the chances of drought conditions in Tuvalu On 3 October 2011 drought conditions resulted in a state of emergency being declared as water reserves ran low 22 23 24 Typically the islands of Tuvalu receive between 200mm to 400mm of rainfall per month however a weak La Nina effect causes a drought by cooling the surface of the sea around Tuvalu See also 2011 Tuvalu drought Tropical cyclones Edit Severe tropical cyclones are usually rare but the low level of islands makes them very sensitive to sea level rise Tuvalu experienced an average of three cyclones per decade between the 1940s and 1970s however eight occurred in the 1980s 25 The impact of individual cyclones is subject to variables including the force of the winds and also whether a cyclone coincides with high tides A warning system which uses the Iridium satellite network was introduced in 2016 in order to allow outlying islands to be better prepare for natural disasters 26 George Westbrook recorded a cyclone that struck Funafuti on 23 24 December 1883 27 28 A cyclone struck Nukulaelae on 17 18 March 1886 27 Captain Davis of HMS Royalist who visited the Ellice Group in 1892 recorded in the ship s diary that in February 1891 the Ellice Group was devastated by a severe cyclone 29 A cyclone caused severe damage to the islands in 1894 30 Tuvalu Meteorological Service Fongafale Funafuti atoll Cyclone Bebe caused severe damage to Funafuti during the 1972 73 South Pacific cyclone season 31 Funafuti s Tepuka Vili Vili islet was devastated by Cyclone Meli in 1979 with all its vegetation and most of its sand swept away during the cyclone 32 Cyclone Gavin was first identified during 2 March 1997 and was the first of three tropical cyclones to affect Tuvalu during the 1996 97 cyclone season with Cyclones Hina and Keli following later in the season Cyclone Ofa had a major impact on Tuvalu in late January and early February 1990 33 On Vaitupu Island around 85 percent of residential homes trees and food crops were destroyed while residential homes were also destroyed on the islands of Niutao Nui and Nukulaelae The majority of the islands in Tuvalu reported damage to vegetation and crops especially bananas coconuts and breadfruit with the extent of damage ranging from 10 to 40 percent In Funafuti sea waves flattened the Hurricane Bebe bank at the southern end of the airstrip which caused sea flooding and prompted the evacuation of several families from their homes In Nui and Niulakita there was a minor loss of the landscape because of sea flooding while there were no lives lost Soon after the systems had impacted Tuvalu a Disaster Rehabilitation Sub Committee was appointed to evaluate the damage caused and make recommendations to the National Disaster Committee and to the Cabinet of Tuvalu on what should be done to help rehabilitate the affected areas In March 2015 Cyclone Pam the Category 5 cyclone that devastated Vanuatu caused damage to houses crops and infrastructure on the outer islands 34 35 36 37 A state of emergency was subsequently declared on 13 March 38 39 An estimated 45 percent of the nation s nearly 10 000 people were displaced according to Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga 40 41 The three northern islands Nanumea Nanumanga and Niutao were badly affected by flooding as the result of storm surges More than 400 people from the northern island of Nanumanga were moved to emergency accommodation in the school buildings as well as another 85 families from Nukulaelae in the south of Tuvalu On Nui the storm surges contaminated the water supplies and damaged septic tanks and grave sites The central islands of Vaitupu and Nukufetau were also affected by flooding caused by storm surges 42 43 44 The Situation Report published on 30 March reported that on Nukufetau all the displaced people have returned to their homes 45 Nui suffered the most damage of the three central islands Nui Nukufetau and Vaitupu 46 with both Nui and Nukufetau suffering the loss of 90 of the crops 45 Of the three northern islands Nanumanga Niutao Nanumea Nanumanga suffered the most damage with 60 100 houses flooded and damage to the health facility 45 47 Vasafua islet part of the Funafuti Conservation Area was severely damaged by Cyclone Pam The coconut palms were washed away leaving the islet as a sand bar 48 49 Tsunami Edit Nui was struck by a giant wave on 16 February 1882 50 earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occurring in the basin of the Pacific Ocean and along the Pacific Ring of Fire are a possible cause of a tsunami There is earthquake activity in the Solomon Islands where earthquakes occurred in relation to the New Hebrides Trench 51 52 and movement along the boundary of the Pacific Plate with respectively the Indo Australia Woodlark and Solomon Sea plates 53 Tuvalu has the third lowest tsunami risk of Pacific Island countries with a maximum tsunami amplitude of 1 6m for a 2000 year return period comparatively the highest is 5 2m for PNG and the lowest is 1m for Nauru 54 The assessment of the tsunami risk of Tuvalu was that major source of risk was activity associated with the New Hebrides trench The orientation of the trench vis a vis the islands of Tuvalu results in the conclusion that most of the energy originating from New Hebrides trench is likely to be directed towards the southern islands of Tuvalu so that the tsunami risk is lower for the northern islands when compared to the southern islands 54 51 55 Climate data Edit Climate data for Funafuti Koppen Af Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec YearRecord high C F 33 8 92 8 34 4 93 9 34 4 93 9 33 2 91 8 33 9 93 0 33 9 93 0 32 8 91 0 32 9 91 2 32 8 91 0 34 4 93 9 33 9 93 0 33 9 93 0 34 4 93 9 Average high C F 30 7 87 3 30 8 87 4 30 6 87 1 31 0 87 8 30 9 87 6 30 6 87 1 30 4 86 7 30 4 86 7 30 7 87 3 31 0 87 8 31 2 88 2 31 0 87 8 30 8 87 4 Daily mean C F 28 2 82 8 28 1 82 6 28 1 82 6 28 2 82 8 28 4 83 1 28 3 82 9 28 1 82 6 28 1 82 6 28 2 82 8 28 2 82 8 28 4 83 1 28 3 82 9 28 2 82 8 Average low C F 25 5 77 9 25 3 77 5 25 4 77 7 25 7 78 3 25 8 78 4 25 9 78 6 25 7 78 3 25 8 78 4 25 8 78 4 25 7 78 3 25 8 78 4 25 7 78 3 25 8 78 4 Record low C F 22 0 71 6 22 2 72 0 22 8 73 0 23 0 73 4 20 5 68 9 23 0 73 4 21 0 69 8 16 1 61 0 20 0 68 0 21 0 69 8 22 8 73 0 22 8 73 0 16 1 61 0 Average precipitation mm inches 413 7 16 29 360 6 14 20 324 3 12 77 255 8 10 07 259 8 10 23 216 6 8 53 253 1 9 96 275 9 10 86 217 5 8 56 266 5 10 49 275 9 10 86 393 9 15 51 3 512 6 138 29 Average precipitation days 1 0 mm 20 19 20 19 18 19 19 18 16 18 17 19 223Average relative humidity 82 82 82 82 82 82 83 82 81 81 80 81 82Mean monthly sunshine hours 179 8 161 0 186 0 201 0 195 3 201 0 195 3 220 1 210 0 232 5 189 0 176 7 2 347 7Mean daily sunshine hours 5 8 5 7 6 0 6 7 6 3 6 7 6 3 7 1 7 0 7 5 6 3 5 7 6 4Source Deutscher Wetterdienst 56 Environment EditIsland reef and lagoon habitats Edit Nukufetau atoll See also Coral reefs of Tuvalu Tuvalu consists of three reef islands and six true atolls Its small scattered group of atolls have poor soil and a total land area of only about 26 square kilometres less than 10 sq mi making it the fourth smallest country in the world The islets that form the atolls are very low lying Nanumaga Niutao Niulakita are reef islands and the six true atolls are Funafuti Nanumea Nui Nukufetau Nukulaelae and Vaitupu Funafuti is the largest atoll of the nine low reef islands and atolls that form the Tuvalu volcanic island chain It comprises numerous islets around a central lagoon that is approximately 25 1 kilometres 15 6 mi N S by 18 4 kilometres 11 4 mi W E centred on 179 7 E and 8 30 S On the atolls an annular reef rim surrounds the lagoon with several natural reef channels 57 A standard definition of an atoll is an annular reef enclosing a lagoon in which there are no promontories other than reefs and islets composed of reef detritus 57 The northern part of the Funafuti lagoon has a deep basin maximum depth recorded of 54 7 m basin and the southern part of the lagoon has very narrow shallow basin 58 The eastern shoreline of Fongafale in the Funafuti lagoon Te Namo was modified during World War II several piers were constructed beach areas filled and deep water access channels were excavated These alternations to the reef and shoreline have resulted in changes to wave patterns with less sand accumulating to form the beaches as compared to former times and the shoreline is now exposed to wave action 59 Several attempts to stabilize the shoreline have not achieved the desired effect 60 The rising population results in increased demand on fish stocks which are under stress 61 although the creation of the Funafuti Conservation Area has provided a fishing exclusion area that helps sustain fish populations across the Funafuti lagoon Population pressure on the resources of Funafuti and in adequation sanitation systems have resulted in pollution 62 63 The Waste Operations and Services Act 2009 provides the legal framework for the waste management and pollution control projects funded by the European Union that are directed to organic waste composting in eco sanitation systems 64 Plastic waste is also a problem as much imported food and other commodities is supplied in plastic containers or packaging Surveys were carried out in May 2010 of the reef habitats of Nanumea Nukulaelae and Funafuti including the Funafuti Conservation Area and a total of 317 fish species were recorded during this Tuvalu Marine Life study The surveys identified 66 species that had not previously been recorded in Tuvalu which brings the total number of identified species to 607 65 66 The terrestrial invertebrates are land and shore crabs including Paikea Discoplax rotunda Tupa Cardisoma carnifex Kamakama Grapsus albolineatus a range of hermit crabs Uga Coenobita spp and the coconut crab Uu Birgus latro 16 Also important are a range of land snails misa Melampus spp used to make shell leis ula and traditional handicrafts 67 which includes the decoration of mats fans and wall hangings 68 Environment climate change issues Edit Main article Climate change in Tuvalu Since there are no streams or rivers and groundwater is not potable most water needs must be met by catchment systems with storage facilities beachhead erosion because of the use of sand for building materials excessive clearance of forest undergrowth for use as fuel damage to coral reefs from the bleaching of the coral as a consequence of the increase of the ocean temperatures and acidification from increased levels of carbon dioxide Tuvalu is very concerned about global increases in greenhouse gas emissions and their effect on rising sea levels which threaten the country s underground water table Tuvalu has adopted a national plan of action as the observable transformations over the last ten to fifteen years show Tuvaluans that there have been changes to the sea levels 69 Because of the low elevation the islands that make up this nation are threatened by current and future sea level rise 62 The highest elevation is 4 6 metres 15 ft above sea level on Niulakita 70 which gives Tuvalu the second lowest maximum elevation of any country after the Maldives However the highest elevations are typically in narrow storm dunes on the ocean side of the islands which are prone to over topping in tropical cyclones such as occurred on Funafuti with Cyclone Bebe 71 Ocean side of Funafuti atoll showing the storm dunes the highest point on the atoll Tuvalu is mainly composed of coral debris eroded from encircling reefs and pushed up onto the islands by winds and waves 72 Paul Kench at the University of Auckland in New Zealand and Arthur Webb at the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission in Fiji released a study in 2010 on the dynamic response of reef islands to sea level rise in the central Pacific Tuvalu was mentioned in the study and Webb and Kench found that seven islands in one of its nine atolls have spread by more than 3 per cent on average since the 1950s 73 One island Funamanu gained 0 44 hectares or nearly 30 per cent of its previous area In contrast Tepuka Vili Vili has suffered a net loss in area of 22 percent since 1896 The shape and orientation of the reef has also changed over time 72 Further research by Kench et al published in 2018 identifies rising sea levels as creating an increased transfer of wave energy across the reef surfaces of the atolls of Tuvalu which shifts sand resulting in accretion to island shorelines Over 4 decades there had been a net increase in land area of the islets of 73 5 ha 2 9 although the changes are not uniform with 74 increasing and 27 decreasing in size 5 However this process does not result in additional habitable land 6 The storm surge resulting from a tropical cyclone can dramatically shift coral debris In 1972 Funafuti was in the path of Cyclone Bebe Tropical Cyclone Bebe was a pre season tropical cyclone that impacted the Gilbert Ellice Islands and Fiji island groups 74 The storm surge created a wall of coral rubble along the ocean side of Fongafale and Funafala that was about 10 miles 16 km long and about 10 feet 3 0 m to 20 feet 6 1 m thick at the bottom 75 The cyclone knocked down about 90 of the houses and trees on Funafuti and contaminated sources of drinking water as a result of the system s storm surge and fresh water flooding Tuvalu is affected by perigean spring tide events which raise the sea level higher than a normal high tide 76 The highest peak tide recorded by the Tuvalu Meteorological Service was 3 4 metres 11 ft on 24 February 2006 and again on 19 February 2015 77 As a result of historical sea level rise the king tide events lead to flooding of low lying areas which is compounded when sea levels are further raised by La Nina effects or local storms and waves In the future sea level rise may threaten to submerge the nation entirely as it is estimated that a sea level rise of 20 40 centimetres 8 16 inches in the next 100 years could make Tuvalu uninhabitable 78 79 Tuvalu experiences westerly gales and heavy rain from October to March the period that is known as Tau o lalo with tropical temperatures moderated by easterly winds from April to November Drinking water is mostly obtained from rainwater collected on roofs and stored in tanks these systems are often poorly maintained resulting in lack of water 80 Aid programs of Australia and the European Union have been directed to improving the storage capacity on Funafuti and in the outer islands 81 Borrow Pits Remediation BPR project Edit When the airfield which is now Funafuti International Airport was constructed during World War II The coral base of the atoll was used as fill to create the runway The resulting borrow pits impacted the fresh water aquifer In the low areas of Funafuti the sea water can be seen bubbling up through the porous coral rock to form pools with each high tide 82 83 84 Since 1994 a project has been in development to assess the environmental impact of transporting sand from the lagoon to fill all the borrow pits and low lying areas on Fongafale In 2013 a feasibility study was carried out and in 2014 the Tuvalu Borrow Pits Remediation BPR project was approved so that all ten borrow pits would be filled leaving Tafua Pond which is a natural pond 85 The New Zealand Government funded the BPR project 86 The project was carried out in 2015 with 365 000 sqm of sand being dredged from the lagoon to fill the holes and improve living conditions on the island This project increased the usable land space on Fongafale by eight per cent 87 Environment international agreements Edit Tuvalu is a party to Biodiversity Climate Change Climate Change Kyoto Protocol Desertification Law of the Sea Ozone Layer Protection Ship Pollution Whaling signed but not ratified noneTuvalu ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1993 88 Tuvalu signed the Pacific Islands Cetaceans Memorandum of Understanding on 9 September 2010 Funafuti atoll EditStructure of Funafuti atoll Edit Funafuti atoll Funafuti atoll consists of a narrow sweep of land between 20 and 400 metres 66 and 1 312 feet wide encircling a large lagoon Te Namo of about 18 km 11 miles long and 14 km 9 miles wide The average depth in the Funafuti lagoon is about 20 fathoms 36 5 metres or 120 feet 89 With a surface of 275 square kilometres 106 2 sq mi it is by far the largest lagoon in Tuvalu The northern part of the lagoon has a deep basin maximum depth recorded of 54 7 m basin and the southern part of the lagoon has very narrow shallow basin 58 The land area of the 33 islets aggregates to 2 4 square kilometres 0 9 sq mi less than one percent of the total area of the atoll The boreholes on Fongafale islet at the site now called Darwin s Drill 90 are the result of drilling conducted by the Royal Society of London for the purpose of investigating the formation of coral reefs to determine whether traces of shallow water organisms could be found at depth in the coral of Pacific atolls This investigation followed the work on The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs conducted by Charles Darwin in the Pacific Drilling occurred in 1896 1897 and 1898 91 Professor Edgeworth David of the University of Sydney was a member of the 1896 Funafuti Coral Reef Boring Expedition of the Royal Society under Professor William Sollas and lead the expedition in 1897 92 However the geologic history of atolls is more complex than Darwin 1842 and Davis 1928 93 envisioned 94 95 The survey of the atoll published in 1970 described its structure as being Funafuti is an almost circular and conical submarine mountain 12 000 feet high originally volcanic and of immense geological age much older than the relatively young and active mountains of the New Hebrides and Solomons At its base on the ocean bed it is 30 miles wide in one of the directions tested and 28 miles wide on the other It rises in a gentle slope which gradually steepens to a point 2 400 feet below water level after which it rises at an angle of 80 degrees to 840 feet below water level From this point it rises vertically like an enormous pillar till reaches the surface in the form of a reef enclosing a lagoon of irregular size but of which the extremities give a measurement of 13 5 by 10 0 miles 89 Aquifer salinization of Fongafale Islet Funafuti Edit The investigation of groundwater dynamics of Fongafale Islet Funafuti show that tidal forcing results in salt water contamination of the surficial aquifer during spring tides 96 The degree of aquifer salinization depends on the specific topographic characteristics and the hydrologic controls in the sub surface of the atoll About half of Fongafale islet is reclaimed swamp that contains porous highly permeable coral blocks that allow the tidal forcing of salt water 97 There was extensive swamp reclamation during World War II to create the air field that is now the Funafuti International Airport As a consequence of the specific topographic characteristics of Fongafale unlike other atoll islands of a similar size Fongafale does not have a thick freshwater lens 97 The narrow fresh water and brackish water sheets in the sub surface of Fongafale islet results in the taro swamps and the fresh groundwater resources of the islet being highly vulnerable to salinization resulting from the rising sea level 97 In addition to the increased risk of salinized by the sea level rise the freshwater lens is at risk from over extraction due to the large population that now occupies Fongafale islet the increased extraction can be exacerbated by a decrease of the rainfall recharge rate associated with the climate change 96 Water pollution is also a chronic problem with domestic wastewater identified as the primary pollution source 98 Approximately 92 of households on Fongafale islet have access to septic tanks and pit toilets However these sanitary facilities are not built as per the design specifications or they are not suitable for the geophysical characteristics which results in seepage into the fresh water lens and run off into coastal waters 98 On Funafuti and on the other islands rainwater collected off the corrugated iron roofs of buildings is now the primary source of fresh water On Funafuti a desalination unit that was donated by Japan in 2006 also provides fresh water 99 In response to the 2011 drought Japan funded the purchase of a 100 m d desalination plant and two portable 10 m d plants as part of its Pacific Environment Community PEC program 100 101 Aid programs from the European Union 81 102 and Australia also provided water tanks as part of the longer term solution for the storage of available fresh water Aquifer salinization and the impact on Pulaka production Edit Swamp taro Cyrtosperma merkusii known in Tuvalu as Pulaka is grown in large pits of composted soil below the water table 103 Pulaka has been the main source for carbohydrates 103 it is similar to taro but with bigger leaves and larger coarser roots 104 In recent years the Tuvaluan community have raised concerns over increased salinity of the groundwater in pits that are used to cultivate pulaka 105 Pits on all islands of Tuvalu except Niulakita were surveyed in 2006 Nukulaelae and Niutao each had one pit area in which salinity concentrations thought to be too high for successful swamp taro growth However on Fongafale in Funafuti all pits surveyed were either too saline or very marginal for swamp taro production although a more salt tolerant species of taro Colocasia esculenta was being grown in Fongafale 106 The extent of the salinization of the aquifer on Fongafale Islet is the result of both man made changes to the topography that occurred when the air field was built in World War II by reclaiming swamp land and excavating coral rock from other parts of the islet These topographic changes are exacerbated by the groundwater dynamics of the islet as tidal forcing pushes salt water into the surficial aquifer during spring tides 96 The freshwater lens of each atoll is a fragile system Tropical cyclones and other storm events also result in wave wash over and extreme high water also occurs during spring tides These events can result in salt water contamination of the fresh groundwater lens Periods of low rainfall can also result in contraction of the freshwater lens as the coconut trees and other vegetation draw up the water at a greater than recharge than it can be recharged The over extraction of ground water to supply human needs has a similar result as drought conditions 107 See also Edit Tuvalu portalReferences Edit Morris C amp Mackay K 2008 Status of coral reefs in the Southwest Pacific Fiji Nauru New Caledonia Samoa Solomon Islands Tuvalu and Vanuatu Report Status of coral reefs of the world Townsville Australian Institute of Marine Science pp 177 188 a href Template Cite report html title Template Cite report cite report a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Paul S Kench Murray R Ford amp Susan D Owen 9 February 2018 Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations Supplementary Note 1 Nature Communications 9 1 605 Bibcode 2018NatCo 9 605K doi 10 1038 s41467 018 02954 1 PMC 5807422 PMID 29426825 Hedley Charles 1896 General account of the Atoll of Funafuti PDF Australian Museum Memoir 3 2 1 72 doi 10 3853 j 0067 1967 3 1896 487 Paul S Kench Murray R Ford amp Susan D Owen 9 February 2018 Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations Supplementary Note 2 Nature Communications 9 1 605 Bibcode 2018NatCo 9 605K doi 10 1038 s41467 018 02954 1 PMC 5807422 PMID 29426825 a b Paul S Kench Murray R Ford amp Susan D Owen 9 February 2018 Patterns of island change and persistence offer alternate adaptation pathways for atoll nations Nature Communications 9 1 605 Bibcode 2018NatCo 9 605K doi 10 1038 s41467 018 02954 1 PMC 5807422 PMID 29426825 a b c TUVALU PM REFUTES AUT RESEARCH 19 March 2018 Retrieved 26 March 2019 Current and Future Climate of Tuvalu PDF Tuvalu Meteorological Service Australian Bureau of Meteorology amp Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation CSIRO 2011 Retrieved 7 September 2015 Rodgers K A and Carol Cantrell The biology and geology of Tuvalu an annotated bibliography No 1 Australian Museum 1988 a b Maps of Tuvalu Retrieved 15 January 2021 A J Tilling Ms E Fihaki 17 November 2009 Tuvalu National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan PDF Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity p 7 Agreement between Tuvalu and Kiribati concerning their Maritime Boundary PDF U N 29 August 2012 Fiji Tuvalu Maritime Boundary Treaty Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Fiji 17 October 2014 Retrieved 15 January 2021 Fiji and Tuvalu sign maritime boundary agreement Secretariat of the Pacific Community SPC Geoscience Division 24 October 2014 Retrieved 15 January 2021 Thaman Randolph October 2016 The Flora of Tuvalu Lakau Mo Mouku o Tuvalu Atoll Research Bulletin 611 xii 129 doi 10 5479 si 0077 5630 611 S2CID 89181901 FCG ANZDEC Ltd 7 October 2020 Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Funafuti Report The Pacific Community p 53 Retrieved 6 February 2021 a b FCG ANZDEC Ltd 7 August 2020 Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Nanumaga and Nanumea Report The Pacific Community p 66 Retrieved 6 February 2021 Randy Thaman Feagaiga Penivao Faoliu Teakau Semese Alefaio Lamese Saamu Moe Saitala Mataio Tekinene and Mile Fonua 2017 Report on the 2016 Funafuti Community Based Ridge To Reef R2R PDF Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Conservation Status of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services BES In Tuvalu Retrieved 25 May 2019 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Hedley Charles 1896 General account of the Atoll of Funafuti PDF Australian Museum Memoir 3 2 1 72 pp 30 40 Kennedy Donald 1931 The Ellice Islands Canoe Journal of the Polynesian Society Memoir no 9 Journal of the Polynesian Society pp 71 100 a b c d e f g Hedley Charles 1896 General account of the Atoll of Funafuti PDF Australian Museum Memoir 3 2 1 72 pp 40 41 Thaman R R May 1992 Batiri Kei Baravi The Ethnobotany of Pacific Island Coastal Plants PDF Atoll Research Bulletin National Museum of Natural History Smithsonian Institution 361 361 1 62 doi 10 5479 si 00775630 361 1 Retrieved 8 February 2014 Tuvalu s crippling drought offers important lessons to the Pacific Secretariat of the Pacific Community 6 October 2011 Retrieved 24 April 2015 Benns Matthew 3 October 2011 Tuvalu to run out of water by Tuesday The Telegraph London Macrae Alistair 11 October 2011 Tuvalu in a fight for its life The Drum Australian Broadcasting Corporation Retrieved 12 October 2011 Connell John 2015 Vulnerable Islands Climate Change Techonic Change and Changing Livelihoods in the Western Pacific PDF The Contemporary Pacific 27 1 1 36 doi 10 1353 cp 2015 0014 Tuvalu to introduce new early warning system Radio New Zealand 10 June 2016 Retrieved 10 June 2016 a b McLean R F and Munro D 1991 Late 19th century Tropical Storms and Hurricanes in Tuvalu PDF South Pacific Journal of Natural History 11 213 219 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Resture Jane Hurricane 1883 Tuvalu and the Hurricanes Gods Who Die by Julian Dana as told by George Westbrook Resture Jane 17 May 2004 Tuvalu and the hurricanes Retrieved 23 April 2014 Taafaki Pasoni 1983 Chapter 2 The Old Order In Laracy Hugh ed Tuvalu A History Institute of Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific and Government of Tuvalu p 27 Life bounce back in the Ellice 44 5 Pacific Islands Monthly 1 May 1966 Retrieved 2 October 2021 Kogatapu Funafuti Conservation Area Tuvaluislands com Retrieved 28 October 2011 Koop Neville L Fiji Meteorological Service Winter 1991 DeAngellis Richard M ed Samoa Depression Mariners Weather Log Vol 35 United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration s National Oceanographic Data Service p 53 ISSN 0025 3367 OCLC 648466886 Wild weather in Tuvalu Tuvalu Solar Project Team Blog 11 March 2015 Retrieved 15 March 2015 Flooding in Vanuatu Kiribati and Tuvalu as Cyclone Pam strengthens SBS Australia 13 March 2015 Retrieved 15 March 2015 State of emergency in Tuvalu Radio New Zealand International 14 March 2015 Retrieved 15 March 2015 45 percent of Tuvalu population displaced PM Radio New Zealand International 15 March 2015 Retrieved 15 March 2015 Press Release issued by the Office of the Prime Minister PDF Fenui News 13 March 2015 Retrieved 17 November 2018 State of emergency in Tuvalu Radio New Zealand International 14 March 2015 Retrieved 15 March 2015 45 percent of Tuvalu population displaced PM Radio New Zealand International 15 March 2015 Retrieved 15 March 2015 International assistance due today in Tuvalu Radio New Zealand International 17 March 2015 Retrieved 17 March 2015 Emergency Plan of Action EPoA Tuvalu Tropical Cyclone Pam PDF International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Report ReliefWeb 16 March 2015 Retrieved 17 March 2015 One Tuvalu island evacuated after flooding from Pam Radio New Zealand International 18 March 2015 Retrieved 18 March 2015 Tuvalu Tropical Cyclone Pam Situation Report No 1 as of 22 March 2015 Relief Web 22 March 2015 Retrieved 25 March 2015 a b c Tuvalu Tropical Cyclone Pam Situation Report No 2 as of 30 March 2015 Relief Web 30 March 2015 Retrieved 30 March 2015 Forgotten paradise under water United Nations Development Programme 1 May 2015 Retrieved 8 June 2015 Tuvalu situation update Securing health from disastrous impacts of cyclone Pam in Tuvalu Relief Web World health Organisation Western Pacific Region 3 April 2015 Retrieved 8 June 2015 Wilson David 4 July 2015 Vasafua Islet vanishes Tuvalu odyssey net Retrieved 22 July 2015 Endou Shuuichi 28 March 2015 バサフア島 消失 Vasafua Islet vanishes Tuvalu Overview Japanese Retrieved 22 July 2015 Pape Sotaga 1983 10 In Laracy Hugh ed Tuvalu A History Chapter 10 Nui Institute of Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific and Government of Tuvalu p 76 a b FCG ANZDEC Ltd 7 October 2020 Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Funafuti Report The Pacific Community p 50 Retrieved 6 February 2021 FCG ANZDEC Ltd 7 August 2020 Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Nanumaga and Nanumea Report The Pacific Community p 61 Retrieved 4 February 2021 Magnitude 8 1 SOLOMON ISLANDS Summary USGS Earthquake Hazards Program Archived from the original on 6 April 2007 Retrieved 2 April 2007 a b Thomas C Burbidge D 2009 A Probabilistic Tsunami Hazard Assessment of the Southwest Pacific Nations Geoscience Australia Professional Opinion No 2009 02 Rereleased 2011 11 PDF Report Geoscience Australia GA Retrieved 12 February 2021 FCG ANZDEC Ltd 7 August 2020 Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Nanumaga and Nanumea Report The Pacific Community p 61 Retrieved 12 February 2021 Klimatafel von Funafuti Tuvalu Ellice Inseln PDF Baseline climate means 1961 1990 from stations all over the world in German Deutscher Wetterdienst Retrieved 22 November 2016 a b McNeil F S 1954 Organic reefs and banks and associated detrital sediments Am J Sci 252 7 385 401 Bibcode 1954AmJS 252 385M doi 10 2475 ajs 252 7 385 a b EU SOPAC Project Report 50 TUVALU TECHNICAL REPORT High Resolution Bathymetric Survey Fieldwork undertaken from 19 September to 24 October 2004 PDF Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission c o SOPAC Secretariat October 2018 Retrieved 21 October 2019 Fogafale Then and Now 1941 amp 2003 tuvaluislands com Retrieved 14 June 2015 Carter Ralf 4 July 1986 Wind and Sea Analysis Funafuti Lagoon Tuvalu South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme and UNDP Project RAS 81 102 Technical Report No 58 of PE TU 3 Retrieved 2 January 2020 Lusama Tafue 29 November 2011 Tuvalu plight must be heard by UNFCC The Drum Australian Broadcasting Corporation Retrieved 29 November 2011 a b Krales Amelia Holowaty 18 October 2011 As Danger Laps at Its Shores Tuvalu Pleads for Action The New York Times Green A Blog about Energy and the Environment Retrieved 24 October 2011 Baarsch Florent 4 March 2011 Warming oceans and human waste hit Tuvalu s sustainable way of life The Guardian London Retrieved 24 October 2011 Tuvalu Water Waste and Sanitation Project TWWSP CRIS FED 2009 021 195 ANNEX PDF European Union 2009 Retrieved 24 October 2011 Sandrine Job Daniela Ceccarelli December 2011 Tuvalu Marine Life Synthesis Report PDF Alofa Tuvalu project with the Tuvalu Fisheries Department Retrieved 3 December 2013 Sandrine Job Daniela Ceccarelli December 2012 Tuvalu Marine Life Scientific Report PDF Alofa Tuvalu project with the Tuvalu Fisheries Department Retrieved 3 December 2013 Randy Thaman Feagaiga Penivao Faoliu Teakau Semese Alefaio Lamese Saamu Moe Saitala Mataio Tekinene and Mile Fonua 2017 Report on the 2016 Funafuti Community Based Ridge To Reef R2R PDF Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Conservation Status of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services BES in Tuvalu Retrieved 13 February 2021 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Tiraa Passfield Anna September 1996 The uses of shells in traditional Tuvaluan handicrafts PDF SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin 7 Retrieved 13 February 2021 Tuvalu s National Adaptation Programme of Action PDF Department of Environment of Tuvalu May 2007 Retrieved 7 September 2015 Lewis James December 1989 Sea level rise Some implications for Tuvalu The Environmentalist 9 4 269 275 doi 10 1007 BF02241827 S2CID 84796023 Tropical Cyclones in the Northern Australian Regions 1971 1972 1975 Bureau of Meteorology Australian Government Publishing Service a b Warne Kennedy 13 February 2015 Will Pacific Island Nations Disappear as Seas Rise Maybe Not Reef islands can grow and change shape as sediments shift studies show National Geographic Retrieved 14 February 2015 Plumer Bradford 7 June 2010 Pacific Islands Defying Sea Level Rise For Now New Republic Retrieved 11 October 2015 Bureau of Meteorology 1975 Tropical Cyclones in the Northern Australian Regions 1971 1972 Australian Government Publishing Service Resture Jane 5 October 2009 Hurricane Bebe 1972 Tuvalu and the Hurricanes The Hurricane in Funafuti Tuvalu by Pasefika Falani Pacific Frank Retrieved 15 February 2015 Shukman David 22 January 2008 Tuvalu struggles to hold back tide BBC News Retrieved 5 August 2008 Tuvalu surveys road damage after king tides Radio New Zealand 24 February 2015 Retrieved 17 March 2015 Patel SS 2006 A sinking feeling PDF Nature 440 7085 734 736 Bibcode 2006Natur 440 734P doi 10 1038 440734a PMID 16598226 S2CID 1174790 Hunter J A 2002 Note on Relative Sea Level Change at Funafuti Tuvalu Archived 7 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 13 May 2006 Kingston P A 2004 Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality in the Pacific Islands Situation Analysis and Needs Assessment Situation Analysis and Needs Assessment Country Reports WHO Retrieved 2 January 2020 a b Tuvalu 10th European Development Fund Delegation of the European Union Retrieved 2 January 2020 Laafai Monise October 2005 Funafuti King Tides Retrieved 14 October 2011 Mason Moya K Tuvalu Flooding Global Warming and Media Coverage Retrieved 13 October 2011 Holowaty Krales Amelia 20 February 2011 Chasing the Tides parts I amp II Retrieved 20 November 2012 Silafaga Lalua Melton 28 October 2014 73 years of waiting finally pays off for Funafuti Fenui News Retrieved 1 April 2014 Tuvalu to Benefit from International Dredging Aid Dredging News 1 April 2014 Retrieved 1 April 2014 Coast contractor completes aid project in remote Tuvalu SunshineCoastDaily 27 November 2015 Retrieved 28 November 2015 Compiled by Randy Thaman with assistance from Faoliu Teakau Moe Saitala Epu Falega Feagaiga Penivao Mataio Tekenene and Semese Alefaio 2016 Tuvalu National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity PDF Ministry of Foreign Affairs Trade Tourism Environment and Labour Government of Tuvalu Retrieved 25 May 2019 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Coates A 1970 Western Pacific Islands H M S O p 349 Lal Andrick South Pacific Sea Level amp Climate Monitoring Project Funafuti atoll PDF SPC Applied Geoscience and Technology Division SOPAC Division of SPC pp 35 amp 40 Archived from the original PDF on 3 February 2014 TO THE EDITOR OF THE HERALD The Sydney Morning Herald National Library of Australia 11 September 1934 p 6 Retrieved 20 June 2012 David Mrs Edgeworth Funafuti or Three Months on a Coral Atoll an unscientific account of a scientific expedition London John Murray 1899 Davis W M 1928 The coral reef problem American Geographical Society Special Publication 9 1 596 Stoddart D R 1994 Theory and Reality The Success and Failure of the Deductive Method in Coral Reef Studies Darwin to Davis Earth Sciences History 13 1 21 34 doi 10 17704 eshi 13 1 wp354u3281532021 Dickinson William R 2009 Pacific Atoll Living How Long Already and Until When PDF GSA Today 19 3 4 10 doi 10 1130 GSATG35A 1 a b c Nakada S Yamano H Umezawa Y Fujita M Watanabe M Taniguchi M 2010 Evaluation of Aquifer Salinization in the Atoll Islands by Using Electrical Resistivity Journal of the Remote Sensing Society of Japan 30 317 330 doi 10 11440 rssj 30 317 a b c Nakada S Umezawa Y Taniguchi M Yamano H July August 2012 Groundwater dynamics of Fongafale Islet Funafuti Atoll Tuvalu Groundwater 50 4 639 44 doi 10 1111 j 1745 6584 2011 00874 x PMID 22035506 S2CID 32336745 a b Fujita M Suzuki J Sato D Kuwahara Y Yokoki H Kayanne Y 2013 Anthropogenic impacts on water quality of the lagoonal coast of Fongafale Islet Funafuti Atoll Tuvalu PDF Sustainability Science 8 3 381 390 doi 10 1007 s11625 013 0204 x S2CID 127909606 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Japan Provides Desalination Plant to relieve Tuvalu s water problems Embassy of Japan in the Republic of the Fiji Islands 2 June 2006 Retrieved 1 December 2011 Japan New Zealand Aid Cooperation in response to severe water shortage in Tuvalu Department of Foreign Affairs of Japan 4 November 2011 Retrieved 1 December 2011 Japanese fund three desalination plants for Tuvalu The International Desalination amp Water Reuse Quarterly industry website 17 October 2011 Retrieved 1 December 2011 Tuvalu Water Waste and Sanitation Project TWWSP CRIS FED 2009 021 195 ANNEX PDF European Union Retrieved 24 October 2011 a b Koch Gerd 1983 The material culture of Tuvalu Institute of Pacific Studies University of the South Pacific p 46 Retrieved 12 May 2010 Leaflet No 1 Revised 1992 Taro Food and Agriculture Organization 1992 Retrieved 15 August 2012 Tuvalu could lose root crop Radio New Zealand 17 September 2008 Retrieved 10 May 2010 Webb Dr Arthur March 2007 Tuvalu Technical Report Assessment of Salinity of Groundwater in Swamp Taro Cyrtosperma Chamissonis Pulaka Pits in Tuvalu Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission EU EDF8 SOPAC Project Report 75 Reducing Vulnerability of Pacific ACP States Retrieved 2 January 2020 Nakada S Umezawa Y Taniguchi M Yamano H 2012 Groundwater dynamics of Fongafale Islet Funafuti Atoll Tuvalu Groundwater 50 4 639 44 doi 10 1111 j 1745 6584 2011 00874 x PMID 22035506 S2CID 32336745 Further reading Edit in English Kench Thompson Ford Ogawa and McLean 2015 GSA DATA REPOSITORY 2015184 Changes in planform characteristics of 29 islands located on Funafuti s atoll rim PDF The Geological Society of America Retrieved 22 January 2017 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Compiled by Randy Thaman with assistance from Faoliu Teakau Moe Saitala Epu Falega Feagaiga Penivao Mataio Tekenene and Semese Alefaio 2016 Tuvalu National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity PDF Ministry of Foreign Affairs Trade Tourism Environment and Labour Government of Tuvalu Retrieved 25 May 2019 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Thaman Randolph October 2016 The Flora of Tuvalu Lakau Mo Mouku o Tuvalu Atoll Research Bulletin 611 xii 129 doi 10 5479 si 0077 5630 611 S2CID 89181901 This article incorporates public domain material from World Factbook CIA Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Geography of Tuvalu amp oldid 1138173145, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.