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Francesco Redi

February 15, 2024

Francesco Redi (18 February 1626 – 1 March 1697) was an Italian physician, naturalist, biologist, and poet.[1] He is referred to as the "founder of experimental biology",[2][3] and as the "father of modern parasitology".[4][5] He was the first person to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies.[6][7]

Francesco Redi
Born(1626-02-18)18 February 1626
Arezzo, Grand Duchy of Tuscany
Died1 March 1697(1697-03-01) (aged 71)
Pisa, Grand Duchy of Tuscany
NationalityTuscan
Alma materUniversity of Pisa
Known forExperimental biology
Parasitology
Criticism of spontaneous generation
Scientific career
FieldsMedicine, entomology, parasitology, linguistics

Having a doctoral degree in both medicine and philosophy from the University of Pisa at the age of 21, he worked in various cities of Italy. A rationalist of his time, he was a critic of verifiable myths, such as spontaneous generation.[8] His most famous experiments are described in his magnum opus Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl'insetti (Experiments on the Generation of Insects), published in 1668. He disproved that vipers drink wine and could break glasses, and that their venom was poisonous when ingested. He correctly observed that snake venoms were produced from the fangs, not the gallbladder, as was believed. He was also the first to recognize and correctly describe details of about 180 parasites, including Fasciola hepatica and Ascaris lumbricoides. He also distinguished earthworms from helminths (like tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms). He possibly originated the use of the control, the basis of experimental design in modern biology. A collection of his poems first published in 1685 Bacco in Toscana (Bacchus in Tuscany) is considered among the finest works of 17th-century Italian poetry, and for which the Grand Duke Cosimo III gave him a medal of honor.

Biography edit

 
Doctor Redi

The son of Gregorio Redi and Cecilia de Ghinci, Francesco Redi was born in Arezzo on 18 February 1626. His father was a renowned physician at Florence. After schooling with the Jesuits, Francesco Redi attended the University of Pisa from where he obtained his doctoral degrees in medicine and philosophy in 1647, at the age of 21.[4] He constantly moved, to Rome, Naples, Bologna, Padua, and Venice, and finally settled in Florence in 1648. Here he was registered at the Collegio Medico where he served at the Medici Court as both the head physician and superintendent of the ducal apothecary to Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and his successor, Cosimo III. It is here that most of his academic works were achieved, which earned him membership in Accademia dei Lincei. He was also a member of the Accademia del Cimento (Academy of Experiment) from 1657 to 1667.[9]

He died in his sleep on 1 March 1697 in Pisa and his remains were returned to Arezzo for interment.[10][11]

A collection of his letters is held at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland.[12]

Scientific career edit

Experimental toxicology edit

In 1664 Redi wrote his first monumental work Osservazioni intorno alle vipere (Observations on Vipers) to his friend Lorenzo Magalotti, secretary of the Accademia del Cimento. In this he began to break the prevailing scientific myths (which he called "unmasking of the untruths") such as vipers drink wine and shatter glasses, their venom is poisonous if swallowed, the head of dead viper is an antidote, the viper's venom is produced from the gallbladder, and so on. He explained rather how snake venom is unrelated to the snake’s bite, an idea contrary to popular belief.[13] He performed a series of experiments on the effects of snakebites, and demonstrated that venom was poisonous only when it enters the bloodstream via a bite, and that the fang contains venom in the form of yellow fluid.[9][14] He even showed that by applying a tight ligature before the wound, the passage of venom into the heart could be prevented. This work marked the beginning of experimental toxinology/toxicology.[15][16]

Entomology and spontaneous generation edit

Main article: Spontaneous generation
 
Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl'insetti frontcover

Redi is best known for his series of experiments, published in 1668 as Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl'insetti (Experiments on the Generation of Insects), which is regarded as his masterpiece and a milestone in the history of modern science. The book is one of the first steps in refuting "spontaneous generation"—a theory also known as Aristotelian abiogenesis. At the time, prevailing wisdom was that maggots arose spontaneously from rotting meat.[6]

 
A modern rendering of Redi's experiment on abiogenesis

Redi took six jars and divided them into two groups of three: In one experiment, in the first jar of each group, he put an unknown object; in the second, a dead fish; in the last, a raw chunk of veal. Redi covered the tops of the first group of jars with fine gauze so that only air could get into it. He left the other group open. After several days, he saw maggots appear on the objects in the open jars, on which flies had been able to land, but not in the gauze-covered jars. In the second experiment, meat was kept in three jars. One of the jars was uncovered, and two of the jars were covered, one with cork and the other one with gauze. Flies could only enter the uncovered jar, and in this, maggots appeared. In the jar that was covered with gauze, maggots appeared on the gauze but did not survive.[17][18]

 
Illustration from Rediʼs Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl'insetti

Redi continued his experiments by capturing the maggots and waiting for them to metamorphose, which they did, becoming flies. Also, when dead flies or maggots were put in sealed jars with dead animals or veal, no maggots appeared, but when the same thing was done with living flies, maggots did. His interpretations were always based on biblical passages, such as his famous adage: omne vivum ex vivo ("All life comes from life").[4][19]

Parasitology edit

Redi was the first to describe ectoparasites in his Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl'insetti. His notable illustrations in the book are those relevant to ticks, including deer ticks and tiger ticks; it also contains the first depiction of the larva of Cephenemyiinae, the nasal flies of deer, as well as the sheep liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica). His next treatise in 1684 titled Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi (Observations on Living Animals, that are in Living Animals) recorded the descriptions and the illustrations of more than 100 parasites. In it he also differentiates the earthworm (generally regarded as a helminth) and Ascaris lumbricoides, the human roundworm. An important innovation from the book is his experiments in chemotherapy in which he employed the "control"', the basis of experimental design in modern biological research.[2][4][20] He described some 180 species of parasites. Perhaps, his most significant observation was that parasites produce eggs and develop from them, which contradicted the prevailing opinion that they are produced spontaneously.[21]

 
Statue of Francesco Redi on the Uffizi Gallery (Piazzale degli Uffizi) in Florence. At his feet is a copy of Bacco in Toscana.

Literary career edit

As a poet, Redi is best known for the dithyramb Bacco in Toscana (Bacchus in Tuscany), which first appeared in 1685. His bacchanalian poem in praise of Tuscan wines is still read in Italy today.[9] He was admitted to two literary societies: the Academy of Arcadia and the Accademia della Crusca.[10] He was an active member of Crusca and supported the preparation of the Tuscan dictionary.[22] He taught the Tuscan language as a lettore pubblico di lingua toscana in Florence in 1666. He also composed many other literary works, including his Letters, and Arianna Inferma.[9]

Eponyms edit

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ "Francesco Redi". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. from the original on 23 October 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
  2. ^ a b Leikola A (1977–78). "Francesco Redi as a pioneer of experimental biology". Lychnos Lardomshist Samf Arsb. 1977–78 (1–3): 115–122. PMID 11628017.
  3. ^ Ioli, A; Petithory, JC; Théodoridès, J (1997). "Francesco Redi and the birth of experimental parasitology". Histoire des sciences médicales. 31 (1): 61–6. PMID 11625103.
  4. ^ a b c d e Roncalli Amici R (2001). (PDF). Veterinary Parasitology. 98 (1–3): 3–10. doi:10.1016/S0304-4017(01)00420-4. PMID 11516576. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 October 2013.
  5. ^ Mehlhorn H (2008). Encyclopedia of Parasitology, Volumes 1-2 (3 ed.). Springer-Verlag. p. 610. ISBN 978-3540489948. from the original on 24 June 2016. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  6. ^ a b Levine R, Evers C. . Archived from the original on 26 April 2008. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  7. ^ "Francesco Redi and Controlled Experiments". www.scientus.org. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
  8. ^ "Francesco Redi". brunelleschi.imss.fi.it. 27 February 2008. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
  9. ^ a b c d Hawgood BJ (2003). "Francesco Redi (1626-1697): Tuscan philosopher, physician and poet". Journal of Medical Biography. 11 (1): 28–34. doi:10.1177/096777200301100108. PMID 12522497. S2CID 23575162.
  10. ^ a b Francesco Redi of Arezzo (1909) [1668]. Mab Bigelow (translation and notes) (ed.). Experiments on the Generation of Insects. Chicago: Open Court. ISBN 9780527744007. Retrieved 2 March 2010.
  11. ^ Francesco Redi of Arezzo (1825) [1685]. Leigh Hunt (translation and notes) (ed.). Bacchus in Tuscany. London: Printed by J. C. Kelly for John and H. L. Hunt. Retrieved 2 March 2010.
  12. ^ "Francesco Redi Letters 1683-1693". National Library of Medicine.
  13. ^ Francesco Redi (1988). Knoefel PK (ed.). Francesco Redi on Vipers. Leiden, the Netherlands: E.J. Brill. pp. 11–17. ISBN 9004089489. from the original on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  14. ^ a b Habermehl GG (1994). "Francesco Redi¬—life and work". Toxicon. 32 (4): 411–417. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(94)90292-5. PMID 8052995.
  15. ^ Buettner KA (2007). . ISSN 1940-5030. Archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  16. ^ Hayes AN, Gilbert SG (2009). "Historical milestones and discoveries that shaped the toxicology sciences". Molecular, Clinical and Environmental Toxicology. Experientia Supplementum. Vol. 99. pp. 1–35. doi:10.1007/978-3-7643-8336-7_1. ISBN 978-3-7643-8335-0. PMID 19157056. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  17. ^ Redi F. "Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl'insetti fatte da Francesco Redi". from the original on 3 September 2012.
  18. ^ Barnett B (30 September 2011). . Archived from the original on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  19. ^ Gottdenker P (1979). "Francesco Redi and the fly experiments". Bull Hist Med. 53 (4): 575–592. PMID 397843.
  20. ^ Ioli A, Petithory JC, Théodoridès J (1997). "Francesco Redi and the birth of experimental parasitology". Hist Sci Med. 31 (1): 61–66. PMID 11625103.
  21. ^ Bush AO, Fernández JC, Esch GW, Seed JR (2001). Parasitism: The Diversity and Ecology of Animal Parasites. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0521664470.
  22. ^   One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Francesco Redi". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  23. ^ SpaceRef (14 August 2004). "NASA Mars Odyssey THEMIS Image: Promethei Terra". Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  24. ^ International Society on Toxinology. . Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  25. ^ REDIA – Journal of Zoology. "History". from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  26. ^ "Vipera aspis francisciredi". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 2 May 2015.

Further reading edit

  • Altieri Biagi; Maria Luisa (1968). Lingua e cultura di Francesco Redi, medico. Florence: L. S. Olschki. ASIN B00A30Z37W.

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Francesco Redi.
  • Experiments on the Generation of Insects, translation of the 5th edition (1688)
  • Bacco in Toscana 30 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine (English translation: Bacchus in Tuscany)
  • Biography at Katringale
  • Biographical Website of Francesco Redi
  • Rediʼs Experiment 4 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  • Francisco Redi at the Galileo Project
  • Francisco Redi at Ketterer Kunst
  • Francisco Redi at The Free Dictionary
  • Francisco Redi at Infoplease
  • Spontaneous generation and Francesco Redi 4 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  • Galileo's Twin

February 15, 2024
francesco, redi, february, 1626, march, 1697, italian, physician, naturalist, biologist, poet, referred, founder, experimental, biology, father, modern, parasitology, first, person, challenge, theory, spontaneous, generation, demonstrating, that, maggots, come. Francesco Redi 18 February 1626 1 March 1697 was an Italian physician naturalist biologist and poet 1 He is referred to as the founder of experimental biology 2 3 and as the father of modern parasitology 4 5 He was the first person to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies 6 7 Francesco RediPortrait by Jacob Ferdinand VoetBorn 1626 02 18 18 February 1626Arezzo Grand Duchy of TuscanyDied1 March 1697 1697 03 01 aged 71 Pisa Grand Duchy of TuscanyNationalityTuscanAlma materUniversity of PisaKnown forExperimental biology Parasitology Criticism of spontaneous generationScientific careerFieldsMedicine entomology parasitology linguisticsHaving a doctoral degree in both medicine and philosophy from the University of Pisa at the age of 21 he worked in various cities of Italy A rationalist of his time he was a critic of verifiable myths such as spontaneous generation 8 His most famous experiments are described in his magnum opus Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl insetti Experiments on the Generation of Insects published in 1668 He disproved that vipers drink wine and could break glasses and that their venom was poisonous when ingested He correctly observed that snake venoms were produced from the fangs not the gallbladder as was believed He was also the first to recognize and correctly describe details of about 180 parasites including Fasciola hepatica and Ascaris lumbricoides He also distinguished earthworms from helminths like tapeworms flukes and roundworms He possibly originated the use of the control the basis of experimental design in modern biology A collection of his poems first published in 1685 Bacco in Toscana Bacchus in Tuscany is considered among the finest works of 17th century Italian poetry and for which the Grand Duke Cosimo III gave him a medal of honor Contents 1 Biography 2 Scientific career 2 1 Experimental toxicology 2 2 Entomology and spontaneous generation 2 3 Parasitology 3 Literary career 4 Eponyms 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External linksBiography edit nbsp Doctor RediThe son of Gregorio Redi and Cecilia de Ghinci Francesco Redi was born in Arezzo on 18 February 1626 His father was a renowned physician at Florence After schooling with the Jesuits Francesco Redi attended the University of Pisa from where he obtained his doctoral degrees in medicine and philosophy in 1647 at the age of 21 4 He constantly moved to Rome Naples Bologna Padua and Venice and finally settled in Florence in 1648 Here he was registered at the Collegio Medico where he served at the Medici Court as both the head physician and superintendent of the ducal apothecary to Ferdinando II de Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany and his successor Cosimo III It is here that most of his academic works were achieved which earned him membership in Accademia dei Lincei He was also a member of the Accademia del Cimento Academy of Experiment from 1657 to 1667 9 He died in his sleep on 1 March 1697 in Pisa and his remains were returned to Arezzo for interment 10 11 A collection of his letters is held at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda Maryland 12 Scientific career editExperimental toxicology edit In 1664 Redi wrote his first monumental work Osservazioni intorno alle vipere Observations on Vipers to his friend Lorenzo Magalotti secretary of the Accademia del Cimento In this he began to break the prevailing scientific myths which he called unmasking of the untruths such as vipers drink wine and shatter glasses their venom is poisonous if swallowed the head of dead viper is an antidote the viper s venom is produced from the gallbladder and so on He explained rather how snake venom is unrelated to the snake s bite an idea contrary to popular belief 13 He performed a series of experiments on the effects of snakebites and demonstrated that venom was poisonous only when it enters the bloodstream via a bite and that the fang contains venom in the form of yellow fluid 9 14 He even showed that by applying a tight ligature before the wound the passage of venom into the heart could be prevented This work marked the beginning of experimental toxinology toxicology 15 16 Entomology and spontaneous generation edit Main article Spontaneous generation nbsp Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl insetti frontcoverRedi is best known for his series of experiments published in 1668 as Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl insetti Experiments on the Generation of Insects which is regarded as his masterpiece and a milestone in the history of modern science The book is one of the first steps in refuting spontaneous generation a theory also known as Aristotelian abiogenesis At the time prevailing wisdom was that maggots arose spontaneously from rotting meat 6 nbsp A modern rendering of Redi s experiment on abiogenesisRedi took six jars and divided them into two groups of three In one experiment in the first jar of each group he put an unknown object in the second a dead fish in the last a raw chunk of veal Redi covered the tops of the first group of jars with fine gauze so that only air could get into it He left the other group open After several days he saw maggots appear on the objects in the open jars on which flies had been able to land but not in the gauze covered jars In the second experiment meat was kept in three jars One of the jars was uncovered and two of the jars were covered one with cork and the other one with gauze Flies could only enter the uncovered jar and in this maggots appeared In the jar that was covered with gauze maggots appeared on the gauze but did not survive 17 18 nbsp Illustration from Rediʼs Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl insettiRedi continued his experiments by capturing the maggots and waiting for them to metamorphose which they did becoming flies Also when dead flies or maggots were put in sealed jars with dead animals or veal no maggots appeared but when the same thing was done with living flies maggots did His interpretations were always based on biblical passages such as his famous adage omne vivum ex vivo All life comes from life 4 19 Parasitology edit Redi was the first to describe ectoparasites in his Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl insetti His notable illustrations in the book are those relevant to ticks including deer ticks and tiger ticks it also contains the first depiction of the larva of Cephenemyiinae the nasal flies of deer as well as the sheep liver fluke Fasciola hepatica His next treatise in 1684 titled Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi Observations on Living Animals that are in Living Animals recorded the descriptions and the illustrations of more than 100 parasites In it he also differentiates the earthworm generally regarded as a helminth and Ascaris lumbricoides the human roundworm An important innovation from the book is his experiments in chemotherapy in which he employed the control the basis of experimental design in modern biological research 2 4 20 He described some 180 species of parasites Perhaps his most significant observation was that parasites produce eggs and develop from them which contradicted the prevailing opinion that they are produced spontaneously 21 nbsp Statue of Francesco Redi on the Uffizi Gallery Piazzale degli Uffizi in Florence At his feet is a copy of Bacco in Toscana Literary career editAs a poet Redi is best known for the dithyramb Bacco in Toscana Bacchus in Tuscany which first appeared in 1685 His bacchanalian poem in praise of Tuscan wines is still read in Italy today 9 He was admitted to two literary societies the Academy of Arcadia and the Accademia della Crusca 10 He was an active member of Crusca and supported the preparation of the Tuscan dictionary 22 He taught the Tuscan language as a lettore pubblico di lingua toscana in Florence in 1666 He also composed many other literary works including his Letters and Arianna Inferma 9 Eponyms editRedi a crater on Mars was named in his honor 23 The larval stage of parasitic fluke called redia is named after Redi by another Italian zoologist Filippo de Filippi in 1837 4 The Redi Award the most prestigious award in toxinology is given in his honor by the International Society on Toxinology The award is made at each World Congress of IST generally held every three years since 1967 14 24 A scientific journal Redia an Italian journal of zoology is named in his honor which was first published in 1903 25 A European viper subspecies Vipera aspis francisciredi Laurenti 1768 is named after him 26 See also editParasitologyReferences edit Francesco Redi Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Archived from the original on 23 October 2013 Retrieved 22 October 2013 a b Leikola A 1977 78 Francesco Redi as a pioneer of experimental biology Lychnos Lardomshist Samf Arsb 1977 78 1 3 115 122 PMID 11628017 Ioli A Petithory JC Theodorides J 1997 Francesco Redi and the birth of experimental parasitology Histoire des sciences medicales 31 1 61 6 PMID 11625103 a b c d e Roncalli Amici R 2001 The history of Italian parasitology PDF Veterinary Parasitology 98 1 3 3 10 doi 10 1016 S0304 4017 01 00420 4 PMID 11516576 Archived from the original PDF on 23 October 2013 Mehlhorn H 2008 Encyclopedia of Parasitology Volumes 1 2 3 ed Springer Verlag p 610 ISBN 978 3540489948 Archived from the original on 24 June 2016 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a journal ignored help a b Levine R Evers C The Slow Death of Spontaneous Generation 1668 1859 Archived from the original on 26 April 2008 Retrieved 18 April 2013 Francesco Redi and Controlled Experiments www scientus org Retrieved 10 December 2018 Francesco Redi brunelleschi imss fi it 27 February 2008 Retrieved 10 December 2018 a b c d Hawgood BJ 2003 Francesco Redi 1626 1697 Tuscan philosopher physician and poet Journal of Medical Biography 11 1 28 34 doi 10 1177 096777200301100108 PMID 12522497 S2CID 23575162 a b Francesco Redi of Arezzo 1909 1668 Mab Bigelow translation and notes ed Experiments on the Generation of Insects Chicago Open Court ISBN 9780527744007 Retrieved 2 March 2010 Francesco Redi of Arezzo 1825 1685 Leigh Hunt translation and notes ed Bacchus in Tuscany London Printed by J C Kelly for John and H L Hunt Retrieved 2 March 2010 Francesco Redi Letters 1683 1693 National Library of Medicine Francesco Redi 1988 Knoefel PK ed Francesco Redi on Vipers Leiden the Netherlands E J Brill pp 11 17 ISBN 9004089489 Archived from the original on 30 April 2016 Retrieved 18 April 2013 a b Habermehl GG 1994 Francesco Redi life and work Toxicon 32 4 411 417 doi 10 1016 0041 0101 94 90292 5 PMID 8052995 Buettner KA 2007 Francesco Redi The Embryo Project Encyclopedia ISSN 1940 5030 Archived from the original on 19 June 2010 Retrieved 18 April 2013 Hayes AN Gilbert SG 2009 Historical milestones and discoveries that shaped the toxicology sciences Molecular Clinical and Environmental Toxicology Experientia Supplementum Vol 99 pp 1 35 doi 10 1007 978 3 7643 8336 7 1 ISBN 978 3 7643 8335 0 PMID 19157056 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a journal ignored help Redi F Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl insetti fatte da Francesco Redi Archived from the original on 3 September 2012 Barnett B 30 September 2011 Francesco Redi and Spontaneous Generation Archived from the original on 23 May 2013 Retrieved 18 April 2013 Gottdenker P 1979 Francesco Redi and the fly experiments Bull Hist Med 53 4 575 592 PMID 397843 Ioli A Petithory JC Theodorides J 1997 Francesco Redi and the birth of experimental parasitology Hist Sci Med 31 1 61 66 PMID 11625103 Bush AO Fernandez JC Esch GW Seed JR 2001 Parasitism The Diversity and Ecology of Animal Parasites Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press p 4 ISBN 0521664470 nbsp One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain Herbermann Charles ed 1913 Francesco Redi Catholic Encyclopedia New York Robert Appleton Company SpaceRef 14 August 2004 NASA Mars Odyssey THEMIS Image Promethei Terra Retrieved 18 April 2013 International Society on Toxinology IST Redi Awards Archived from the original on 4 October 2013 Retrieved 18 April 2013 REDIA Journal of Zoology History Archived from the original on 4 October 2013 Retrieved 18 April 2013 Vipera aspis francisciredi Integrated Taxonomic Information System Retrieved 2 May 2015 Further reading editAltieri Biagi Maria Luisa 1968 Lingua e cultura di Francesco Redi medico Florence L S Olschki ASIN B00A30Z37W External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Francesco Redi Experiments on the Generation of Insects translation of the 5th edition 1688 Bacco in Toscana Archived 30 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine English translation Bacchus in Tuscany Biography at Katringale Biographical Website of Francesco Redi Rediʼs Experiment Archived 4 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Francisco Redi at the Galileo Project Francisco Redi at Ketterer Kunst Francisco Redi at The Free Dictionary Francisco Redi at Infoplease Spontaneous generation and Francesco Redi Archived 4 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Galileo s Twin Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Francesco Redi amp oldid 1199198770, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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