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Freedom Riders

May 14, 2023

Freedom Riders were civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into the segregated Southern United States in 1961 and subsequent years to challenge the non-enforcement of the United States Supreme Court decisions Morgan v. Virginia (1946) and Boynton v. Virginia (1960), which ruled that segregated public buses were unconstitutional.[3] The Southern states had ignored the rulings and the federal government did nothing to enforce them. The first Freedom Ride left Washington, D.C. on May 4, 1961,[4] and was scheduled to arrive in New Orleans on May 17.[5]

Freedom Riders
Part of the Civil Rights Movement
Mugshots of Freedom Riders, as displayed at the Center for Civil and Human Rights in Atlanta, Georgia.
DateMay 4 – December 10, 1961
(7 months and 6 days)
Location
Southern United States, First Baptist Church, Parchman Farm and Jackson, Mississippi
Caused by
Resulted in
Parties to the civil conflict
Lead figures

CORE members

SNCC and Nashville Student Movement members

Governors

City of Birmingham

Boynton outlawed racial segregation in the restaurants and waiting rooms in terminals serving buses that crossed state lines.[6] Five years prior to the Boynton ruling, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) had issued a ruling in Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company (1955) that had explicitly denounced the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) doctrine of separate but equal in interstate bus travel. The ICC failed to enforce its ruling, and Jim Crow travel laws remained in force throughout the South.[citation needed]

The Freedom Riders challenged this status quo by riding interstate buses in the South in mixed racial groups to challenge local laws or customs that enforced segregation in seating. The Freedom Rides, and the violent reactions they provoked, bolstered the credibility of the American Civil Rights Movement. They called national attention to the disregard for the federal law and the local violence used to enforce segregation in the southern United States. Police arrested riders for trespassing, unlawful assembly, violating state and local Jim Crow laws, and other alleged offenses, but often they first let white mobs attack them without intervention.

The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) sponsored most of the subsequent Freedom Rides, but some were also organized by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). The Freedom Rides, beginning in 1960, followed dramatic sit-ins against segregated lunch counters conducted by students and youth throughout the South, and boycotts of retail establishments that maintained segregated facilities.

The Supreme Court's decision in Boynton supported the right of interstate travelers to disregard local segregation ordinances. Southern local and state police considered the actions of the Freedom Riders to be criminal and arrested them in some locations. In some localities, such as Birmingham, Alabama, the police cooperated with Ku Klux Klan chapters and other white people opposing the actions, and allowed mobs to attack the riders.

History

Prelude

The Freedom Riders were inspired by the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation, led by Bayard Rustin and George Houser and co-sponsored by the Fellowship of Reconciliation and the then-fledgling Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). Like the Freedom Rides of 1961, the Journey of Reconciliation was intended to test an earlier Supreme Court ruling that banned racial discrimination in interstate travel. Rustin, Igal Roodenko, Joe Felmet and Andrew Johnnson, were arrested and sentenced to serve on a chain gang in North Carolina for violating local Jim Crow laws regarding segregated seating on public transportation.[7]

The first Freedom Ride began on May 4, 1961. Led by CORE Director James Farmer, 13 young riders (seven black, six white, including but not limited to John Lewis (21), Genevieve Hughes (28), Mae Frances Moultrie, Joseph Perkins, Charles Person (18), Ivor Moore,[8] William E. Harbour (19), Joan Trumpauer Mullholland (19), and Ed Blankenheim),[9] left Washington, DC, on Greyhound (from the Greyhound Terminal) and Trailways buses. Their plan was to ride through Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, ending in New Orleans, Louisiana, where a civil rights rally was planned. Many of the Riders were sponsored by CORE and SNCC with 75% of the Riders between 18 and 30 years old.[citation needed] A diverse group of volunteers came from 39 states, and were from different economic classes and racial backgrounds.[10] Most were college students and received training in nonviolent tactics.[11]

The Freedom Riders' tactics for their journey were to have at least one interracial pair sitting in adjoining seats, and at least one black rider sitting up front, where seats under segregation had been reserved for white customers by local custom throughout the South. The rest of the team would sit scattered throughout the rest of the bus. One rider would abide by the South's segregation rules in order to avoid arrest and to contact CORE and arrange bail for those who were arrested.

Only minor trouble was encountered in Virginia and North Carolina, but John Lewis was attacked in Rock Hill, South Carolina. Over 300 Riders were arrested in Charlotte, North Carolina; Winnsboro, South Carolina; and Jackson, Mississippi.[10]

The lives as a Freedom Rider

The Freedom Rides were mostly focused on events that occurred during the spring and summer of 1961. However, the idea of an interracial bus ride through the South, at a time when racial segregation was mandated in public transportation, originated in 1947. Bayard Rustin and George Houser, who were part of a civil rights organization called the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), came up with a plan to test whether southern long-distance buses were following a 1946 Supreme Court ruling that prohibited segregation on interstate travel.[12]

"Yet the Freedom Rides, in plural, was just the beginning. The Alabama attacks, coupled with the Mississippi arrests, inspired multiple small bands of civil rights supporters from all over the continental United States to head southward too."explains Arsenault.[12]

The riders in 1961 successfully completed their journey through Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. However, they encountered violent and horrific situations in Alabama. A white segregationist mob attacked and burned one of the two buses they were traveling in outside Anniston. The second group of riders faced violence from Ku Klux Klansmen in Birmingham, while the city police deliberately held back.[12]

The Freedom Rides had two important outcomes. Firstly, due to the pressure from Robert Kennedy's Justice Department, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which had regulatory power over interstate buses and terminals, declared an end to racial segregation in all waiting rooms and lunch counters, effective from November 1, 1961. Although not everyone immediately followed this rule, Arsenault points out that this directive sent a clear message to southern whites that desegregation of other institutions was likely to happen soon.[13]

Many whites took this message as a sign of war.

Mob violence in Anniston and Birmingham

 
The Greyhound bus attack site (center) is south of Anniston on Old Birmingham Highway (right). See Freedom Riders National Monument (2017 photo)
 
Violence at the Anniston Trailways Terminal, at 901 Noble St., is commemorated with a mural (2012 photo)

The Birmingham, Alabama, Police Commissioner, Bull Connor, together with Police Sergeant Tom Cook (an avid Ku Klux Klan supporter), organized violence against the Freedom Riders with local Klan chapters. The pair made plans to bring the Ride to an end in Alabama. They assured Gary Thomas Rowe, an FBI informer[14] and member of Eastview Klavern #13 (the most violent Klan group in Alabama), that the mob would have fifteen minutes to attack the Freedom Riders without any arrests being made. The plan was to allow an initial assault in Anniston with a final assault taking place in Birmingham.

Anniston

Main article: Anniston bus bombing

On Sunday, May 14, 1961, Mother's Day, in Anniston, Alabama, a mob of Klansmen, some still in church attire, attacked the first of the two Greyhound buses. The driver tried to leave the station, but he was blocked until KKK members slashed its tires.[15] The mob forced the crippled bus to stop several miles outside town and then threw a firebomb into it.[16][17] As the bus burned, the mob held the doors shut, intending to burn the riders to death. Sources disagree, but either an exploding fuel tank[16] or an undercover state investigator who was brandishing a revolver caused the mob to retreat, and the riders escaped the bus.[18] The mob beat the riders after they got out. Warning shots which were fired into the air by highway patrolmen were the only thing which prevented the riders from being lynched.[16] The roadside site in Anniston and the downtown Greyhound station were preserved as part of the Freedom Riders National Monument in 2017.

Some injured riders were taken to Anniston Memorial Hospital.[19] That night, the hospitalized Freedom Riders, most of whom had been refused care, were removed from the hospital at 2 AM, because the staff feared the mob outside the hospital. The local civil rights leader Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth organized several cars of black citizens to rescue the injured Freedom Riders in defiance of the white supremacists. The black people were under the leadership of Colonel Stone Johnson and were openly armed as they arrived at the hospital, protecting the Freedom Riders from the mob.[20]

When the Trailways bus reached Anniston and pulled in at the terminal an hour after the Greyhound bus was burned, it was boarded by eight Klansmen. They beat the Freedom Riders and left them semi-conscious in the back of the bus.[16]

Birmingham

Main article: Birmingham bus attack

The Persecution of the freedom riders

On Sunday morning, May 14, the Freedom Riders embarked on a journey from Atlanta in two buses that also accommodated regular passengers. However, the first bus was unable to reach Birmingham as it was attacked by a group of 200 men. The attackers hurled a firebomb through a rear window of the bus, and the Freedom Riders were taken to a nearby hospital, where they were mostly ignored until being instructed to leave. The bus was left completely destroyed, and this became the first memorable image of the Freedom Ride.[21]

 
A mob of white people beat Freedom Riders in Birmingham. This picture was reclaimed by the FBI from a local journalist who also was beaten and whose camera was smashed.[22]

When the bus arrived in Birmingham, it was attacked by a mob of KKK members[15] aided and abetted by police under the orders of Commissioner Connor.[23] As the riders exited the bus, they were beaten by the mob with baseball bats, iron pipes and bicycle chains. Among the attacking Klansmen was Gary Thomas Rowe, an FBI informant. White Freedom Riders were singled out for especially frenzied beatings; James Peck required more than 50 stitches to the wounds in his head.[24] Peck was taken to Carraway Methodist Medical Center, which refused to treat him; he was later treated at Jefferson Hillman Hospital.[25][26]

About Peck

On the afternoon of that same Sunday, the second bus arrived at Birmingham's Trail ways station, with James Peck as the captain of this leg. Peck, a 46-year-old descendant of the Peck & Peck New York retail family and one of the two Harvard alums on the ride, had participated in CORE'S 1947 Journey of Reconciliation, where he was surprised by the level of tolerance towards integration among drivers and passengers. However, fourteen years later, he faced a hostile group of white men in sports shirts, who carried lead pipes hidden in paper bags. Peck challenged them, declaring that they would have to kill him before hurting his fellow Freedom Riders. Despite his brave words, he was attacked and severely beaten by five men in an alley. The attackers used a Coke bottle, which was a typical weapon for southern vigilantes. Peck lost consciousness within seconds and needed 53 stitches to close his exposed skull. Meanwhile, inside the station, the Klansmen violently assaulted the Freedom Riders and anyone else who tried to stop them, including a news photographer who arrived at the scene.[27]

When reports of the bus burning and beatings reached the U.S. Attorney General, Robert F. Kennedy, he urged restraint on the part of Freedom Riders and sent an assistant, John Seigenthaler, to Alabama to try to calm the situation.[28]

Despite the violence suffered and the threat of more to come, the Freedom Riders intended to continue their journey. Kennedy had arranged an escort for the Riders in order to get them to Montgomery, Alabama, safely. However, radio reports told of a mob awaiting the riders at the bus terminal, as well as on the route to Montgomery. The Greyhound clerks told the Riders that their drivers were refusing to drive any Freedom Riders anywhere.[15]

New Orleans

Recognizing that their efforts had already called national attention to the civil rights cause and wanting to get to the rally in New Orleans, the Riders decided to abandon the rest of the bus ride and fly directly to New Orleans from Birmingham. When they first boarded the plane, all passengers had to exit because of a bomb threat.[15]

Upon arriving in New Orleans, local tensions prevented normal accommodations—after which Norman C. Francis, president of Xavier University of Louisiana (XULA), decided to house them on campus in secret at St Michael's Hall, a dormitory.[29]

Nashville Student Movement continuation

Diane Nash, a Nashville college student who was a leader of the Nashville Student Movement and SNCC, believed that if Southern violence were allowed to halt the Freedom Rides the movement would be set back years. She pushed to find replacements to resume the rides. On May 17, a new set of riders, 10 students from Nashville who were active in the Nashville Student Movement, took a bus to Birmingham, where they were arrested by Bull Connor and jailed.[23]

The students kept their spirits up in jail by singing freedom songs. Out of frustration, Connor drove them back up to the Tennessee line and dropped them off, saying, "I just couldn't stand their singing."[30] They immediately returned to Birmingham.

Mob violence in Montgomery

In answer to SNCC's call, Freedom Riders from across the Eastern US joined John Lewis and Hank Thomas, the two young SNCC members of the original Ride, who had remained in Birmingham. On May 19, they attempted to resume the ride, but, terrified by the howling mob surrounding the bus depot, the drivers refused. Harassed and besieged by the mob, the riders waited all night for a bus.[23]

Under intense public pressure from the Kennedy administration, Greyhound was forced to provide a driver. After direct intervention by Byron White of the Attorney General's office, Alabama Governor John Patterson reluctantly promised to protect the bus from KKK mobs and snipers on the road between Birmingham and Montgomery.[31] On the morning of May 20, the Freedom Ride resumed, with the bus carrying the riders traveling toward Montgomery at 90 miles an hour, protected by a contingent of the Alabama State Highway Patrol.

 
The Old Montgomery Greyhound Station, site of the May 20, 1961, violence is preserved as the Freedom Rides Museum (2011 photo)

The Highway Patrol abandoned the bus and riders at the Montgomery city limits. At the Montgomery Greyhound station on South Court Street, a white mob awaited. They beat the Freedom Riders with baseball bats and iron pipes. The local police allowed the beatings to go on uninterrupted.[23] Again, white Freedom Riders were singled out for particularly brutal beatings. Reporters and news photographers were attacked first and their cameras destroyed, but one reporter took a photo later of Jim Zwerg in the hospital, showing how he was beaten and bruised.[32] Seigenthaler, a Justice Department official, was beaten and left unconscious lying in the street. Ambulances refused to take the wounded to the hospital. Local black residents rescued them, and a number of the Freedom Riders were hospitalized.

On the following night, Sunday, May 21, more than 1500 people packed into Reverend Ralph Abernathy's First Baptist Church to honor the Freedom Riders. Among the speakers were Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., who had led the 1955–1956 Montgomery bus boycott, Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth, and James Farmer. Outside, a mob of more than 3,000 white people attacked the black attendees, with a handful of the United States Marshals Service protecting the church from assault and fire bombs. With city and state police making no effort to restore order, the civil rights leaders appealed to the President for protection. President Kennedy threatened to intervene with federal troops if the governor would not protect the people. Governor Patterson forestalled that by finally ordering the Alabama National Guard to disperse the mob, and the Guard reached the church in the early morning.[23]

 
Mugshot of Miller G. Green when arrested for being a part of The Freedom Rides.

In a commemorative Op-Ed piece in 2011, Bernard Lafayette remembered the mob breaking windows of the church with rocks and setting off tear gas canisters. He recounted heroic action by King. After learning that black taxi drivers were arming and forming a group to rescue the people inside, he worried that more violence would result. He selected ten volunteers, who promised non-violence, to escort him through the white mob, which parted to let King and his escorts pass as they marched two by two. King went out to the black drivers and asked them to disperse, to prevent more violence. King and his escorts formally made their way back inside the church, unmolested.[33] Lafayette also was interviewed by the BBC in 2011 and told about these events in an episode broadcast on the radio on August 31, 2011, in commemoration of the Freedom Rides. The Alabama National Guard finally arrived in the early morning to disperse the mob and safely escorted all the people from the church.[34][35]

Into Mississippi

 
George Raymond Jr. was a CORE activist arrested in the Trailways bus terminal in Jackson, Mississippi on August 14, 1961.
 
Some Freedom Riders were incarcerated in the Mississippi State Penitentiary

The next day, Monday, May 22, more Freedom Riders arrived in Montgomery to continue the rides through the South and replace the wounded riders still in the hospital. Behind the scenes, the Kennedy administration arranged a deal with the governors of Alabama and Mississippi, where the governors agreed that state police and the National Guard would protect the Riders from mob violence. In return, the federal government would not intervene to stop local police from arresting Freedom Riders for violating segregation ordinances when the buses arrived at the depots.[23]

On Wednesday morning, May 24, Freedom Riders boarded buses for the journey to Jackson, Mississippi.[36] Surrounded by Highway Patrol and the National Guard, the buses arrived in Jackson without incident, but the riders were immediately arrested when they tried to use the white-only facilities at the Tri-State Trailways depot.[37] The third bus arrived at the Jackson Greyhound station early on May 28, and its Freedom Riders were arrested.[38][39]

In Montgomery, the next round of Freedom Riders, including the Yale University chaplain William Sloane Coffin, Gaylord Brewster Noyce,[40] and southern ministers Shuttlesworth, Abernathy, Wyatt Tee Walker, and others were similarly arrested for violating local segregation ordinances.[23]

This established a pattern followed by subsequent Freedom Rides, most of which traveled to Jackson, where the Riders were arrested and jailed. Their strategy became one of trying to fill the jails. Once the Jackson and Hinds County jails were filled to overflowing, the state transferred the Freedom Riders to the infamous Mississippi State Penitentiary (known as Parchman Farm). Abusive treatment there included placement of Riders in the Maximum Security Unit (Death Row), issuance of only underwear, no exercise, and no mail privileges. When the Freedom Riders refused to stop singing freedom songs, prison officials took away their mattresses, sheets, and toothbrushes. More Freedom Riders arrived from across the country, and at one time, more than 300 were held in Parchman Farm.[41]

Riders arrested in Jackson included Stokley Carmichael (19), Catherine Burks (21),[8] Gloria Bouknight (20), Luvahgn Brown (16), Margaret Leonard (19), Helen O'Neal (20), Hank Thomas (20), Carol Silver (22), Hezekiah Watkins (13), Peter Stoner (22), Byron Baer (31), and LeRoy Glenn Wright (19) in addition to many more [10][42]

While in Jackson, Freedom Riders received support from local grassroots civil rights organization Womanpower Unlimited, which raised money and collected toiletries, soap, candy and magazines for the imprisoned protesters. Upon Freedom Riders' release, Womanpower members would provide places for them to bathe while offering them clothes and food. Founded by Clarie Collins Harvey, the group was considered instrumental in the success of the Freedom Riders.[43] Freedom Rider Joan Trumpauer Mulholland said the Womanpower members "were like angels supplying us with just little simple necessities."[44]

Kennedy urges "cooling off period"

The Kennedys called for a "cooling off period" and condemned the Rides as unpatriotic because they embarrassed the nation on the world stage at the height of the Cold War. James Farmer, head of CORE, responded to Kennedy saying, "We have been cooling off for 350 years, and if we cooled off any more, we'd be in a deep freeze."[45] The Soviet Union criticized the United States for its racism and the attacks on the Riders.[16][46]

Nonetheless, international outrage about the widely covered events and racial violence created pressure on American political leaders. On May 29, 1961, Attorney General Kennedy sent a petition to the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) asking it to comply with the bus-desegregation ruling it had issued in November 1955, in Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company. That ruling had explicitly repudiated the concept of "separate but equal" in the realm of interstate bus travel. Chaired by the South Carolina Democrat J. Monroe Johnson the ICC had failed to implement its own ruling.

Summer escalation

 
Activists Patricia Stephens and Reverend Petty D. McKinney arrested in Tallahassee, Florida on June 16, 1961.

CORE, SNCC, and the SCLC rejected any "cooling off period". They formed a Freedom Riders Coordinating Committee to keep the Rides rolling through June, July, August, and September.[23] During those months, more than 60 different Freedom Rides criss-crossed the South,[47] most of them converging on Jackson, where every Rider was arrested, more than 300 in total. An unknown number were arrested in other Southern towns. It is estimated that almost 450 people participated in one or more Freedom Rides. About 75% were male, and the same percentage were under the age of 30, with about equal participation from black and white citizens.

During the summer of 1961, Freedom Riders also campaigned against other forms of racial discrimination. They sat together in segregated restaurants, lunch counters and hotels. This was especially effective when they targeted large companies, such as hotel chains. Fearing boycotts in the North, the hotels began to desegregate their businesses.

Tallahassee

In mid-June, a group of Freedom Riders had scheduled to end their ride in Tallahassee, Florida, with plans to fly home from the Tallahassee Municipal Airport. They were provided a police escort to the airport from the city's bus facilities. At the airport, they decided to eat at the Savarin restaurant that was marked "For Whites Only".[48] The owners decided to close rather than serve the mixed group of Freedom Riders. Although the restaurant was privately owned, it was leased from the county government. Canceling their plane reservations, the Riders decided to wait until the restaurant re-opened so they could be served. They waited until 11:00 pm that night and returned the following day. During this time, hostile crowds gathered, threatening violence. On June 16, 1961, the Freedom Riders were arrested in Tallahassee for unlawful assembly.[49] That arrest and subsequent trial became known as Dresner v. City of Tallahassee, named for Israel S. Dresner, a rabbi among the group arrested.[50] The Riders were convicted of unlawful assembly by the Municipal Court of Tallahassee, and the convictions were affirmed in the Florida Circuit Court of the Second Judicial District.[44] The convictions were appealed to the US Supreme Court in 1963, which refused to hear the case based on jurisdictional reasons.[51] In 1964, the Tallahassee 10 protesters returned to the city to serve brief jail sentences.[48]

Monroe, North Carolina, and Robert F. Williams

In early August, SNCC staff members James Forman and Paul Brooks, with the support of Ella Baker, began planning a Freedom Ride in solidarity with Robert F. Williams. Williams was an extremely militant and controversial NAACP chapter president for Monroe, North Carolina. After making the public statement that he would "meet violence with violence," (since the federal government would not protect his community from racial attacks) he had been suspended by the NAACP national board over the objections of Williams' local membership. Williams continued his work against segregation however, but now had massive opposition in both black and white communities.[citation needed] He was also facing repeated attempts on his life because of it. Some SNCC staff members sympathized with the idea of armed self-defense, although many on the ride to Monroe saw this as an opportunity to prove the superiority of Gandhian nonviolence over the use of force.[52] Forman was among those who were still supportive of Williams.[citation needed]

The Freedom Riders in Monroe were brutally attacked by white supremacists with the approval of local police. On August 27, James Forman - SNCC's Executive Secretary - was struck unconscious with the butt of a rifle and taken to jail with numerous other demonstrators. Police and white supremacists roamed the town shooting at black civilians, who returned the gunfire. Robert F. Williams fortified the black neighborhood against attack and in the process briefly detained a white couple who had gotten lost there. The police accused Williams of kidnapping and called in the state militia and FBI to arrest him, in spite of the couple being quickly released. Certain he would be lynched, Williams fled and eventually found refuge in Cuba. Movement lawyers, eager to disengage from the situation, successfully urged the Freedom Riders not to practice the normal "jail-no bail" strategy in Monroe. Local officials, also apparently eager to de-escalate, found demonstrators guilty but immediately suspended their sentences.[53] One Freedom Rider however, John Lowry, went on trial for the kidnapping case, along with several associates of Robert F. Williams, including Mae Mallory. Monroe legal defense committees were popular around the country, but ultimately Lowry and Mallory served prison sentences. In 1965, their convictions were vacated due to the exclusion of black citizens from the jury selection.[54][55]

 
Tri-State Trailways depot, Jackson, Miss. (1940s Postcard)

Jackson, Mississippi, and Pierson v. Ray

On September 13, 1961, a group of 15 Episcopal priests including 3 black priests entered the Jackson, Mississippi Trailways bus terminal. Upon entering the coffee shop, they were stopped by two policemen, who asked them to leave. After refusing to leave, all 15 were arrested and jailed for breach of peace, under a now-repealed section of the Mississippi code § 2087.5 that "makes guilty of a misdemeanor anyone who congregates with others in a public place under circumstances such that a breach of the peace may be occasioned thereby, and refuses to move on when ordered to do so by a police officer."

The group included 35-year-old Reverend Robert L Pierson. After the case against the priests was dismissed on May 21, 1962, they sought damages against the police under the Civil Rights Act of 1871. Their claims were ultimately rejected in the United States Supreme Court case Pierson v. Ray (1967), which held that the police were protected by qualified immunity.[56]

Resolution and legacy

By September it had been over three months since the filing of the petition by Robert Kennedy. CORE and SNCC leaders made tentative plans for a mass demonstration known as the "Washington Project". This would mobilize hundreds, perhaps thousands, of nonviolent demonstrators to the capital city to apply pressure on the ICC and the Kennedy administration. The idea was pre-empted when the ICC finally issued the necessary orders just before the end of the month.[57] The new policies went into effect on November 1, 1961, six years after the ruling in Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company. After the new ICC rule took effect, passengers were permitted to sit wherever they pleased on interstate buses and trains; "white" and "colored" signs were removed from the terminals; racially-segregated drinking fountains, toilets, and waiting rooms serving interstate customers were consolidated; and the lunch counters began serving all customers, regardless of race.

The widespread violence provoked by the Freedom Rides sent shock waves through American society. People were worried that the Rides were evoking widespread social disorder and racial divergence, an opinion supported and strengthened in many communities by the press. The press in white communities condemned the direct action approach that CORE was taking, while some of the national press negatively portrayed the Riders as provoking unrest.

At the same time, the Freedom Rides established great credibility with black and white people throughout the United States and inspired many to engage in direct action for civil rights. Perhaps most significantly, the actions of the Freedom Riders from the North, who faced danger on behalf of southern black citizens, impressed and inspired the many black people living in rural areas throughout the South. They formed the backbone of the wider civil rights movement, engaging in voter registration and other activities. Southern black activists generally organized around their churches, the center of their communities and a base of moral strength.

The Freedom Riders helped inspire participation in subsequent civil rights campaigns, including voter registration throughout the South, freedom schools, and the Black Power movement. At the time, most black Southerners had been unable to register to vote, due to state constitutions, laws and practices that had effectively disfranchised them since the turn of the 20th century. For instance, white administrators supervised reading comprehension and literacy tests that highly educated black people could not pass.

In Australia, two decades later, the American Freedom Riders inspired the 1965 Freedom Ride (Australia). This event brought attention to the significant social and legal discrimination against Aboriginal Australians in regional, rural and remote areas of New South Wales, including segregation from public facilities and private businesses.

Conclusion

At the end of the day the Freedom Riders were a group of courageous civil rights activists who challenged the segregation laws in the southern United States in the early 1960s. Despite facing violent attacks and arrests, they continued to ride buses and trains to demand equal treatment for all. Their actions brought national attention to the injustices of segregation and helped to pave the way for the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

List of Freedom Rides

Precursors to Freedom Rides

Ride Date Carrier Point of departure Destination Ref. Note
Journey of Reconciliation April 9–23, 1947 Trailways and Greyhound Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. [58] [note 1]
Little Freedom Ride April 22, 1961 East St. Louis, Illinois Sikeston, Missouri [60] [note 2]

Original and subsequent Freedom Rides

 
Atlanta, GA, Greyhound Bus Station and Restaurant, c. 1940
 
Birmingham, AL, Greyhound Bus Station, c. 1950
 
Atlanta's Terminal Station, origin of a Freedom Ride on the Central of Georgia Railway.
(postcard view, c. 1949)
  Denotes location a Freedom Rider tested the compliance of the Boynton v. Virginia (1960) decision at a terminal facility only
Ride Date Carrier or terminal Point of departure Destination Ref. Note
Original CORE Freedom Ride May 4–17, 1961 Trailways Washington, D.C. New Orleans, Louisiana [63] [note 2]
Greyhound Washington, D.C. New Orleans, Louisiana
Nashville Student Movement Freedom Ride May 17–21, 1961 Birmingham, Alabama New Orleans, Louisiana [64] [note 3]
Connecticut Freedom Ride May 24–25, 1961 Greyhound Atlanta, Georgia Montgomery, Alabama [65] [note 4]
Interfaith Freedom Ride June 13–16, 1961 Greyhound Washington, D.C. Tallahassee, Florida [66] [note 5]
Organized Labor–Professional Freedom Ride June 13–16, 1961 Washington, D.C. St. Petersburg, Florida [68] [note 6]
Missouri to Louisiana CORE Freedom Ride July 8–15, 1961 St. Louis, Missouri New Orleans, Louisiana [70] [note 7]
New Jersey to Arkansas CORE Freedom Ride July 13–24, 1961 Newark, New Jersey Little Rock, Arkansas [72] [note 8]
Los Angeles to Houston Freedom Ride August 9–11, 1961 Union Railway Station Los Angeles, California Houston, Texas [73] [note 9]
Monroe Freedom Ride August 17–September 1, 1961 Monroe, North Carolina [74] [note 10]
Prayer Pilgrimage Freedom Ride September 13, 1961 Trailways New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [76] [note 11]
Albany Freedom Rides November 1, 1961 Trailways (terminal only) Atlanta, Georgia [79] [note 12]
Trailways Atlanta, Georgia Albany, Georgia [79] [note 13]
November 22, 1961 Trailways (terminal only) Albany, Georgia [80] [note 14]
December 10, 1961 Central of Georgia Railway Atlanta Terminal Station Albany, Georgia (Union Station) [81] [note 15]
McComb Freedom Rides November 29, 1961 Greyhound New Orleans, Louisiana McComb, Mississippi [80] [note 16]
December 1, 1961 Greyhound Baton Rouge, Louisiana McComb, Mississippi [85] [note 17]
December 2, 1961 Greyhound Jackson, Mississippi McComb, Mississippi [86] [note 18]

Mississippi Freedom Rides

 
Preserved Greyhound Station, Jackson, Mississippi
 
Bus Depot, Nashville, Tennessee c. 1940
  Denotes location a Freedom Rider tested the compliance of the Boynton v. Virginia (1960) decision at a terminal facility only
Date Carrier or terminal Point of departure Destination Ref. Note
May 24, 1961 Trailways Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [87] [note 19]
Greyhound Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [89] [note 20]
May 28, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [91] [note 21]
Trailways Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [92] [note 22]
May 30, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [93] [note 23]
June 2, 1961 Trailways (#1) Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [94] [note 24]
Trailways (#2) Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [95] [note 25]
June 6, 1961 Trailways New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [97] [note 26]
June 7, 1961 Trailways Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [98] [note 27]
Greyhound Bus Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [100] [note 28]
Hawkins Field (airport) St. Louis, Missouri Jackson, Mississippi [100] [note 29]
June 8, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [101] [note 30]
Hawkins Field (airport) Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [100] [note 31]
June 9, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [103] [note 32]
June 10, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [104] [note 33]
June 11, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [105] [note 34]
June 16, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [107] [note 35]
June 19, 1961 Greyhound Bus Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [107] [note 36]
June 20, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [108] [note 37]
June 21, 1961 Trailways Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [109] [note 38]
June 23, 1961 Tri-State Trailways station[110] (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [111] [note 39]
June 25, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [112] [note 40]
July 2, 1961 Trailways Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [115] [note 41]
July 5, 1961 Tri-State Trailways station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [116] [note 42]
July 6, 1961 Jackson Union Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [118] [note 43]
Greyhound Bus Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [119] [note 44]
July 7, 1961 Jackson Union Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [122] [note 45]
Trailways Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [123] [note 46]
July 9, 1961 Trailways Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [124] [note 47]
Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [122] [note 48]
Tri-State Trailways station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [124] [note 49]
July 15, 1961 Greyhound New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [128] [note 50]
July 16, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [129] [note 51]
July 21, 1961 Hawkins Field (airport terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [130] [note 52]
Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [132] [note 53]
July 23, 1961 Trailways Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [133] [note 54]
July 24, 1961 Hawkins Field (airport) Montgomery, Alabama Jackson, Mississippi [134] [note 55]
July 29, 1961 Greyhound Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [136] [note 56]
July 30, 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans, Louisiana Jackson, Mississippi [137] [note 57]
July 31, 1961 Greyhound Bus Station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [138] [note 58]
August 5, 1961 Trailways (bus and terminal) Nashville, Tennessee Jackson, Mississippi [139] [note 59]
August 13, 1961 Tri-State Trailways station (terminal only) Jackson, Mississippi [140] [note 60]

Commemorations and monument

 
Freedom Riders plaque in Birmingham, Alabama

In celebration of the 50th anniversary of the Freedom Rides, Oprah Winfrey invited all living Freedom Riders to join her TV program to celebrate their legacy. The episode aired on May 4, 2011.[141]

On May 6–16, 2011, 40 college students from across the United States embarked on a bus ride from Washington, D.C. to New Orleans, retracing the original route of the Freedom Riders.[142] The 2011 Student Freedom Ride, which was sponsored by PBS and American Experience, commemorated the 50th anniversary of the original Freedom Rides. Students met with civil rights leaders along the way and traveled with original Freedom Riders such as Ernest "Rip" Patton, Joan Mulholland, Bob Singleton, Helen Singleton, Jim Zwerg, and Charles Person. On May 16, 2011, PBS aired a documentary called Freedom Riders.

On May 19–21, 2011, the Freedom Rides were commemorated in Montgomery, Alabama, at the new Freedom Ride Museum in the old Greyhound Bus terminal, where some of the violence had taken place in 1961. On May 22–26, 2011, the arrival of the Freedom Rides in Jackson, Mississippi was commemorated with a 50th Anniversary Reunion and Conference in the city.[143] During commemorative events in February 2013 in Montgomery, Congressman John Lewis accepted the apologies of Chief Kevin Murphy of the Montgomery Police Department; Murphy gave Lewis his own badge, off his uniform, moving Lewis to tears.[144]

In late 2011, Palestinian activists, inspired by the Freedom Riders, used the same methods in Israel by boarding a bus from which they were excluded.[145][146][147]

In January, 2017, President Barack Obama declared the Anniston, Alabama bus station the Freedom Riders National Monument.

Cultural depictions

The 1980s PBS documentary series, Eyes on the Prize, had an episode, "Ain't Scared of Your Jails: 1960-1961," which gave attention to the Freedom Riders. It included an interview with James Farmer.[148]

The title of the 2007 film Freedom Writers is an explicit pun on the Freedom Riders, a fact made clear in the film itself which references the campaign.

PBS in 2012 broadcast Freedom Riders as part of its American Experience series. It included interviews and news footage from the Freedom Riders movement.[149]

Dan Shore's 2013 opera Freedom Ride, set in New Orleans, celebrates the Freedom Riders.[150]

The Boondocks aired a 2014 episode about the Freedom Rides with the title "Freedom Ride or Die".

The Freedom Riders: The Civil Rights Musical is a theater musical retelling the story of the Freedom Rides.[151] The musical was created by Los Angeles screenwriter/director Richard Allen, and San Diego native music artist Taran Gray. Richard and Taran finalized the music in March 2016, and by April of the same year were asked to perform excerpts from their musical as a BETA Event at the New York Musical Festival (NYMF).[152] The FREEDOM RIDERS musical received NYMF's inaugural BETA Event Award,[153] and is scheduled to return to New York, summer of 2017, for an Off-Broadway run as part of NYMF's festival.[154]

Notable Freedom Riders

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Included 16 participants – Louis Adams, Dennis Banks, Ernest Bromley, Joseph Felmet, George Houser, Homer A. Jack, Andrew S. Johnson, Conrad Lynn, Wally Nelson, James Peck, Worth Randle, Igal Roodenko, Bayard Rustin, Eugene Stanley, William Worthy and Nathan Wright.[59]
  2. ^ a b Included 18 participants – Frances Bergman, Walter Bergman,[61] Albert Bigelow, Ed Blankenheim, Benjamin Elton Cox,[62] James Farmer, Robert G. (Gus) Griffin, Herman K. Harris, Genevieve Hughes, John Lewis, Jimmy McDonald, Ivor (Jerry) Moore, Mae Frances Moultrie, James Peck, Joseph Perkins, Charles Person, Isaac (Ike) Reynolds and Hank Thomas.
  3. ^ Included 23 participants – William Barbee, James Bevel, Paul Brooks, Catherine Burks-Brooks, Carl Bush, Charles Butler, Joseph Carter, Allen Cason Jr., Lucretia Collins, Rudolph Graham, William E. Harbour, Susan Hermann, Patricia Jenkins, Bernard Lafayette, Frederick Leonard, John Lewis, Salynn McCollum, William B. Mitchell Jr., Etta Simpson, Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson, Susan Wilbur, Clarence M. Wright and James Zwerg.
  4. ^ Included 7 participants – Clyde Carter, William Sloane Coffin, Joseph Charles Jones, John Maguire, Gaylord Noyce, George B. Smith and David E. Swift.
  5. ^ Included 18 participants – C. Donald Alstork, Robert McAfee Brown, John Collier, Israel S. Dresner, Malcolm Evans, Martin Freedman, Arthur L. Hardge, Wayne "Chris" Clyde Hartmire Jr., George Leake, Allan Levine, Petty McKinney, Walter Plaut,[67] Henry Proctor, Ralph Lord Roy, Perry A. Smith III, Robert J. Stone, A. McRaven (Mack) Warner and Edward White.
  6. ^ Included 14 participants – Jerald Bobrow, Herbert Callender,[69] Ralph Diamond, Joyce Lebowitz, Sheree Massaquoi, Edward Morton, Gordon Negen, James O'Connor, Francis Randall, Laura Randall, Leslie Smith, Daniel N. Stern, Dupree White and Benny Winston.
  7. ^ Included 5 participants – Benjamin Elton Cox, Annie Lumpkin, Bliss Anne Malone, John Curtis Raines and Janet Reinitz.[71]
  8. ^ Included 5 participants – John C. Harvard, Sidney Shanken, Woollcott Smith, Herman (Chaim) S. Stern and Hank Thomas.
  9. ^ Included 18 participants – Charles Berrard, Marjorie Dunson, Robert Farrell, Herbert Hamilton, Willie Handy, Holly Hogrobrooks, John Hutchins, Eddie Jones, Robert E. Jones, Robert Paul Kaufman, Ellen Kleinman, Pat Kovner, Ronald La Bostrie, Steven McNichols, Marian Moody, Beverly Radcliffe, Steven Sanfield and Joseph McClendon Stevenson.
  10. ^ Included 19 participants – Robert M. Baum, Edward J. Bromberg, Paul Brooks, Charles Butler, Price Chatham, Paul David Dietrich, James Forman, Richard P. Griswold, Larry Fred Hunter, Edward W. Kale, Frederick Leonard, John Lowry, William Carl Mahoney, Joseph John Michael McDonald, David Kerr Morton, Heath Cliff Rush, Kenneth Martin Shilman, Daniel Ray Thompson and LeRoy Glenn Wright.[75]
  11. ^ Included 15 participants – Gilbert S. Avery III, Myron B. Bloy Jr., James Pleasant Breeden, John Crocker Jr.,[77] James Walker Evans, John Marvin Evans, Quinland Reeves Gordon, James Garrard Jones, John Burnett Morris, Robert Laughlin Pierson, Geoffrey Sedgewick Simpson, Robert Page Taylor, William Adrew Wendt,[78] Vernon P. Woodward and Merrill Orne Young.
  12. ^ Included 4 participants – James Bevel, James Forman, Joseph Charles Jones and Bernard Lafayette
  13. ^ Included 3 participants – Salynn McCollum, Cordell Reagon and Charles Sherrod.
  14. ^ Included 5 participants – Julian Carswell, Bertha Gober, Blanton Hall, Evelyn Toney and Eddie Wilson.
  15. ^ Included 9 participants – Joan Browning, Norma F. Collins, James Forman, Sandra Cason "Casey" Hayden,[82] Tom Hayden, Per Laursen, Bernard Lee, Lenora Taitt and Robert Zellner.
  16. ^ Included 5 participants – George Raymond Jr., Doratha Smith, Jerome H. Smith, Alice Thompson[83] and Thomas Valentine.[84]
  17. ^ Included 6 participants – Willie Bradford, Thomas Peete, George Raymond Jr., Claude Reese, Patricia Tate and Jean Thompson.
  18. ^ Included 5 participants – James Burnham, Jerome Byrd, MacArthur Cotton, Thomas Gaither and Joe Lewis.
  19. ^ Included 12 participants – Julia Aaron, Alexander M. Anderson, Harold Andrews, James Bevel, Joseph Carter, Dave Dennis, Paul David Dietrich, Bernard Lafayette, James Lawson, Jean Catherine Thompson, C. T. Vivian, Matthew Walker Jr.[88]
  20. ^ Included 15 participants – Peter M. Ackerberg, Doris Castle, Lucretia R. Collins, John Lee Copeland, Dion Tyrone Diamond,[90] Grady H. Donald, James Farmer, Frank George Holloway, John Lewis, John H. Moody Jr., Ernest (Rip) Patton Jr., Jerome H. Smith, Clarence Lloyd Thomas, Hank Thomas and LeRoy Glenn Wright.[75]
  21. ^ Included 9 participants – Catherine Burks-Brooks, William E. Harbour, Frederick Leonard, Lester G. McKinnie, William B. Mitchell Jr., Etta Simpson, Mary J. Smith, Frances L. Wilson and Clarence M. Wright.
  22. ^ Included 8 participants – Allen Cason Jr., Albert Lee Dunn, David B. Fankhauser, Franklin W. Hunt, Larry Fred Hunter, Pauline Edythe Knight, William Carl Mahoney and Charles David Myers.
  23. ^ Included 8 participants – James Keet Davis Jr., Glenda Jean Gaither, Paul S. Green, Joe Henry Griffith, Charles Haynie, Robert Lawrence Heller, Sandra Marie Nixon and Peter Sterling.
  24. ^ Included 6 participants – Charles Butler, Price Chatham, Joseph John Michael McDonald, Meryle Joy Reagon, Kenneth Martin Shilman and Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson.
  25. ^ Included 8 participants – Ralph Fertig,[96] Richard LeRoy Gleason, Jesse J. Harris, Cordell Reagon, Carolyn Yvonne Reed, Felix Jacques Singer, Leslie Word and Elizabeth Porter Wyckoff.
  26. ^ Included 7 participants – Johnny Frank Ashford, Abraham Bassfordt, James Thomas McDonough, Terry John Sullivan, Shirley Thompson, James Robert Wahlstrom and Ernest Newell Weber.
  27. ^ Included 6 participants – John Gager, Reginald Malcolm Green,[99] Edward W. Kale, Raymond B. Randolph Jr., Carol Ruth Silver and Obadiah Lee Simms.
  28. ^ Included 1 participant – Michael Audain.
  29. ^ Included 3 participants – Gwendolyn C. Jenkins, Robert L. Jenkins and Ralph Edward Washington.
  30. ^ Included 9 participants – Travis O. Britt, Stokely Carmichael, Gwendolyn T. Greene, Teri Susan Perlman, Jane Ellen Rosett, Jan Leighton Triggs, Joan Harris Trumpauer, Robert Wesby[102] and Helene Dorothy Wilson.
  31. ^ Included 2 participants – Mark Lane and Percy Sutton.
  32. ^ Included 5 participants – Margaret Winonah Beamer, Edward J. Bromberg, Patricia Elaine Bryant, Del Greenblatt and Heath Cliff Rush.
  33. ^ Included 6 participants – Leora Berman, Stephen John Green, Richard P. Giswold, Leon Daniel Horne, Katherine Pleune and Lowell A. Woods Jr.
  34. ^ Included 7 participants – Zev Aelony, Robert M. Baum, Marvin Allen Davidov, David Kerr Morton, Claire O'Connor,[106] Daniel Ray Thompson and Eugine John Uphoff.
  35. ^ Included 5 participants – Elizabeth S. Adler, Bob Filner, Elizabeth Slade Hirschfeld, Karen Elizabeth Kytle and Leon N. Rice.
  36. ^ Included 1 participant – Eugene Levine.
  37. ^ Included 13 participants – Rita J. Carter, Margaret Ann Kerr, Robert Martinson, Paul Duncan McConnell, Frederick Dean Muntean, Grant Harland Muse Jr., Lestra Alene Peterson, Joan Pleune, Joseph Marion Pratt, Jorgia B. Yvonne Siegel, Buren Lewis Teale, Lawrence Triss Jr. and Thomas Van Roland.
  38. ^ Included 9 participants – Miriam (Mimi) Feingold, Judith Ann Frieze, Margaret Burr Leonard, Samuel Timothy Nash, Henry Schwarzschild, Leon Felton Smith Jr., Theresa Edwards Walker, Wyatt Tee Walker and Melvin Lorenzo White.
  39. ^ Included 4 participants – Thomas Madison Armstrong III, Mary Magdalene Harrison, Elnora R. Price and Joseph Lee Ross.
  40. ^ Included 20 participants – George Marion Blevins, Gloria Leevare-Dee Bouknight, Arthur Brooks Jr., John Luther Dolan, Mary Lucille Hamilton,[113][114] Gordon Lau Harris, Louise Jean Inghram, Frank Johnson, Marian Alice Kendall, Norma Libson, Claude Albert Liggins, Eddora Mae Manning, Robert William Mason, Fank Arthur Nelson, Janice Louise Rogers, John Copeland Rogers, Marica Arlene Rosenbaum, Wayne Leslie Taylor, Richard Thorne and Claire Drew Toombs.
  41. ^ Included 5 participants – Barbara Jane Kay, Robert Allen Miller, Michael Leon Pritchard, Peter Harry Stoner and Leotis Thornton.
  42. ^ Included 9 participants – Robert Earl Bass, Ralph Floyd, Eugene Lee, Marshall Bennett, Miller G. Green Jr., Robert Lee Green, Jesse L. Harris,[117] Percy Lee Johnson and James Wilson Jones.
  43. ^ Included 6 participants – Frank Caston, Frankie Lee Griffin, Alpha Zara Palmer, West Davis Phillips, Tommie Watts Jr. and Mack Charles Wells.
  44. ^ Included 6 participants – Alfonzo Denson Jr., Samuel Givens, Landy McNair Jr., Earl Vance Jr., Hezekiah Watkins[120][121] and Paul Edward Young.
  45. ^ Included 1 participant – Morton Bruce Slater.
  46. ^ Included 8 participants – Charles Biggers, Elmer L. Brown, William Walter Hansen Jr., John Lowry, Norma Matzkin, Isaac (Ike) Reynolds Jr., Daniel Stevens and Willie James Thomas.
  47. ^ Included 8 participants – Daniel E. Bukholder, Lionel Goldbart, Albert Forrest Gordon, Stephen Greenstein, Jeanne H. Herrick, Saul Bernard Manfield, Ralph Robert Rogers and Lula Mae White.[125][126]
  48. ^ Included 9 participants – Patricia Dale Baskerville, Larry Bell, Tommie Eldridge Brashear, Edmond Dalbert Jr., Reginald Jackson, Edward B. Johnson, Philip Jonathan Perkins, Roena Rand and John Charles Taylor Jr.[127]
  49. ^ Included 11 participants – Leo Vone Blue, Mildred Juanita Blue, Fred Douglas Clark,[121] Jessie James Davis, Gainnel Hayes, Andrew Horne Jr., Erma Lee Horne, Delores Williams Lynch, Henry Rosell, Oneal Vance and Joe Watts Jr.
  50. ^ Included 12 participants – Carroll Gary Barber, Charles Henry Booth, Ray Allen Cooper, Marilyn Irene Eisenberg, Robert Lewis Owens, Jean Estil Kidwell Pestana, David Lering Richards, Rose Schorr Rosenberg, Leon Russ Jr., Leo Vernon Washington, Douglas Albert Williams and Jack Mikhail Wolfson.
  51. ^ Included 8 participants – James Emerson Dennis, Mary Freelon, Phillip Jay Havey, Rudolph Mitaritonna, Shirley B. Smith, Willard Hooker Svanoe, James Edward Warren and Lewis Richard Zuchman.
  52. ^ Included 9 participants – James T. Carey, Francis L. Geddes, Joseph Henry Gumbiner,[131] Mary Jorgensen, Russell F. Jorgensen, Allan Levine, Orville B. Luster, Charles G. Sellers and John R. Washington.
  53. ^ Included 4 participants – Paul Breines, Donna Sage Garde, Joel Ben Greenberg and Ruth Esther Moskowitz.
  54. ^ Included 7 participants – Albert Roy Huddleston, Margaret Ihra, Candida Lall, Morton G. Linder, Michael Harry Powell, Alexander Weiss and Ralph Alan Williams.
  55. ^ Included 4 participants – Alphonso Kelly Petway, Kredelle Petway, Matthew Petway and Cecil A. Thomas.[135]
  56. ^ Included 10 participants – Byron Baer, Hilmar Ehrenfreid Pabel, Catherine Jo Prensky, Sally Rowley, Judith Norene Scroggins, Rick Stanley Sheviakov, Woollcott Smith, Widijonaiko Tjokroadisunatto, Norma Wagner and Ellen Lee Ziskind.
  57. ^ Included 15 participants – Albert Barough, Winston Fuller, Joseph Edward Gerbac, Michael Grubbs, Alan Kaufman, William Leons, Herbert S. Mann, Max Gregory Pavesic, Philip M. Posner, Helen Singleton, Robert Singleton, Richard C. Steward, Lonnie Thurman, Sam Joe Townsend and Tanya Wren.
  58. ^ Included 1 participant – James Robert Wahlstrom.
  59. ^ Included 2 participants – Earl C. Bohannon and Norma Wagner.
  60. ^ Included 2 participants – George Raymond Jr. and Pauline K. Sims.

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Bibliography

  • Arsenault, Raymond (2006). Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199755813.
  • Branch, Taylor (2007). Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954–63. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781416558682.
  • Forman, James (1972). The Making of Black Revolutionaries. University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295976594.
  • Morgenroth, Florence (1966). Organization and Activities of the American Civil Liberties Union in Miami, 1955–1966 (M.A. thesis). University of Miami. OCLC 15796239.
  • Morris, Tiyi (2015). Womanpower Unlimited and the Black Freedom Struggle in Mississippi. Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-4731-8.
  • Tyson, Timothy B. (2001). Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807849231.
  • Upchurch, Thomas Adams (2008). Race Relations in the United States, 1960–1980. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313341717.

Further reading

Scholarly works

  • Barnes, Catherine A. (1983). Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231053808.
  • Catsam, Derek (2009). Freedom's Main Line: The Journey of Reconciliation and the Freedom Rides. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 9780813173108.
  • Etheridge, Eric (2018). Breach of Peace: Portraits of the 1961 Mississippi Freedom Riders. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 9780826521903.
  • Garrow, David J. (1989). Birmingham, Alabama, 1956-1963: The Black Struggle for Civil Rights. Carlson Publisher. ISBN 9780926019041.
  • Halberstam, David (1999). The Children. Fawcett Books. ISBN 9780449004395.
  • Hollars, B. J. (2018). The Road South: Personal Stories of the Freedom Riders. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 9780817319809.
  • McWhorter, Diane (2001). Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780743217729.
  • Niven, David (2003). The Politics of Injustice: The Kennedys, the Freedom Rides, and the Electoral Consequences of a Moral Compromise. University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 9781572332126.
  • Ortlepp, Anke (2017). Jim Crow Terminals: The Desegregation of American Airports. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 9780820350943.

Autobiographies and memoirs

  • Armstrong, Thomas M.; Bell, Natalie R. (2011). Autobiography of a Freedom Rider: My Life as a Foot Soldier for Civil Rights. Health Communications. ISBN 9780757316036.
  • Carmichael, Stokely; Thelwell, Michael (2003). Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture). New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780684850030.
  • Farmer, James (1985). Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement. Texas Christian University Press. ISBN 9780875651880.
  • Lewis, John; D'Orso, Michael (1998). Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 9780156007085.
  • Peck, James (1962). Freedom Ride. Simon and Schuster. OCLC 890013.
  • Silver, Carol Ruth (2014). Freedom Rider Diary: Smuggled Notes from Parchman Prison. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 9781617038877.
  • Zellner, Bob (2011). The Wrong Side of Murder Creek: A White Southerner in the Freedom Movement. NewSouth Books. ISBN 9781603061049.

Other works

  • Carawan, Guy; Carawan, Candie, eds. (2008). "1961: Freedom Rides". Sing for Freedom: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement Through Its Songs. NewSouth Books. ISBN 9781588381934.
  • Hamilton, Mary; Inghram, Louise (1961). Freedom Riders Speak for Themselves. News & Letters. OCLC 12011720.
  • Matteson, Noelle (2011). The Freedom Rides and Alabama: A Guide to Key Events and Places, Context, and Impact. NewSouth Books. ISBN 9781603061063.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Freedom Rides.
 
Look up freedom rider or freedom ride in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
  • Freedom Rides of 1961 ~ Civil Rights Movement Archive
  • Get On the Bus: The Freedom Riders of 1961, National Public Radio
  • Never-Seen: MLK & the Freedom Rides January 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine – slideshow by Life magazine
  • You Don't Have to Ride Jim Crow! New Hampshire Public Television/American Public Television documentary of the Journey of Reconciliation
  • Eyes on the Prize, Blackside, Inc./PBS documentary of the Civil Rights Movement (Episode 3 is the Freedom Rides)
  • "JFK, Freedom Riders, and the Civil Rights Movement" EDSITEment lesson plan
  • "The Freedom Riders and the Popular Music of the Civil Rights" EDSITEment lesson plan
  • , Montgomery County Sheriff's Office, Alabama Department of Archives & History
  • Spears, Ellen (June 29, 2009). "Memorializing the Freedom Riders". Southern Spaces. 2009. doi:10.18737/M7160X.
  • Interview with Jim Zwerg, Civil Rights Activist, United States. People's Century television series. PBS and BBC
  • The Freedom Riders April 5, 2010, at the Wayback Machine – slideshow by Life magazine
  • FBI files on the Freedom Riders
  • Freedom Rider Articles. Online collection of Ride-related articles written by Freedom Riders – Civil Rights Movement Archive.
  • Curated links to Freedom Riders archival material, Civil Rights Digital Library.
  • Civil Rights Activist Bob Zellner interviewed on Conversations from Penn State
  • Freedom Riders historical marker in Villa Rica, Georgia
  • CORE's Route 40 Project campaign for desegregation of Maryland highway, 1961
  • Freedom Riders interviews by American Experience at the American Archive of Public Broadcasting

May 14, 2023
freedom, riders, were, civil, rights, activists, rode, interstate, buses, into, segregated, southern, united, states, 1961, subsequent, years, challenge, enforcement, united, states, supreme, court, decisions, morgan, virginia, 1946, boynton, virginia, 1960, w. Freedom Riders were civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into the segregated Southern United States in 1961 and subsequent years to challenge the non enforcement of the United States Supreme Court decisions Morgan v Virginia 1946 and Boynton v Virginia 1960 which ruled that segregated public buses were unconstitutional 3 The Southern states had ignored the rulings and the federal government did nothing to enforce them The first Freedom Ride left Washington D C on May 4 1961 4 and was scheduled to arrive in New Orleans on May 17 5 Freedom RidersPart of the Civil Rights MovementMugshots of Freedom Riders as displayed at the Center for Civil and Human Rights in Atlanta Georgia DateMay 4 December 10 1961 7 months and 6 days LocationSouthern United States First Baptist Church Parchman Farm and Jackson MississippiCaused byPlessy v Ferguson 1896 Racial segregation in interstate and intrastate transportation and public accommodations Failed compliance with ruling Morgan v Virginia 1946 Journey of Reconciliation in 1947 Sarah Keys v Carolina Coach Company 1955 Ongoing boycott and sit in demonstrations in the south Boynton v Virginia 1960 Resulted in436 individuals participated in at least 60 separate Freedom Rides 1 2 First time jail no bail tactic employed on large scale since the Nashville sit ins Desegregation order from Interstate Commerce Commission ICC Congress of Racial Equality CORE recognized as a serious civil rights organization Creation of Route 40 campaign Eastern Shore project and Freedom Highways campaign Voter Education Project establishedParties to the civil conflictCongress of Racial Equality CORE Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee SNCC Nashville Student Movement National Association for the Advancement of Colored People NAACP Governor of Mississippi Governor of Alabama Birmingham Police Commissioner Ku Klux Klan KKK Lead figuresCORE members James Farmer Gordon CareySNCC and Nashville Student Movement members Diane Nash John Lewis Bernard Lafayette James Bevel Governors Ross Barnett John M PattersonCity of Birmingham Eugene Bull Connor Tom CookBoynton outlawed racial segregation in the restaurants and waiting rooms in terminals serving buses that crossed state lines 6 Five years prior to the Boynton ruling the Interstate Commerce Commission ICC had issued a ruling in Sarah Keys v Carolina Coach Company 1955 that had explicitly denounced the Plessy v Ferguson 1896 doctrine of separate but equal in interstate bus travel The ICC failed to enforce its ruling and Jim Crow travel laws remained in force throughout the South citation needed The Freedom Riders challenged this status quo by riding interstate buses in the South in mixed racial groups to challenge local laws or customs that enforced segregation in seating The Freedom Rides and the violent reactions they provoked bolstered the credibility of the American Civil Rights Movement They called national attention to the disregard for the federal law and the local violence used to enforce segregation in the southern United States Police arrested riders for trespassing unlawful assembly violating state and local Jim Crow laws and other alleged offenses but often they first let white mobs attack them without intervention The Congress of Racial Equality CORE sponsored most of the subsequent Freedom Rides but some were also organized by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee SNCC The Freedom Rides beginning in 1960 followed dramatic sit ins against segregated lunch counters conducted by students and youth throughout the South and boycotts of retail establishments that maintained segregated facilities The Supreme Court s decision in Boynton supported the right of interstate travelers to disregard local segregation ordinances Southern local and state police considered the actions of the Freedom Riders to be criminal and arrested them in some locations In some localities such as Birmingham Alabama the police cooperated with Ku Klux Klan chapters and other white people opposing the actions and allowed mobs to attack the riders Contents 1 History 1 1 Prelude 1 2 The lives as a Freedom Rider 1 3 Mob violence in Anniston and Birmingham 1 3 1 Anniston 1 3 2 Birmingham 1 4 The Persecution of the freedom riders 1 5 About Peck 1 6 New Orleans 1 7 Nashville Student Movement continuation 1 8 Mob violence in Montgomery 1 9 Into Mississippi 1 10 Kennedy urges cooling off period 1 11 Summer escalation 1 12 Tallahassee 1 13 Monroe North Carolina and Robert F Williams 1 14 Jackson Mississippi and Pierson v Ray 1 15 Resolution and legacy 1 16 Conclusion 2 List of Freedom Rides 2 1 Precursors to Freedom Rides 2 2 Original and subsequent Freedom Rides 2 3 Mississippi Freedom Rides 3 Commemorations and monument 4 Cultural depictions 5 Notable Freedom Riders 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 Further reading 10 1 Scholarly works 10 2 Autobiographies and memoirs 10 3 Other works 11 External linksHistory EditPrelude Edit The Freedom Riders were inspired by the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation led by Bayard Rustin and George Houser and co sponsored by the Fellowship of Reconciliation and the then fledgling Congress of Racial Equality CORE Like the Freedom Rides of 1961 the Journey of Reconciliation was intended to test an earlier Supreme Court ruling that banned racial discrimination in interstate travel Rustin Igal Roodenko Joe Felmet and Andrew Johnnson were arrested and sentenced to serve on a chain gang in North Carolina for violating local Jim Crow laws regarding segregated seating on public transportation 7 The first Freedom Ride began on May 4 1961 Led by CORE Director James Farmer 13 young riders seven black six white including but not limited to John Lewis 21 Genevieve Hughes 28 Mae Frances Moultrie Joseph Perkins Charles Person 18 Ivor Moore 8 William E Harbour 19 Joan Trumpauer Mullholland 19 and Ed Blankenheim 9 left Washington DC on Greyhound from the Greyhound Terminal and Trailways buses Their plan was to ride through Virginia the Carolinas Georgia Alabama and Mississippi ending in New Orleans Louisiana where a civil rights rally was planned Many of the Riders were sponsored by CORE and SNCC with 75 of the Riders between 18 and 30 years old citation needed A diverse group of volunteers came from 39 states and were from different economic classes and racial backgrounds 10 Most were college students and received training in nonviolent tactics 11 The Freedom Riders tactics for their journey were to have at least one interracial pair sitting in adjoining seats and at least one black rider sitting up front where seats under segregation had been reserved for white customers by local custom throughout the South The rest of the team would sit scattered throughout the rest of the bus One rider would abide by the South s segregation rules in order to avoid arrest and to contact CORE and arrange bail for those who were arrested Only minor trouble was encountered in Virginia and North Carolina but John Lewis was attacked in Rock Hill South Carolina Over 300 Riders were arrested in Charlotte North Carolina Winnsboro South Carolina and Jackson Mississippi 10 The lives as a Freedom Rider Edit The Freedom Rides were mostly focused on events that occurred during the spring and summer of 1961 However the idea of an interracial bus ride through the South at a time when racial segregation was mandated in public transportation originated in 1947 Bayard Rustin and George Houser who were part of a civil rights organization called the Congress of Racial Equality CORE came up with a plan to test whether southern long distance buses were following a 1946 Supreme Court ruling that prohibited segregation on interstate travel 12 Yet the Freedom Rides in plural was just the beginning The Alabama attacks coupled with the Mississippi arrests inspired multiple small bands of civil rights supporters from all over the continental United States to head southward too explains Arsenault 12 The riders in 1961 successfully completed their journey through Virginia the Carolinas and Georgia However they encountered violent and horrific situations in Alabama A white segregationist mob attacked and burned one of the two buses they were traveling in outside Anniston The second group of riders faced violence from Ku Klux Klansmen in Birmingham while the city police deliberately held back 12 The Freedom Rides had two important outcomes Firstly due to the pressure from Robert Kennedy s Justice Department the Interstate Commerce Commission ICC which had regulatory power over interstate buses and terminals declared an end to racial segregation in all waiting rooms and lunch counters effective from November 1 1961 Although not everyone immediately followed this rule Arsenault points out that this directive sent a clear message to southern whites that desegregation of other institutions was likely to happen soon 13 Many whites took this message as a sign of war Mob violence in Anniston and Birmingham Edit The Greyhound bus attack site center is south of Anniston on Old Birmingham Highway right See Freedom Riders National Monument 2017 photo Violence at the Anniston Trailways Terminal at 901 Noble St is commemorated with a mural 2012 photo The Birmingham Alabama Police Commissioner Bull Connor together with Police Sergeant Tom Cook an avid Ku Klux Klan supporter organized violence against the Freedom Riders with local Klan chapters The pair made plans to bring the Ride to an end in Alabama They assured Gary Thomas Rowe an FBI informer 14 and member of Eastview Klavern 13 the most violent Klan group in Alabama that the mob would have fifteen minutes to attack the Freedom Riders without any arrests being made The plan was to allow an initial assault in Anniston with a final assault taking place in Birmingham Anniston Edit Main article Anniston bus bombing On Sunday May 14 1961 Mother s Day in Anniston Alabama a mob of Klansmen some still in church attire attacked the first of the two Greyhound buses The driver tried to leave the station but he was blocked until KKK members slashed its tires 15 The mob forced the crippled bus to stop several miles outside town and then threw a firebomb into it 16 17 As the bus burned the mob held the doors shut intending to burn the riders to death Sources disagree but either an exploding fuel tank 16 or an undercover state investigator who was brandishing a revolver caused the mob to retreat and the riders escaped the bus 18 The mob beat the riders after they got out Warning shots which were fired into the air by highway patrolmen were the only thing which prevented the riders from being lynched 16 The roadside site in Anniston and the downtown Greyhound station were preserved as part of the Freedom Riders National Monument in 2017 Some injured riders were taken to Anniston Memorial Hospital 19 That night the hospitalized Freedom Riders most of whom had been refused care were removed from the hospital at 2 AM because the staff feared the mob outside the hospital The local civil rights leader Rev Fred Shuttlesworth organized several cars of black citizens to rescue the injured Freedom Riders in defiance of the white supremacists The black people were under the leadership of Colonel Stone Johnson and were openly armed as they arrived at the hospital protecting the Freedom Riders from the mob 20 When the Trailways bus reached Anniston and pulled in at the terminal an hour after the Greyhound bus was burned it was boarded by eight Klansmen They beat the Freedom Riders and left them semi conscious in the back of the bus 16 Birmingham Edit Main article Birmingham bus attack The Persecution of the freedom riders EditOn Sunday morning May 14 the Freedom Riders embarked on a journey from Atlanta in two buses that also accommodated regular passengers However the first bus was unable to reach Birmingham as it was attacked by a group of 200 men The attackers hurled a firebomb through a rear window of the bus and the Freedom Riders were taken to a nearby hospital where they were mostly ignored until being instructed to leave The bus was left completely destroyed and this became the first memorable image of the Freedom Ride 21 A mob of white people beat Freedom Riders in Birmingham This picture was reclaimed by the FBI from a local journalist who also was beaten and whose camera was smashed 22 When the bus arrived in Birmingham it was attacked by a mob of KKK members 15 aided and abetted by police under the orders of Commissioner Connor 23 As the riders exited the bus they were beaten by the mob with baseball bats iron pipes and bicycle chains Among the attacking Klansmen was Gary Thomas Rowe an FBI informant White Freedom Riders were singled out for especially frenzied beatings James Peck required more than 50 stitches to the wounds in his head 24 Peck was taken to Carraway Methodist Medical Center which refused to treat him he was later treated at Jefferson Hillman Hospital 25 26 About Peck Edit On the afternoon of that same Sunday the second bus arrived at Birmingham s Trail ways station with James Peck as the captain of this leg Peck a 46 year old descendant of the Peck amp Peck New York retail family and one of the two Harvard alums on the ride had participated in CORE S 1947 Journey of Reconciliation where he was surprised by the level of tolerance towards integration among drivers and passengers However fourteen years later he faced a hostile group of white men in sports shirts who carried lead pipes hidden in paper bags Peck challenged them declaring that they would have to kill him before hurting his fellow Freedom Riders Despite his brave words he was attacked and severely beaten by five men in an alley The attackers used a Coke bottle which was a typical weapon for southern vigilantes Peck lost consciousness within seconds and needed 53 stitches to close his exposed skull Meanwhile inside the station the Klansmen violently assaulted the Freedom Riders and anyone else who tried to stop them including a news photographer who arrived at the scene 27 When reports of the bus burning and beatings reached the U S Attorney General Robert F Kennedy he urged restraint on the part of Freedom Riders and sent an assistant John Seigenthaler to Alabama to try to calm the situation 28 Despite the violence suffered and the threat of more to come the Freedom Riders intended to continue their journey Kennedy had arranged an escort for the Riders in order to get them to Montgomery Alabama safely However radio reports told of a mob awaiting the riders at the bus terminal as well as on the route to Montgomery The Greyhound clerks told the Riders that their drivers were refusing to drive any Freedom Riders anywhere 15 New Orleans Edit Recognizing that their efforts had already called national attention to the civil rights cause and wanting to get to the rally in New Orleans the Riders decided to abandon the rest of the bus ride and fly directly to New Orleans from Birmingham When they first boarded the plane all passengers had to exit because of a bomb threat 15 Upon arriving in New Orleans local tensions prevented normal accommodations after which Norman C Francis president of Xavier University of Louisiana XULA decided to house them on campus in secret at St Michael s Hall a dormitory 29 Nashville Student Movement continuation Edit Diane Nash a Nashville college student who was a leader of the Nashville Student Movement and SNCC believed that if Southern violence were allowed to halt the Freedom Rides the movement would be set back years She pushed to find replacements to resume the rides On May 17 a new set of riders 10 students from Nashville who were active in the Nashville Student Movement took a bus to Birmingham where they were arrested by Bull Connor and jailed 23 The students kept their spirits up in jail by singing freedom songs Out of frustration Connor drove them back up to the Tennessee line and dropped them off saying I just couldn t stand their singing 30 They immediately returned to Birmingham Mob violence in Montgomery Edit In answer to SNCC s call Freedom Riders from across the Eastern US joined John Lewis and Hank Thomas the two young SNCC members of the original Ride who had remained in Birmingham On May 19 they attempted to resume the ride but terrified by the howling mob surrounding the bus depot the drivers refused Harassed and besieged by the mob the riders waited all night for a bus 23 Under intense public pressure from the Kennedy administration Greyhound was forced to provide a driver After direct intervention by Byron White of the Attorney General s office Alabama Governor John Patterson reluctantly promised to protect the bus from KKK mobs and snipers on the road between Birmingham and Montgomery 31 On the morning of May 20 the Freedom Ride resumed with the bus carrying the riders traveling toward Montgomery at 90 miles an hour protected by a contingent of the Alabama State Highway Patrol The Old Montgomery Greyhound Station site of the May 20 1961 violence is preserved as the Freedom Rides Museum 2011 photo The Highway Patrol abandoned the bus and riders at the Montgomery city limits At the Montgomery Greyhound station on South Court Street a white mob awaited They beat the Freedom Riders with baseball bats and iron pipes The local police allowed the beatings to go on uninterrupted 23 Again white Freedom Riders were singled out for particularly brutal beatings Reporters and news photographers were attacked first and their cameras destroyed but one reporter took a photo later of Jim Zwerg in the hospital showing how he was beaten and bruised 32 Seigenthaler a Justice Department official was beaten and left unconscious lying in the street Ambulances refused to take the wounded to the hospital Local black residents rescued them and a number of the Freedom Riders were hospitalized On the following night Sunday May 21 more than 1500 people packed into Reverend Ralph Abernathy s First Baptist Church to honor the Freedom Riders Among the speakers were Rev Martin Luther King Jr who had led the 1955 1956 Montgomery bus boycott Rev Fred Shuttlesworth and James Farmer Outside a mob of more than 3 000 white people attacked the black attendees with a handful of the United States Marshals Service protecting the church from assault and fire bombs With city and state police making no effort to restore order the civil rights leaders appealed to the President for protection President Kennedy threatened to intervene with federal troops if the governor would not protect the people Governor Patterson forestalled that by finally ordering the Alabama National Guard to disperse the mob and the Guard reached the church in the early morning 23 Mugshot of Miller G Green when arrested for being a part of The Freedom Rides In a commemorative Op Ed piece in 2011 Bernard Lafayette remembered the mob breaking windows of the church with rocks and setting off tear gas canisters He recounted heroic action by King After learning that black taxi drivers were arming and forming a group to rescue the people inside he worried that more violence would result He selected ten volunteers who promised non violence to escort him through the white mob which parted to let King and his escorts pass as they marched two by two King went out to the black drivers and asked them to disperse to prevent more violence King and his escorts formally made their way back inside the church unmolested 33 Lafayette also was interviewed by the BBC in 2011 and told about these events in an episode broadcast on the radio on August 31 2011 in commemoration of the Freedom Rides The Alabama National Guard finally arrived in the early morning to disperse the mob and safely escorted all the people from the church 34 35 Into Mississippi Edit George Raymond Jr was a CORE activist arrested in the Trailways bus terminal in Jackson Mississippi on August 14 1961 Some Freedom Riders were incarcerated in the Mississippi State Penitentiary The next day Monday May 22 more Freedom Riders arrived in Montgomery to continue the rides through the South and replace the wounded riders still in the hospital Behind the scenes the Kennedy administration arranged a deal with the governors of Alabama and Mississippi where the governors agreed that state police and the National Guard would protect the Riders from mob violence In return the federal government would not intervene to stop local police from arresting Freedom Riders for violating segregation ordinances when the buses arrived at the depots 23 On Wednesday morning May 24 Freedom Riders boarded buses for the journey to Jackson Mississippi 36 Surrounded by Highway Patrol and the National Guard the buses arrived in Jackson without incident but the riders were immediately arrested when they tried to use the white only facilities at the Tri State Trailways depot 37 The third bus arrived at the Jackson Greyhound station early on May 28 and its Freedom Riders were arrested 38 39 In Montgomery the next round of Freedom Riders including the Yale University chaplain William Sloane Coffin Gaylord Brewster Noyce 40 and southern ministers Shuttlesworth Abernathy Wyatt Tee Walker and others were similarly arrested for violating local segregation ordinances 23 This established a pattern followed by subsequent Freedom Rides most of which traveled to Jackson where the Riders were arrested and jailed Their strategy became one of trying to fill the jails Once the Jackson and Hinds County jails were filled to overflowing the state transferred the Freedom Riders to the infamous Mississippi State Penitentiary known as Parchman Farm Abusive treatment there included placement of Riders in the Maximum Security Unit Death Row issuance of only underwear no exercise and no mail privileges When the Freedom Riders refused to stop singing freedom songs prison officials took away their mattresses sheets and toothbrushes More Freedom Riders arrived from across the country and at one time more than 300 were held in Parchman Farm 41 Riders arrested in Jackson included Stokley Carmichael 19 Catherine Burks 21 8 Gloria Bouknight 20 Luvahgn Brown 16 Margaret Leonard 19 Helen O Neal 20 Hank Thomas 20 Carol Silver 22 Hezekiah Watkins 13 Peter Stoner 22 Byron Baer 31 and LeRoy Glenn Wright 19 in addition to many more 10 42 While in Jackson Freedom Riders received support from local grassroots civil rights organization Womanpower Unlimited which raised money and collected toiletries soap candy and magazines for the imprisoned protesters Upon Freedom Riders release Womanpower members would provide places for them to bathe while offering them clothes and food Founded by Clarie Collins Harvey the group was considered instrumental in the success of the Freedom Riders 43 Freedom Rider Joan Trumpauer Mulholland said the Womanpower members were like angels supplying us with just little simple necessities 44 Kennedy urges cooling off period Edit The Kennedys called for a cooling off period and condemned the Rides as unpatriotic because they embarrassed the nation on the world stage at the height of the Cold War James Farmer head of CORE responded to Kennedy saying We have been cooling off for 350 years and if we cooled off any more we d be in a deep freeze 45 The Soviet Union criticized the United States for its racism and the attacks on the Riders 16 46 Nonetheless international outrage about the widely covered events and racial violence created pressure on American political leaders On May 29 1961 Attorney General Kennedy sent a petition to the Interstate Commerce Commission ICC asking it to comply with the bus desegregation ruling it had issued in November 1955 in Sarah Keys v Carolina Coach Company That ruling had explicitly repudiated the concept of separate but equal in the realm of interstate bus travel Chaired by the South Carolina Democrat J Monroe Johnson the ICC had failed to implement its own ruling Summer escalation Edit Activists Patricia Stephens and Reverend Petty D McKinney arrested in Tallahassee Florida on June 16 1961 CORE SNCC and the SCLC rejected any cooling off period They formed a Freedom Riders Coordinating Committee to keep the Rides rolling through June July August and September 23 During those months more than 60 different Freedom Rides criss crossed the South 47 most of them converging on Jackson where every Rider was arrested more than 300 in total An unknown number were arrested in other Southern towns It is estimated that almost 450 people participated in one or more Freedom Rides About 75 were male and the same percentage were under the age of 30 with about equal participation from black and white citizens During the summer of 1961 Freedom Riders also campaigned against other forms of racial discrimination They sat together in segregated restaurants lunch counters and hotels This was especially effective when they targeted large companies such as hotel chains Fearing boycotts in the North the hotels began to desegregate their businesses Tallahassee Edit In mid June a group of Freedom Riders had scheduled to end their ride in Tallahassee Florida with plans to fly home from the Tallahassee Municipal Airport They were provided a police escort to the airport from the city s bus facilities At the airport they decided to eat at the Savarin restaurant that was marked For Whites Only 48 The owners decided to close rather than serve the mixed group of Freedom Riders Although the restaurant was privately owned it was leased from the county government Canceling their plane reservations the Riders decided to wait until the restaurant re opened so they could be served They waited until 11 00 pm that night and returned the following day During this time hostile crowds gathered threatening violence On June 16 1961 the Freedom Riders were arrested in Tallahassee for unlawful assembly 49 That arrest and subsequent trial became known as Dresner v City of Tallahassee named for Israel S Dresner a rabbi among the group arrested 50 The Riders were convicted of unlawful assembly by the Municipal Court of Tallahassee and the convictions were affirmed in the Florida Circuit Court of the Second Judicial District 44 The convictions were appealed to the US Supreme Court in 1963 which refused to hear the case based on jurisdictional reasons 51 In 1964 the Tallahassee 10 protesters returned to the city to serve brief jail sentences 48 Monroe North Carolina and Robert F Williams Edit In early August SNCC staff members James Forman and Paul Brooks with the support of Ella Baker began planning a Freedom Ride in solidarity with Robert F Williams Williams was an extremely militant and controversial NAACP chapter president for Monroe North Carolina After making the public statement that he would meet violence with violence since the federal government would not protect his community from racial attacks he had been suspended by the NAACP national board over the objections of Williams local membership Williams continued his work against segregation however but now had massive opposition in both black and white communities citation needed He was also facing repeated attempts on his life because of it Some SNCC staff members sympathized with the idea of armed self defense although many on the ride to Monroe saw this as an opportunity to prove the superiority of Gandhian nonviolence over the use of force 52 Forman was among those who were still supportive of Williams citation needed The Freedom Riders in Monroe were brutally attacked by white supremacists with the approval of local police On August 27 James Forman SNCC s Executive Secretary was struck unconscious with the butt of a rifle and taken to jail with numerous other demonstrators Police and white supremacists roamed the town shooting at black civilians who returned the gunfire Robert F Williams fortified the black neighborhood against attack and in the process briefly detained a white couple who had gotten lost there The police accused Williams of kidnapping and called in the state militia and FBI to arrest him in spite of the couple being quickly released Certain he would be lynched Williams fled and eventually found refuge in Cuba Movement lawyers eager to disengage from the situation successfully urged the Freedom Riders not to practice the normal jail no bail strategy in Monroe Local officials also apparently eager to de escalate found demonstrators guilty but immediately suspended their sentences 53 One Freedom Rider however John Lowry went on trial for the kidnapping case along with several associates of Robert F Williams including Mae Mallory Monroe legal defense committees were popular around the country but ultimately Lowry and Mallory served prison sentences In 1965 their convictions were vacated due to the exclusion of black citizens from the jury selection 54 55 Tri State Trailways depot Jackson Miss 1940s Postcard Jackson Mississippi and Pierson v Ray Edit On September 13 1961 a group of 15 Episcopal priests including 3 black priests entered the Jackson Mississippi Trailways bus terminal Upon entering the coffee shop they were stopped by two policemen who asked them to leave After refusing to leave all 15 were arrested and jailed for breach of peace under a now repealed section of the Mississippi code 2087 5 that makes guilty of a misdemeanor anyone who congregates with others in a public place under circumstances such that a breach of the peace may be occasioned thereby and refuses to move on when ordered to do so by a police officer The group included 35 year old Reverend Robert L Pierson After the case against the priests was dismissed on May 21 1962 they sought damages against the police under the Civil Rights Act of 1871 Their claims were ultimately rejected in the United States Supreme Court case Pierson v Ray 1967 which held that the police were protected by qualified immunity 56 Resolution and legacy Edit This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Freedom Riders news newspapers books scholar JSTOR May 2017 Learn how and when to remove this template message By September it had been over three months since the filing of the petition by Robert Kennedy CORE and SNCC leaders made tentative plans for a mass demonstration known as the Washington Project This would mobilize hundreds perhaps thousands of nonviolent demonstrators to the capital city to apply pressure on the ICC and the Kennedy administration The idea was pre empted when the ICC finally issued the necessary orders just before the end of the month 57 The new policies went into effect on November 1 1961 six years after the ruling in Sarah Keys v Carolina Coach Company After the new ICC rule took effect passengers were permitted to sit wherever they pleased on interstate buses and trains white and colored signs were removed from the terminals racially segregated drinking fountains toilets and waiting rooms serving interstate customers were consolidated and the lunch counters began serving all customers regardless of race The widespread violence provoked by the Freedom Rides sent shock waves through American society People were worried that the Rides were evoking widespread social disorder and racial divergence an opinion supported and strengthened in many communities by the press The press in white communities condemned the direct action approach that CORE was taking while some of the national press negatively portrayed the Riders as provoking unrest At the same time the Freedom Rides established great credibility with black and white people throughout the United States and inspired many to engage in direct action for civil rights Perhaps most significantly the actions of the Freedom Riders from the North who faced danger on behalf of southern black citizens impressed and inspired the many black people living in rural areas throughout the South They formed the backbone of the wider civil rights movement engaging in voter registration and other activities Southern black activists generally organized around their churches the center of their communities and a base of moral strength The Freedom Riders helped inspire participation in subsequent civil rights campaigns including voter registration throughout the South freedom schools and the Black Power movement At the time most black Southerners had been unable to register to vote due to state constitutions laws and practices that had effectively disfranchised them since the turn of the 20th century For instance white administrators supervised reading comprehension and literacy tests that highly educated black people could not pass In Australia two decades later the American Freedom Riders inspired the 1965 Freedom Ride Australia This event brought attention to the significant social and legal discrimination against Aboriginal Australians in regional rural and remote areas of New South Wales including segregation from public facilities and private businesses Conclusion Edit At the end of the day the Freedom Riders were a group of courageous civil rights activists who challenged the segregation laws in the southern United States in the early 1960s Despite facing violent attacks and arrests they continued to ride buses and trains to demand equal treatment for all Their actions brought national attention to the injustices of segregation and helped to pave the way for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 List of Freedom Rides EditPrecursors to Freedom Rides Edit Ride Date Carrier Point of departure Destination Ref NoteJourney of Reconciliation April 9 23 1947 Trailways and Greyhound Washington D C Washington D C 58 note 1 Little Freedom Ride April 22 1961 East St Louis Illinois Sikeston Missouri 60 note 2 Original and subsequent Freedom Rides Edit Atlanta GA Greyhound Bus Station and Restaurant c 1940 Birmingham AL Greyhound Bus Station c 1950 Atlanta s Terminal Station origin of a Freedom Ride on the Central of Georgia Railway postcard view c 1949 Denotes location a Freedom Rider tested the compliance of the Boynton v Virginia 1960 decision at a terminal facility onlyRide Date Carrier or terminal Point of departure Destination Ref NoteOriginal CORE Freedom Ride May 4 17 1961 Trailways Washington D C New Orleans Louisiana 63 note 2 Greyhound Washington D C New Orleans LouisianaNashville Student Movement Freedom Ride May 17 21 1961 Birmingham Alabama New Orleans Louisiana 64 note 3 Connecticut Freedom Ride May 24 25 1961 Greyhound Atlanta Georgia Montgomery Alabama 65 note 4 Interfaith Freedom Ride June 13 16 1961 Greyhound Washington D C Tallahassee Florida 66 note 5 Organized Labor Professional Freedom Ride June 13 16 1961 Washington D C St Petersburg Florida 68 note 6 Missouri to Louisiana CORE Freedom Ride July 8 15 1961 St Louis Missouri New Orleans Louisiana 70 note 7 New Jersey to Arkansas CORE Freedom Ride July 13 24 1961 Newark New Jersey Little Rock Arkansas 72 note 8 Los Angeles to Houston Freedom Ride August 9 11 1961 Union Railway Station Los Angeles California Houston Texas 73 note 9 Monroe Freedom Ride August 17 September 1 1961 Monroe North Carolina 74 note 10 Prayer Pilgrimage Freedom Ride September 13 1961 Trailways New Orleans Louisiana Jackson Mississippi 76 note 11 Albany Freedom Rides November 1 1961 Trailways terminal only Atlanta Georgia 79 note 12 Trailways Atlanta Georgia Albany Georgia 79 note 13 November 22 1961 Trailways terminal only Albany Georgia 80 note 14 December 10 1961 Central of Georgia Railway Atlanta Terminal Station Albany Georgia Union Station 81 note 15 McComb Freedom Rides November 29 1961 Greyhound New Orleans Louisiana McComb Mississippi 80 note 16 December 1 1961 Greyhound Baton Rouge Louisiana McComb Mississippi 85 note 17 December 2 1961 Greyhound Jackson Mississippi McComb Mississippi 86 note 18 Mississippi Freedom Rides Edit Preserved Greyhound Station Jackson Mississippi Bus Depot Nashville Tennessee c 1940 New Orleans Union Passenger Terminal Union Station Jackson Mississippi Denotes location a Freedom Rider tested the compliance of the Boynton v Virginia 1960 decision at a terminal facility onlyDate Carrier or terminal Point of departure Destination Ref NoteMay 24 1961 Trailways Montgomery Alabama Jackson Mississippi 87 note 19 Greyhound Montgomery Alabama Jackson Mississippi 89 note 20 May 28 1961 Greyhound Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 91 note 21 Trailways Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 92 note 22 May 30 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans Louisiana Jackson Mississippi 93 note 23 June 2 1961 Trailways 1 Montgomery Alabama Jackson Mississippi 94 note 24 Trailways 2 Montgomery Alabama Jackson Mississippi 95 note 25 June 6 1961 Trailways New Orleans Louisiana Jackson Mississippi 97 note 26 June 7 1961 Trailways Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 98 note 27 Greyhound Bus Station terminal only Jackson Mississippi 100 note 28 Hawkins Field airport St Louis Missouri Jackson Mississippi 100 note 29 June 8 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans Louisiana Jackson Mississippi 101 note 30 Hawkins Field airport Montgomery Alabama Jackson Mississippi 100 note 31 June 9 1961 Illinois Central Railroad Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 103 note 32 June 10 1961 Greyhound Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 104 note 33 June 11 1961 Greyhound Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 105 note 34 June 16 1961 Greyhound Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 107 note 35 June 19 1961 Greyhound Bus Station terminal only Jackson Mississippi 107 note 36 June 20 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans Louisiana Jackson Mississippi 108 note 37 June 21 1961 Trailways Montgomery Alabama Jackson Mississippi 109 note 38 June 23 1961 Tri State Trailways station 110 terminal only Jackson Mississippi 111 note 39 June 25 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans Louisiana Jackson Mississippi 112 note 40 July 2 1961 Trailways Montgomery Alabama Jackson Mississippi 115 note 41 July 5 1961 Tri State Trailways station terminal only Jackson Mississippi 116 note 42 July 6 1961 Jackson Union Station terminal only Jackson Mississippi 118 note 43 Greyhound Bus Station terminal only Jackson Mississippi 119 note 44 July 7 1961 Jackson Union Station terminal only Jackson Mississippi 122 note 45 Trailways Montgomery Alabama Jackson Mississippi 123 note 46 July 9 1961 Trailways Montgomery Alabama Jackson Mississippi 124 note 47 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans Louisiana Jackson Mississippi 122 note 48 Tri State Trailways station terminal only Jackson Mississippi 124 note 49 July 15 1961 Greyhound New Orleans Louisiana Jackson Mississippi 128 note 50 July 16 1961 Greyhound Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 129 note 51 July 21 1961 Hawkins Field airport terminal only Jackson Mississippi 130 note 52 Greyhound Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 132 note 53 July 23 1961 Trailways Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 133 note 54 July 24 1961 Hawkins Field airport Montgomery Alabama Jackson Mississippi 134 note 55 July 29 1961 Greyhound Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 136 note 56 July 30 1961 Illinois Central Railroad New Orleans Louisiana Jackson Mississippi 137 note 57 July 31 1961 Greyhound Bus Station terminal only Jackson Mississippi 138 note 58 August 5 1961 Trailways bus and terminal Nashville Tennessee Jackson Mississippi 139 note 59 August 13 1961 Tri State Trailways station terminal only Jackson Mississippi 140 note 60 Commemorations and monument Edit Freedom Riders plaque in Birmingham Alabama In celebration of the 50th anniversary of the Freedom Rides Oprah Winfrey invited all living Freedom Riders to join her TV program to celebrate their legacy The episode aired on May 4 2011 141 On May 6 16 2011 40 college students from across the United States embarked on a bus ride from Washington D C to New Orleans retracing the original route of the Freedom Riders 142 The 2011 Student Freedom Ride which was sponsored by PBS and American Experience commemorated the 50th anniversary of the original Freedom Rides Students met with civil rights leaders along the way and traveled with original Freedom Riders such as Ernest Rip Patton Joan Mulholland Bob Singleton Helen Singleton Jim Zwerg and Charles Person On May 16 2011 PBS aired a documentary called Freedom Riders On May 19 21 2011 the Freedom Rides were commemorated in Montgomery Alabama at the new Freedom Ride Museum in the old Greyhound Bus terminal where some of the violence had taken place in 1961 On May 22 26 2011 the arrival of the Freedom Rides in Jackson Mississippi was commemorated with a 50th Anniversary Reunion and Conference in the city 143 During commemorative events in February 2013 in Montgomery Congressman John Lewis accepted the apologies of Chief Kevin Murphy of the Montgomery Police Department Murphy gave Lewis his own badge off his uniform moving Lewis to tears 144 In late 2011 Palestinian activists inspired by the Freedom Riders used the same methods in Israel by boarding a bus from which they were excluded 145 146 147 In January 2017 President Barack Obama declared the Anniston Alabama bus station the Freedom Riders National Monument Cultural depictions EditThe 1980s PBS documentary series Eyes on the Prize had an episode Ain t Scared of Your Jails 1960 1961 which gave attention to the Freedom Riders It included an interview with James Farmer 148 The title of the 2007 film Freedom Writers is an explicit pun on the Freedom Riders a fact made clear in the film itself which references the campaign PBS in 2012 broadcast Freedom Riders as part of its American Experience series It included interviews and news footage from the Freedom Riders movement 149 Dan Shore s 2013 opera Freedom Ride set in New Orleans celebrates the Freedom Riders 150 The Boondocks aired a 2014 episode about the Freedom Rides with the title Freedom Ride or Die The Freedom Riders The Civil Rights Musical is a theater musical retelling the story of the Freedom Rides 151 The musical was created by Los Angeles screenwriter director Richard Allen and San Diego native music artist Taran Gray Richard and Taran finalized the music in March 2016 and by April of the same year were asked to perform excerpts from their musical as a BETA Event at the New York Musical Festival NYMF 152 The FREEDOM RIDERS musical received NYMF s inaugural BETA Event Award 153 and is scheduled to return to New York summer of 2017 for an Off Broadway run as part of NYMF s festival 154 Notable Freedom Riders EditZev Aelony James Bevel Albert Bigelow Malcolm Boyd 155 156 Amos C Brown 157 Gordon Carey 158 Stokely Carmichael William Sloane Coffin 159 Israel S Dresner James Farmer Bob Filner James Forman Tom Hayden Mary Hamilton William E Harbour Genevieve Hughes Bernard Lafayette James Lawson Frederick Leonard John Lewis 160 Robert Martinson Salynn McCollum Charles McDew 161 Winonah Myers 162 Diane Nash Wally Nelson James Peck Charles Person Robert Laughlin Pierson John Curtis Raines Cordell Reagon Meryle Joy Reagon Charles Grier Sellers 163 Charles Sherrod Fred Shuttlesworth 164 Carol Ruth Silver Helen Singleton George Bundy Smith Ruby Doris Smith Robinson Peter Sterling 165 Daniel N Stern Hank Thomas Joan Trumpauer Mulholland C T Vivian Wyatt Tee Walker James Zwerg Janet Braun ReinitzSee also Edit He Was My Brother a 1964 Simon amp Garfunkel song about the Freedom Riders Breach of Peace 2008 book Redlining Reverse freedom rides Freedom Ride Australia Notes Edit Included 16 participants Louis Adams Dennis Banks Ernest Bromley Joseph Felmet George Houser Homer A Jack Andrew S Johnson Conrad Lynn Wally Nelson James Peck Worth Randle Igal Roodenko Bayard Rustin Eugene Stanley William Worthy and Nathan Wright 59 a b Included 18 participants Frances Bergman Walter Bergman 61 Albert Bigelow Ed Blankenheim Benjamin Elton Cox 62 James Farmer Robert G Gus Griffin Herman K Harris Genevieve Hughes John Lewis Jimmy McDonald Ivor Jerry Moore Mae Frances Moultrie James Peck Joseph Perkins Charles Person Isaac Ike Reynolds and Hank Thomas Included 23 participants William Barbee James Bevel Paul Brooks Catherine Burks Brooks Carl Bush Charles Butler Joseph Carter Allen Cason Jr Lucretia Collins Rudolph Graham William E Harbour Susan Hermann Patricia Jenkins Bernard Lafayette Frederick Leonard John Lewis Salynn McCollum William B Mitchell Jr Etta Simpson Ruby Doris Smith Robinson Susan Wilbur Clarence M Wright and James Zwerg Included 7 participants Clyde Carter William Sloane Coffin Joseph Charles Jones John Maguire Gaylord Noyce George B Smith and David E Swift Included 18 participants C Donald Alstork Robert McAfee Brown John Collier Israel S Dresner Malcolm Evans Martin Freedman Arthur L Hardge Wayne Chris Clyde Hartmire Jr George Leake Allan Levine Petty McKinney Walter Plaut 67 Henry Proctor Ralph Lord Roy Perry A Smith III Robert J Stone A McRaven Mack Warner and Edward White Included 14 participants Jerald Bobrow Herbert Callender 69 Ralph Diamond Joyce Lebowitz Sheree Massaquoi Edward Morton Gordon Negen James O Connor Francis Randall Laura Randall Leslie Smith Daniel N Stern Dupree White and Benny Winston Included 5 participants Benjamin Elton Cox Annie Lumpkin Bliss Anne Malone John Curtis Raines and Janet Reinitz 71 Included 5 participants John C Harvard Sidney Shanken Woollcott Smith Herman Chaim S Stern and Hank Thomas Included 18 participants Charles Berrard Marjorie Dunson Robert Farrell Herbert Hamilton Willie Handy Holly Hogrobrooks John Hutchins Eddie Jones Robert E Jones Robert Paul Kaufman Ellen Kleinman Pat Kovner Ronald La Bostrie Steven McNichols Marian Moody Beverly Radcliffe Steven Sanfield and Joseph McClendon Stevenson Included 19 participants Robert M Baum Edward J Bromberg Paul Brooks Charles Butler Price Chatham Paul David Dietrich James Forman Richard P Griswold Larry Fred Hunter Edward W Kale Frederick Leonard John Lowry William Carl Mahoney Joseph John Michael McDonald David Kerr Morton Heath Cliff Rush Kenneth Martin Shilman Daniel Ray Thompson and LeRoy Glenn Wright 75 Included 15 participants Gilbert S Avery III Myron B Bloy Jr James Pleasant Breeden John Crocker Jr 77 James Walker Evans John Marvin Evans Quinland Reeves Gordon James Garrard Jones John Burnett Morris Robert Laughlin Pierson Geoffrey Sedgewick Simpson Robert Page Taylor William Adrew Wendt 78 Vernon P Woodward and Merrill Orne Young Included 4 participants James Bevel James Forman Joseph Charles Jones and Bernard Lafayette Included 3 participants Salynn McCollum Cordell Reagon and Charles Sherrod Included 5 participants Julian Carswell Bertha Gober Blanton Hall Evelyn Toney and Eddie Wilson Included 9 participants Joan Browning Norma F Collins James Forman Sandra Cason Casey Hayden 82 Tom Hayden Per Laursen Bernard Lee Lenora Taitt and Robert Zellner Included 5 participants George Raymond Jr Doratha Smith Jerome H Smith Alice Thompson 83 and Thomas Valentine 84 Included 6 participants Willie Bradford Thomas Peete George Raymond Jr Claude Reese Patricia Tate and Jean Thompson Included 5 participants James Burnham Jerome Byrd MacArthur Cotton Thomas Gaither and Joe Lewis Included 12 participants Julia Aaron Alexander M Anderson Harold Andrews James Bevel Joseph Carter Dave Dennis Paul David Dietrich Bernard Lafayette James Lawson Jean Catherine Thompson C T Vivian Matthew Walker Jr 88 Included 15 participants Peter M Ackerberg Doris Castle Lucretia R Collins John Lee Copeland Dion Tyrone Diamond 90 Grady H Donald James Farmer Frank George Holloway John Lewis John H Moody Jr Ernest Rip Patton Jr Jerome H Smith Clarence Lloyd Thomas Hank Thomas and LeRoy Glenn Wright 75 Included 9 participants Catherine Burks Brooks William E Harbour Frederick Leonard Lester G McKinnie William B Mitchell Jr Etta Simpson Mary J Smith Frances L Wilson and Clarence M Wright Included 8 participants Allen Cason Jr Albert Lee Dunn David B Fankhauser Franklin W Hunt Larry Fred Hunter Pauline Edythe Knight William Carl Mahoney and Charles David Myers Included 8 participants James Keet Davis Jr Glenda Jean Gaither Paul S Green Joe Henry Griffith Charles Haynie Robert Lawrence Heller Sandra Marie Nixon and Peter Sterling Included 6 participants Charles Butler Price Chatham Joseph John Michael McDonald Meryle Joy Reagon Kenneth Martin Shilman and Ruby Doris Smith Robinson Included 8 participants Ralph Fertig 96 Richard LeRoy Gleason Jesse J Harris Cordell Reagon Carolyn Yvonne Reed Felix Jacques Singer Leslie Word and Elizabeth Porter Wyckoff Included 7 participants Johnny Frank Ashford Abraham Bassfordt James Thomas McDonough Terry John Sullivan Shirley Thompson James Robert Wahlstrom and Ernest Newell Weber Included 6 participants John Gager Reginald Malcolm Green 99 Edward W Kale Raymond B Randolph Jr Carol Ruth Silver and Obadiah Lee Simms Included 1 participant Michael Audain Included 3 participants Gwendolyn C Jenkins Robert L Jenkins and Ralph Edward Washington Included 9 participants Travis O Britt Stokely Carmichael Gwendolyn T Greene Teri Susan Perlman Jane Ellen Rosett Jan Leighton Triggs Joan Harris Trumpauer Robert Wesby 102 and Helene Dorothy Wilson Included 2 participants Mark Lane and Percy Sutton Included 5 participants Margaret Winonah Beamer Edward J Bromberg Patricia Elaine Bryant Del Greenblatt and Heath Cliff Rush Included 6 participants Leora Berman Stephen John Green Richard P Giswold Leon Daniel Horne Katherine Pleune and Lowell A Woods Jr Included 7 participants Zev Aelony Robert M Baum Marvin Allen Davidov David Kerr Morton Claire O Connor 106 Daniel Ray Thompson and Eugine John Uphoff Included 5 participants Elizabeth S Adler Bob Filner Elizabeth Slade Hirschfeld Karen Elizabeth Kytle and Leon N Rice Included 1 participant Eugene Levine Included 13 participants Rita J Carter Margaret Ann Kerr Robert Martinson Paul Duncan McConnell Frederick Dean Muntean Grant Harland Muse Jr Lestra Alene Peterson Joan Pleune Joseph Marion Pratt Jorgia B Yvonne Siegel Buren Lewis Teale Lawrence Triss Jr and Thomas Van Roland Included 9 participants Miriam Mimi Feingold Judith Ann Frieze Margaret Burr Leonard Samuel Timothy Nash Henry Schwarzschild Leon Felton Smith Jr Theresa Edwards Walker Wyatt Tee Walker and Melvin Lorenzo White Included 4 participants Thomas Madison Armstrong III Mary Magdalene Harrison Elnora R Price and Joseph Lee Ross Included 20 participants George Marion Blevins Gloria Leevare Dee Bouknight Arthur Brooks Jr John Luther Dolan Mary Lucille Hamilton 113 114 Gordon Lau Harris Louise Jean Inghram Frank Johnson Marian Alice Kendall Norma Libson Claude Albert Liggins Eddora Mae Manning Robert William Mason Fank Arthur Nelson Janice Louise Rogers John Copeland Rogers Marica Arlene Rosenbaum Wayne Leslie Taylor Richard Thorne and Claire Drew Toombs Included 5 participants Barbara Jane Kay Robert Allen Miller Michael Leon Pritchard Peter Harry Stoner and Leotis Thornton Included 9 participants Robert Earl Bass Ralph Floyd Eugene Lee Marshall Bennett Miller G Green Jr Robert Lee Green Jesse L Harris 117 Percy Lee Johnson and James Wilson Jones Included 6 participants Frank Caston Frankie Lee Griffin Alpha Zara Palmer West Davis Phillips Tommie Watts Jr and Mack Charles Wells Included 6 participants Alfonzo Denson Jr Samuel Givens Landy McNair Jr Earl Vance Jr Hezekiah Watkins 120 121 and Paul Edward Young Included 1 participant Morton Bruce Slater Included 8 participants Charles Biggers Elmer L Brown William Walter Hansen Jr John Lowry Norma Matzkin Isaac Ike Reynolds Jr Daniel Stevens and Willie James Thomas Included 8 participants Daniel E Bukholder Lionel Goldbart Albert Forrest Gordon Stephen Greenstein Jeanne H Herrick Saul Bernard Manfield Ralph Robert Rogers and Lula Mae White 125 126 Included 9 participants Patricia Dale Baskerville Larry Bell Tommie Eldridge Brashear Edmond Dalbert Jr Reginald Jackson Edward B Johnson Philip Jonathan Perkins Roena Rand and John Charles Taylor Jr 127 Included 11 participants Leo Vone Blue Mildred Juanita Blue Fred Douglas Clark 121 Jessie James Davis Gainnel Hayes Andrew Horne Jr Erma Lee Horne Delores Williams Lynch Henry Rosell Oneal Vance and Joe Watts Jr Included 12 participants Carroll Gary Barber Charles Henry Booth Ray Allen Cooper Marilyn Irene Eisenberg Robert Lewis Owens Jean Estil Kidwell Pestana David Lering Richards Rose Schorr Rosenberg Leon Russ Jr Leo Vernon Washington Douglas Albert Williams and Jack Mikhail Wolfson Included 8 participants James Emerson Dennis Mary Freelon Phillip Jay Havey Rudolph Mitaritonna Shirley B Smith Willard Hooker Svanoe James Edward Warren and Lewis Richard Zuchman Included 9 participants James T Carey Francis L Geddes Joseph Henry Gumbiner 131 Mary Jorgensen Russell F Jorgensen Allan Levine Orville B Luster Charles G Sellers and John R Washington Included 4 participants Paul Breines Donna Sage Garde Joel Ben Greenberg and Ruth Esther Moskowitz Included 7 participants Albert Roy Huddleston Margaret Ihra Candida Lall Morton G Linder Michael Harry Powell Alexander Weiss and Ralph Alan Williams Included 4 participants Alphonso Kelly Petway Kredelle Petway Matthew Petway and Cecil A Thomas 135 Included 10 participants Byron Baer Hilmar Ehrenfreid Pabel Catherine Jo Prensky Sally Rowley Judith Norene Scroggins Rick Stanley Sheviakov Woollcott Smith Widijonaiko Tjokroadisunatto Norma Wagner and Ellen Lee Ziskind Included 15 participants Albert Barough Winston Fuller Joseph Edward Gerbac Michael Grubbs Alan Kaufman William Leons Herbert S Mann Max Gregory Pavesic Philip M Posner Helen Singleton Robert Singleton Richard C Steward Lonnie Thurman Sam Joe Townsend and Tanya Wren Included 1 participant James Robert Wahlstrom Included 2 participants Earl C Bohannon and Norma Wagner Included 2 participants George Raymond Jr and Pauline K Sims References Edit Arsenault 2006 pp 533 587 Upchurch p 14 328 U S 373 1946 also Morgan v Virginia Law cornell edu Archived from the original on February 17 2012 Retrieved December 12 2011 The Freedom Rides Congress of Racial Equality Archived from the original on July 10 2013 Retrieved March 20 2011 1961 Freedom Rides Map Archived 2018 03 11 at the Wayback Machine Library of Congress Catsam pp 63 67 Journey of Reconciliation Spartacus Educational Archived from the original on July 15 2017 Retrieved June 26 2018 a b Meet the Players Freedom Riders American Experience PBS www pbs org Retrieved 2020 07 30 Freedom Riders Archived 2016 12 09 at the Wayback Machine Freedom Rider PBS a b c Berger Maurice 2018 05 15 50 Years After Their Mug Shots Portraits of Mississippi s Freedom Riders The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2020 07 30 The Freedom Riders Then and Now Smithsonian Magazine Retrieved 2020 07 30 a b c Garrow David J 2006 Arsenault Raymond ed Down the Highway to Freedom The Wilson Quarterly 1976 30 2 103 104 ISSN 0363 3276 Martin Michael T 2011 Buses Are a Comin Oh Yeah Stanley Nelson on Freedom Riders Black Camera 3 1 96 122 doi 10 2979 blackcamera 3 1 96 ISSN 1947 4237 Civil Rights Rider Keeps Fight Alive Star News June 30 1983 p 4A Retrieved April 10 2010 a b c d Freedom Riders WGBH American Experience PBS Archived from the original on December 24 2011 Retrieved December 12 2011 a b c d e Get On the Bus The Freedom Riders of 1961 NPR Archived from the original on April 17 2008 Retrieved July 30 2008 Photo of a Greyhound bus firebombed by a mob in Anniston Alabama Archived June 15 2007 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved February 1 2010 Branch pp 412 450 Anniston Memorial Hospital Marker Historic Markers Across Alabama www lat34north com Retrieved 17 October 2018 With the police holding back the jeering crowd and with the deacons openly displaying their weapons the weary but relieved Riders piled into the cars which promptly drove off into the gathering dusk We walked right between those Ku Klux Buck Johnson later recalled Some of them had clubs There were some deputies too You couldn t tell the deputies from the Ku Klux Get On the Bus The Freedom Riders of 1961 NPR Archived from the original on April 17 2008 Retrieved July 30 2008 McWhorter Diane 2008 The Enduring Courage of the Freedom Riders The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 61 66 73 ISSN 1077 3711 Get On the Bus The Freedom Riders of 1961 NPR Retrieved 2018 06 28 a b c d e f g h Freedom Rides Archived 2010 07 10 at Wikiwix Civil Rights Movement Archive Photo of James Peck after being attacked in Birmingham Alabama Archived 2016 03 03 at the Wayback Machine University of California Retrieved February 1 2010 non primary source needed Arsenault 2006 p 160 Branch p 423 McWhorter Diane 2008 The Enduring Courage of the Freedom Riders The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 61 66 73 ISSN 1077 3711 Meacham Jon 15 July 2014 John Seigenthaler s Epic Sensibility The New Yorker Retrieved 22 August 2022 Lipinski Jed On his last day at Xavier Norman Francis is remembered for providing refuge to Freedom Riders NOLA com Retrieved 2021 01 24 Fankhauser David SNCC Gets Involved in the Freedom Rides Freedom Rides David Fankhauser Archived from the original on 21 October 2013 Retrieved 21 October 2013 Biskupic Joan April 15 2002 Ex Supreme Court Justice Byron White dies USA Today Archived from the original on February 12 2009 Retrieved October 20 2008 Photo of Jim Zwerg in the hospital beaten and bruised Retrieved February 1 2010 Bernard Lafayette Jr The Siege of the Freedom Riders Archived 2017 06 27 at the Wayback Machine Opinion page New York Times May 19 2011 carried at blog for Baltimore Nonviolence Center accessed February 24 2012 Witness Freedom Riders Archived 2013 10 07 at the Wayback Machine BBC broadcast August 31 2011 accessed February 24 2012 Assistant Attorney General Thomas E Perez Speaks at the All People s Program Honoring the Freedom Riders 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Retrieved 2020 07 30 Morris Tiyi Makeda 2015 Womanpower Unlimited and the Black freedom struggle in Mississippi ISBN 978 0 8203 4793 6 OCLC 903118488 a b Dresner v City of Tallahassee 375 U S 136 11L ed 2d 208 84 S CT 235 1963 1963 Archived from the original on April 2 2015 Retrieved May 1 2011 Mort Dave Bye Bye Miss American Pie Archived 2016 06 10 at the Wayback Machine 2008 ISBN 9789780956950 McMillen Neil R August 1977 Black Enfranchisement in Mississippi Federal Enforcement and Black Protest in the 1960s The Journal of Southern History 43 3 351 372 doi 10 2307 2207646 JSTOR 2207646 Freedom Ride Map Archived 2008 02 05 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved February 1 2010 a b Freedom Ride Stops in Tallahassee Florida Historical Society 1 April 2015 Retrieved 25 August 2020 Morgenroth pp 102 103 Rabbi Israel Si Dresner to Speak at Tarrytown s Temple Beth Abraham Tarrytown SleepyHollow Daily Voice 9 May 2014 Retrieved 25 August 2020 Dresner v City of Tallahassee 378 U S 539 1964 1964 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Archived from the original on 1 December 2016 Retrieved 30 November 2016 Arsenault 2006 pp 113 535 536 Arsenault 2006 pp 537 538 Arsenault 2006 p 542 Arsenault 2006 pp 552 554 Rabbi Walter Plaut 44 Dead The New York Times January 4 1964 Archived from the original on 19 November 2017 Retrieved 5 December 2016 Arsenault 2006 pp 555 556 Sullivan Ronald September 29 1993 Makaza Kumanyika 60 Leader Of Civil Rights Protests in 1960 s The New York Times Archived from the original on 7 February 2017 Retrieved 5 December 2016 Arsenault 2006 pp 566 567 Rogers Alexis February 23 2016 Freedom Riders The 5 Who Forever Changed Arkansas KATV ABC 7 Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 Retrieved 8 December 2016 Arsenault 2006 pp 567 568 Arsenault 2006 pp 577 579 Arsenault 2006 pp 579 581 a b Alfonso Fernando III May 2 2011 Syracuse Minister Who Took Part in Civil Rights Freedom Rides Featured in WCNY Show Syracuse com Archived from the original on 18 November 2017 Retrieved 8 December 2016 Arsenault 2006 pp 581 582 Marquard Bryan January 6 2012 Rev John Crocker Jr 88 Activist College Chaplain The Boston Globe Archived from the original on 21 May 2016 Retrieved 8 December 2016 Smith J Y July 9 2001 Rev William Wendt Dies at 81 The Washington Post Archived from the original on 16 November 2016 Retrieved 8 December 2016 a b Arsenault 2006 p 583 a b Arsenault 2006 p 584 Arsenault 2006 pp 585 586 Ortiz Keldy January 20 2013 Segregated Victoria Shaped Civil Rights Leader s Life Victoria Advocate Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 Retrieved 9 December 2016 Webster Richard A September 14 2015 Alice Thompson 75 Remembered as Civil Rights Warrior NOLA com Archived from the original on 18 November 2017 Retrieved 9 December 2016 Webster Richard A July 1 2014 New Orleans Freedom Riders and the Fight for Civil Rights NOLA com Archived from the original on 10 May 2017 Retrieved 9 December 2016 Arsenault 2006 pp 584 585 Arsenault 2006 p 585 Arsenault 2006 pp 539 540 Tamburin Adam Civil Rights Activist Matthew Walker Jr Dead at 74 Tennessean Retrieved 30 November 2016 Arsenault 2006 pp 540 541 Thomas Lester Avis May 31 2011 Local Freedom Riders Remember the Movement The Washington Post Archived from the original on 13 January 2017 Retrieved 7 December 2016 Arsenault 2006 pp 543 544 Arsenault 2006 p 544 Arsenault 2006 p 545 Arsenault 2006 p 546 Arsenault 2006 pp 546 547 Marble Steve April 1 2019 Ralph Fertig 60s Freedom Rider who became the conscience of L A dies at 89 Los Angeles Times Retrieved April 3 2019 Arsenault 2006 pp 547 548 Arsenault 2006 pp 548 549 Paulson Kaitlin October 29 2008 Former Freedom Rider Addresses Yalies Yale Daily News Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 Retrieved 7 December 2016 a b c Arsenault 2006 p 549 Arsenault 2006 p 550 Barnum Art Biddle Fred Marc July 23 1988 Activist Pastor Slain Suspect Held Chicago Tribune Archived from the original on 1 December 2016 Retrieved 1 December 2016 Arsenault 2006 p 551 Arsenault 2006 pp 551 552 Arsenault 2006 p 552 Tevlin Jon May 10 2011 Minnesota Freedom Rider has Remained True to the Cause StarTribune Archived from the original on 13 January 2017 Retrieved 5 December 2016 a b Arsenault 2006 p 556 Arsenault 2006 p 557 Arsenault 2006 pp 557 558 Demolishing History Before It Becomes Historic Preservation in Mississippi 17 May 2011 Retrieved 4 April 2018 Arsenault 2006 p 559 Arsenault 2006 pp 559 561 Mary Hamilton Wesley 67 Civil Rights Activist Challenged Segregation Los Angeles Times December 12 2002 Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 Retrieved 7 December 2016 Yeager Andrew July 12 2013 Mary Hamilton The Woman Who Put The Miss In Court NPR Archived from the original on 1 May 2017 Retrieved 7 December 2016 Arsenault 2006 p 561 Arsenault 2006 pp 561 562 Mitchell Jerry January 29 2015 Longtime Civil Rights Activist Jessie Harris Dies Clarion Ledger Retrieved 1 December 2016 Arsenault 2006 p 562 Arsenault 2006 pp 562 563 Watson Dylan January 17 2011 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Activist Los Angeles Times March 27 1993 Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 Retrieved 8 December 2016 Arsenault 2006 p 571 Arsenault 2006 p 572 Arsenault 2006 p 573 The Petways Kredelle Petway Dendy and Rev Alfonso K Petway Vimeo Winter Institute August 2013 Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 Retrieved 8 December 2016 Arsenault 2006 pp 573 574 Arsenault 2006 pp 574 576 Arsenault 2006 p 576 Arsenault 2006 p 577 Arsenault 2006 p 579 A Tribute to Freedom Riders The Oprah Winfrey Show Archived from the original on February 17 2013 Retrieved March 3 2013 American Experience Student Freedom Ride 2011 Archived 2017 03 13 at the Wayback Machine PBS org full citation needed Kelly Brooke 61 Freedom Riders Recount Fear Pride at Mississippi Commemoration Washington Informer May 26 2011 1 Newspaper Source Plus Web May 30 2013 Okarmus Matt March 3 2013 MPD Apologizes to Freedom Riders Montgomery Advertiser pp 1 2 Archived from the original on November 13 2014 Retrieved March 3 2013 Greenberg Joel November 15 2011 Palestinian Freedom Riders Arrested on Bus to Jerusalem The Washington Post Archived from the original on July 16 2017 Collard Rebecca November 15 2011 Palestinian freedom riders board Israeli buses in protest Christian Science Monitor Archived from the original on January 16 2012 Palestinian freedom riders board settlers bus BBC News November 15 2011 Archived from the original on January 5 2012 Eyes on the Prize Ain t Scared of Your Jails 1960 1961 Episode released February 4 1988 https www imdb com title tt0885809 ref nm flmg slf 7 American Experience Freedom Riders https www pbs org video american experience freedom riders Waddington Chris October 15 2011 Xavier Prof Pens Opera Set in New Orleans during Civil Rights Struggles New Orleans Times Picayune Archived from the original on 25 October 2011 Retrieved 23 October 2011 FREEDOM RIDERS to Play NYMF Broadway World Archived from the original on 2017 03 17 Retrieved 2017 03 16 Hebert James Civil rights musical rolling to NYC sandiegouniontribune com Archived from the original on 2017 03 16 Retrieved 2017 03 16 FREEDOM RIDERS Among NYMF s 2016 Gala Award Winners Broadway World Archived from the original on 2016 12 02 Retrieved 2017 03 16 The Body Politic Is Part of Initial NYMF Lineup Playbill Playbill 2017 02 24 Archived from the original on 2017 03 16 Retrieved 2017 03 16 McFadden Robert D 2015 03 02 Rev Malcolm Boyd an Author Activist and Counterculture Rebel Dies at 91 The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on 2017 11 18 Retrieved 2017 02 05 Yerkey Gary G 2013 05 10 Malcolm Boyd brought Christianity into the streets to promote civil rights Christian Science Monitor ISSN 0882 7729 Archived from the original on 2017 02 05 Retrieved 2017 02 05 Christensen Jen November 3 2012 Civil Rights Icon Fighting for Change One Registered Voter at a Time CNN Archived from the original on February 2 2017 Seelye Katharine Q 2021 12 24 Gordon Carey a Force in the Civil Rights Movement Dies at 89 The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on 2021 12 24 Retrieved 2021 12 26 Charney Marc D 2006 04 13 Rev William Sloane Coffin Dies at 81 Fought for Civil Rights and Against a War The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on 2017 02 13 Retrieved 2017 02 12 Fred Shuttlesworth with Freedom Riders after their arrival at the Greyhound station in Birmingham Alabama Alabama Media Group Collection New Photo with Annotations digital archives alabama gov Retrieved 31 October 2019 John Lewis is walking behind him on the right Greenberg Cheryl Lynn 1998 A circle of trust remembering SNCC New Brunswick Rutgers University Press ISBN 9780813524771 OCLC 37030901 USF s Ray Arsenault watches Freedom Riders book gain steam Tampa Bay Times Archived from the original on 2016 09 11 Retrieved 2017 02 13 Sellers Charles Grier Arsenault 2006 pp 543 Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission photograph of Peter Sterling following his arrest for his participation in the Freedom Rides Jackson Mississippi 1961 May 30 crdl usg edu Civil Rights Digital Library 30 May 1961 Retrieved 31 October 2019 Bibliography EditArsenault Raymond 2006 Freedom Riders 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199755813 Branch Taylor 2007 Parting the Waters America in the King Years 1954 63 Simon and Schuster ISBN 9781416558682 Forman James 1972 The Making of Black Revolutionaries University of Washington Press ISBN 9780295976594 Morgenroth Florence 1966 Organization and Activities of the American Civil Liberties Union in Miami 1955 1966 M A thesis University of Miami OCLC 15796239 Morris Tiyi 2015 Womanpower Unlimited and the Black Freedom Struggle in Mississippi Athens Georgia The University of Georgia Press ISBN 978 0 8203 4731 8 Tyson Timothy B 2001 Radio Free Dixie Robert F Williams and the Roots of Black Power University of North Carolina Press ISBN 9780807849231 Upchurch Thomas Adams 2008 Race Relations in the United States 1960 1980 Westport Connecticut Greenwood Press ISBN 9780313341717 Further reading EditScholarly works Edit Barnes Catherine A 1983 Journey from Jim Crow The Desegregation of Southern Transit Columbia University Press ISBN 9780231053808 Catsam Derek 2009 Freedom s Main Line The Journey of Reconciliation and the Freedom Rides University Press of Kentucky ISBN 9780813173108 Etheridge Eric 2018 Breach of Peace Portraits of the 1961 Mississippi Freedom Riders Vanderbilt University Press ISBN 9780826521903 Garrow David J 1989 Birmingham Alabama 1956 1963 The Black Struggle for Civil Rights Carlson Publisher ISBN 9780926019041 Halberstam David 1999 The Children Fawcett Books ISBN 9780449004395 Hollars B J 2018 The Road South Personal Stories of the Freedom Riders University of Alabama Press ISBN 9780817319809 McWhorter Diane 2001 Carry Me Home Birmingham Alabama The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution Simon amp Schuster ISBN 9780743217729 Niven David 2003 The Politics of Injustice The Kennedys the Freedom Rides and the Electoral Consequences of a Moral Compromise University of Tennessee Press ISBN 9781572332126 Ortlepp Anke 2017 Jim Crow Terminals The Desegregation of American Airports University of Georgia Press ISBN 9780820350943 Autobiographies and memoirs Edit Armstrong Thomas M Bell Natalie R 2011 Autobiography of a Freedom Rider My Life as a Foot Soldier for Civil Rights Health Communications ISBN 9780757316036 Carmichael Stokely Thelwell Michael 2003 Ready for Revolution The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael Kwame Ture New York Simon and Schuster ISBN 9780684850030 Farmer James 1985 Lay Bare the Heart An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement Texas Christian University Press ISBN 9780875651880 Lewis John D Orso Michael 1998 Walking with the Wind A Memoir of the Movement Houghton Mifflin Harcourt ISBN 9780156007085 Peck James 1962 Freedom Ride Simon and Schuster OCLC 890013 Silver Carol Ruth 2014 Freedom Rider Diary Smuggled Notes from Parchman Prison University Press of Mississippi ISBN 9781617038877 Zellner Bob 2011 The Wrong Side of Murder Creek A White Southerner in the Freedom Movement NewSouth Books ISBN 9781603061049 Other works Edit Carawan Guy Carawan Candie eds 2008 1961 Freedom Rides Sing for Freedom The Story of the Civil Rights Movement Through Its Songs NewSouth Books ISBN 9781588381934 Hamilton Mary Inghram Louise 1961 Freedom Riders Speak for Themselves News amp Letters OCLC 12011720 Matteson Noelle 2011 The Freedom Rides and Alabama A Guide to Key Events and Places Context and Impact NewSouth Books ISBN 9781603061063 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Freedom Rides Look up freedom rider or freedom ride in Wiktionary the free dictionary Freedom Rides Recollections by David Fankhauser Freedom Rides of 1961 Civil Rights Movement Archive Get On the Bus The Freedom Riders of 1961 National Public Radio Never Seen MLK amp the Freedom Rides Archived January 20 2011 at the Wayback Machine slideshow by Life magazine You Don t Have to Ride Jim Crow New Hampshire Public Television American Public Television documentary of the Journey of Reconciliation Eyes on the Prize Blackside Inc PBS documentary of the Civil Rights Movement Episode 3 is the Freedom Rides JFK Freedom Riders and the Civil Rights Movement EDSITEment lesson plan The Freedom Riders and the Popular Music of the Civil Rights EDSITEment lesson plan Civil Rights Era Mug Shots Montgomery County Sheriff s Office Alabama Department of Archives amp History Spears Ellen June 29 2009 Memorializing the Freedom Riders Southern Spaces 2009 doi 10 18737 M7160X Interview with Jim Zwerg Civil Rights Activist United States People s Century television series PBS and BBC The Freedom Riders Archived April 5 2010 at the Wayback Machine slideshow by Life magazine FBI files on the Freedom Riders Freedom Rider Articles Online collection of Ride related articles written by Freedom Riders Civil Rights Movement Archive Curated links to Freedom Riders archival material Civil Rights Digital Library Civil Rights Activist Bob Zellner interviewed on Conversations from Penn State Freedom Riders historical marker in Villa Rica Georgia CORE s Route 40 Project campaign for desegregation of Maryland highway 1961 Freedom Riders interviews by American Experience at the American Archive of Public Broadcasting Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Freedom Riders amp oldid 1153833811, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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