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Extremism

May 04, 2023

Not to be confused with Radicalism (disambiguation). "Political fringe" redirects here. For other political fringe groups, see Political fringe movements. "Extremist" and "Extremists" redirect here. For other uses, see Extremist (disambiguation).

Extremism is "the quality or state of being extreme" or "the advocacy of extreme measures or views".[1] The term is primarily used in a political or religious sense to refer to an ideology that is considered (by the speaker or by some implied shared social consensus) to be far outside the mainstream attitudes of society.[2] It can also be used in an economic context. The term may be used pejoratively by opposing groups, but is also used in academic and journalistic circles in a purely descriptive and non-condemning sense.

Extremists' views are typically contrasted with those of moderates. In Western countries for example, in contemporary discourse on Islam or on Islamic political movements, the distinction between extremist and moderate Muslims is commonly stressed.[3] Political agendas perceived as extremist often include those from the far-left politics or far-right politics, as well as radicalism, reactionism, fundamentalism, and fanaticism.

Definitions

 
Look up extremism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Peter T. Coleman and Andrea Bartoli give observation of definitions:[4] Extremism is a complex phenomenon, although its complexity is often hard to see. Most simply, it can be defined as activities (beliefs, attitudes, feelings, actions, strategies) of a character far removed from the ordinary. In conflict settings it manifests as a severe form of conflict engagement. However, the labeling of activities, people, and groups as "extremist", and the defining of what is "ordinary" in any setting is always a subjective and political matter. Thus, we suggest that any discussion of extremism be mindful of the following: Typically, the same extremist act will be viewed by some as just and moral (such as pro-social "freedom fighting"), and by others as unjust and immoral (antisocial "terrorism") depending on the observer's values, politics, moral scope, and the nature of their relationship with the actor. In addition, one's sense of the moral or immoral nature of a given act of extremism (such as Nelson Mandela's use of guerilla war tactics against the South African Government) may change as conditions (leadership, world opinion, crises, historical accounts, etc.) change. Thus, the current and historical context of extremist acts shapes our view of them. Power differences also matter when defining extremism. When in conflict, the activities of members of low power groups tend to be viewed as more extreme than similar activities committed by members of groups advocating the status quo.

In addition, extreme acts are more likely to be employed by marginalized people and groups who view more normative forms of conflict engagement as blocked for them or biased. However, dominant groups also commonly employ extreme activities (such as governmental sanctioning of violent paramilitary groups or the attack in Waco by the FBI in the U.S.).

Extremist acts often employ violent means, although extremist groups will differ in their preference for violent extremism vs. nonviolent extremism, in the level of violence they employ, and in the preferred targets of their violence (from infrastructure to military personnel to civilians to children). Again, low power groups are more likely to employ direct, episodic forms of violence (such as suicide bombings), whereas dominant groups tend to be associated with more structural or institutionalized forms (like the covert use of torture or the informal sanctioning of police brutality).[4]

In Germany extremism is explicitly used for differentiation between democratic and non-democratic intentions. The German Ministry of Home Affairs defines extremism as an intention that rejects the democratic constitution state and fundamental values, its norms and its laws.[5]

Although extremist individuals and groups are often viewed as cohesive and consistently evil, it is important to recognize that they may be conflicted or ambivalent psychologically as individuals, or contain difference and conflict within their groups. For instance, individual members of Hamas may differ considerably in their willingness to negotiate their differences with the Palestinian Authority and, ultimately, with certain factions in Israel. Ultimately, the core problem that extremism presents in situations of protracted conflict is less the severity of the activities (although violence, trauma, and escalation are obvious concerns) but more so the closed, fixed, and intolerant nature of extremist attitudes, and their subsequent imperviousness to change.[4]

Difference from radicalism

Astrid Bötticher notes several differences between radicalism and extremism, among them in goals (idealistic vs. restorative, emancipatory vs. anti-democratic), morals (particular vs. universal), approach towards diversity (acceptance vs. disdain), and use of violence (pragmatic and selective vs. legitimate and acceptable).[6]

Theories of extremism

Eric Hoffer and Arthur Schlesinger Jr. were two political writers during the mid-20th century who gave what they purported to be accounts of "political extremism". Hoffer wrote The True Believer and The Passionate State of Mind about the psychology and sociology of those who join "fanatical" mass movements. Schlesinger wrote The Vital Center, championing a supposed "center" of politics within which "mainstream" political discourse takes place, and underscoring the alleged need for societies to draw definite lines regarding what falls outside of this acceptability.

Seymour Martin Lipset argued that besides the extremism of the left and right there is also an extremism of the center, and that it actually formed the base of fascism.[7]

Laird Wilcox identifies 21 alleged traits of a "political extremist", ranging from "a tendency to character assassination" and hateful behavior like "name calling and labelling", to general character traits like "a tendency to view opponents and critics as essentially evil", "a tendency to substitute intimidation for argument" or "groupthink".[8]

"Extremism" is not a standalone characteristic. The attitude or behavior of an "extremist" may be represented as part of a spectrum, which ranges from mild interest through "obsession" to "fanaticism" and "extremism". The alleged similarity between the "extreme left" and "extreme right", or perhaps between opposing religious zealots, may mean only that all these are "unacceptable" from the standpoint of the mainstream or majority.

Economist Ronald Wintrobe[9] argues that many extremist movements, even though having completely different ideologies, share a common set of characteristics. As an example, he lists the following common characteristics between "Jewish fundamentalists" and "the extremists of Hamas":[10]

  • Both are against any compromise with the other side.
  • Both are entirely sure of their position.
  • Both advocate and sometimes use violence to achieve their ends.
  • Both are nationalistic.
  • Both are intolerant of dissent within their group.
  • Both demonize the other side.

Psychological

Among the explanations for extremism is one that views it as a plague. Arno Gruen said, "The lack of identity associated with extremists is the result of self-destructive self-hatred that leads to feelings of revenge toward life itself, and a compulsion to kill one's own humanness." In this context, extremism is seen as not a tactic, nor an ideology, but as a pathological illness which feeds on the destruction of life.[4] Dr. Kathleen Taylor believes religious fundamentalism is a mental illness and is "curable."[11] There are distinct psychological features of extremists that contribute to conflict among societal groups; Jan-Willem van Prooijen identified them as psychological distress, cognitive simplicity, overconfidence and intolerance.[12]

Another view is that extremism is an emotional outlet for severe feelings stemming from "persistent experiences of oppression, insecurity, humiliation, resentment, loss, and rage" which are presumed to "lead individuals and groups to adopt conflict engagement strategies which "fit" or feel consistent with these experiences".[4]

Extremism is seen by other researchers as a "rational strategy in a game over power",[4] as described in the works of Eli Berman.

In a 2018 study at University College London, scientists have demonstrated that people with extreme political views (both extreme right and extreme left) had significantly worse metacognition, or the ability of a person to recognize they are wrong and modify their views when presented with contrary evidence, thus creating an opinion that supports only their idea of wrong and right. People found on either of the political extremes were shown to have much greater (but misplaced) confidence in their beliefs, and resisted change.[13]

A 2019 study found that political extremism on both the left and right tended to have four common psychological features: psychological distress stimulates the adoption of an extreme ideological outlook, extreme ideologies tend to have relatively simplistic black-white perceptions of the social world, said mental simplicity causes overconfidence in judgements, and political extremists are less tolerant of different groups and opinions than moderates.[14]

Criticism

After being accused of extremism, Martin Luther King Jr. criticized the mainstream usage of the term in his Letter from Birmingham Jail, "But though I was initially disappointed at being categorized as an extremist, as I continued to think about the matter I gradually gained a measure of satisfaction from the label. Was not Jesus an extremist for love…Was not Amos an extremist for justice…Was not Martin Luther an extremist…So the question is not whether we will be extremists, but what kind of extremists we will be. Will we be extremists for hate or for love? Will we be extremists for the preservation of injustice or for the extension of justice?"[15][16]

In his 1964 acceptance speech at the 1964 Republican National Convention, Barry Goldwater said, "I would remind you that extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice. And let me remind you also that moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue."[17]

Robert F. Kennedy said "What is objectionable, what is dangerous about extremists is not that they are extreme but that they are intolerant. The evil is not what they say about their cause, but what they say about their opponents."[citation needed]

In Russia, the laws prohibiting extremist content are used to suppress the freedom of speech through very broad and flexible interpretation.[18] Published material classified as "extremist", and thus prosecuted, included protests against the court rulings in the Bolotnaya Square case ("calling for illegal action"), criticism of overspending by a local governor ("insult of the authorities"), publishing a poem in support of Ukraine ("inciting hatred"),[19][20] an open letter against a war in Chechnya by the writer Polina Zherebcova,[21] the Jehovah's Witnesses movement in Russia,[22] Raphael Lemkin, and articles by the initiator of the Genocide Convention of 1948.[23]

Tushar Gandhi, Mahatma Gandhi's great grandson, says India's Hindu nationalism is a threat to Gandhi's legacy and that the ideology of hate, division and polarization that led to Gandhi's assassination by a religious zealot in 1948 has captured India.[24]

Other terms

Since the 1990s, in United States politics, the term Sister Souljah moment has been used to describe a politician's public repudiation of an allegedly extremist person or group, statement, or position which might otherwise be associated with his own party.[citation needed]

The term "subversive" was often used interchangeably, in the United States at least, with "extremist" during the Cold War period, although the two words are not synonymous.[citation needed]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ "Definition of extremism". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  2. ^ "Extremism – definition of". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  3. ^ Mogahed, Dalia (2006). "The Battle for Hearts and Minds: Moderate vs. Extremist Views in the Muslim World" (PDF). WikiLeaks. p. 2.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Dr. Peter T. Coleman and Dr. Andrea Bartoli: Addressing Extremism, pp. 3–4
  5. ^ "Extremismus". Bundesministerium des Innern und für Heimat (in German). Retrieved 2023-02-17.
  6. ^ Bötticher, Astrid (2017). "Towards Academic Consensus Definitions of Radicalism and Extremism". Perspectives on Terrorism. 11 (4): 73–77. ISSN 2334-3745. JSTOR 26297896.
  7. ^ G. M. Tamás: "On Post-Fascism 2014-08-26 at the Wayback Machine", Boston Review, Summer 2000
  8. ^ "Laird Wilcox on Extremist Traits". Lairdwilcox.com. Retrieved 2013-09-08.
  9. ^ "Economics at [University of] Western [Ontario]". Economics.uwo.ca. Retrieved 2013-09-08.
  10. ^ Wintrobe (2006), p. 5
  11. ^ Bruxelles, Simon de (30 May 2013). "Science 'may one day cure Islamic radicals'". The Times. London. Retrieved 2013-05-31.
  12. ^ van Prooijen, Jan-Willem; Krouwel, André P. M. (2019-04-01). "Psychological Features of Extreme Political Ideologies". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 28 (2): 159–163. doi:10.1177/0963721418817755. ISSN 0963-7214.
  13. ^ "People with extreme political views 'cannot tell when they are wrong', study finds". The Independent. 2018-12-17. Retrieved 2018-12-23.
  14. ^ van Prooijen, Jan-Willem, and André PM Krouwel. "Psychological Features of Extreme Political Ideologies." Current Directions in Psychological Science (2018): 0963721418817755.
  15. ^ "Letter From a Birmingham Jail - The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute". kinginstitute.stanford.edu. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  16. ^ "What Martin Luther King taught me about extremism". independent.co.uk. 29 August 2013. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  17. ^ "Washingtonpost.com: Goldwater Speech". www.washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  18. ^ Paul Goble (29 March 2015). "FSB Increasingly Involved in Misuse of 'Anti-Extremism' Laws, SOVA Says". The Interpreter Magazine. Retrieved 2015-04-01.
  19. ^ . Zapretno.info. 2014. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 2014-10-29.
  20. ^ Neef, Christian; Schepp, Matthias (22 April 2014). "The Propaganda War: Opposition Sings Kremlin Tune on Ukraine". Spiegel Online. Retrieved 2015-06-10.
  21. ^ "Otkrytoe Pismo Hodorkovskomu o Voyne v Chechne Priznali Ekstremistskim". meduza.io. Retrieved 2015-07-08.
  22. ^ "Russian Appellate Court Decision Reverses Ban of JW.ORG Website". Retrieved 2015-08-20.
  23. ^ "Федеральный список экстремистских материалов дорос до п. 3152". SOVA Center for Information and Analysis. Retrieved 2015-11-28.
  24. ^ "'Hate ideology' consuming India: Gandhi's great-grandson". DAWN.COM. 2023-01-30. Retrieved 2023-01-30.

Cited publications

Further reading

  • Bartlett, Jamie; Birdwell, Jonathan (April 16, 2010). . Demos. Archived from the original on 2010-10-09.
  • Nawaz, Maajid.
  • van Ginkel, Bibi. Engaging Civil Society in Countering Violent Extremism (ICCT – The Hague, 2012)

External links

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Extremism.
 
Look up extremism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

May 04, 2023
extremism, confused, with, radicalism, disambiguation, political, fringe, redirects, here, other, political, fringe, groups, political, fringe, movements, extremist, extremists, redirect, here, other, uses, extremist, disambiguation, quality, state, being, ext. Not to be confused with Radicalism disambiguation Political fringe redirects here For other political fringe groups see Political fringe movements Extremist and Extremists redirect here For other uses see Extremist disambiguation Extremism is the quality or state of being extreme or the advocacy of extreme measures or views 1 The term is primarily used in a political or religious sense to refer to an ideology that is considered by the speaker or by some implied shared social consensus to be far outside the mainstream attitudes of society 2 It can also be used in an economic context The term may be used pejoratively by opposing groups but is also used in academic and journalistic circles in a purely descriptive and non condemning sense Extremists views are typically contrasted with those of moderates In Western countries for example in contemporary discourse on Islam or on Islamic political movements the distinction between extremist and moderate Muslims is commonly stressed 3 Political agendas perceived as extremist often include those from the far left politics or far right politics as well as radicalism reactionism fundamentalism and fanaticism Contents 1 Definitions 1 1 Difference from radicalism 2 Theories of extremism 2 1 Psychological 3 Criticism 4 Other terms 5 See also 6 References 6 1 Citations 6 2 Cited publications 7 Further reading 8 External linksDefinitions Edit Look up extremism in Wiktionary the free dictionary Peter T Coleman and Andrea Bartoli give observation of definitions 4 Extremism is a complex phenomenon although its complexity is often hard to see Most simply it can be defined as activities beliefs attitudes feelings actions strategies of a character far removed from the ordinary In conflict settings it manifests as a severe form of conflict engagement However the labeling of activities people and groups as extremist and the defining of what is ordinary in any setting is always a subjective and political matter Thus we suggest that any discussion of extremism be mindful of the following Typically the same extremist act will be viewed by some as just and moral such as pro social freedom fighting and by others as unjust and immoral antisocial terrorism depending on the observer s values politics moral scope and the nature of their relationship with the actor In addition one s sense of the moral or immoral nature of a given act of extremism such as Nelson Mandela s use of guerilla war tactics against the South African Government may change as conditions leadership world opinion crises historical accounts etc change Thus the current and historical context of extremist acts shapes our view of them Power differences also matter when defining extremism When in conflict the activities of members of low power groups tend to be viewed as more extreme than similar activities committed by members of groups advocating the status quo In addition extreme acts are more likely to be employed by marginalized people and groups who view more normative forms of conflict engagement as blocked for them or biased However dominant groups also commonly employ extreme activities such as governmental sanctioning of violent paramilitary groups or the attack in Waco by the FBI in the U S Extremist acts often employ violent means although extremist groups will differ in their preference for violent extremism vs nonviolent extremism in the level of violence they employ and in the preferred targets of their violence from infrastructure to military personnel to civilians to children Again low power groups are more likely to employ direct episodic forms of violence such as suicide bombings whereas dominant groups tend to be associated with more structural or institutionalized forms like the covert use of torture or the informal sanctioning of police brutality 4 In Germany extremism is explicitly used for differentiation between democratic and non democratic intentions The German Ministry of Home Affairs defines extremism as an intention that rejects the democratic constitution state and fundamental values its norms and its laws 5 Although extremist individuals and groups are often viewed as cohesive and consistently evil it is important to recognize that they may be conflicted or ambivalent psychologically as individuals or contain difference and conflict within their groups For instance individual members of Hamas may differ considerably in their willingness to negotiate their differences with the Palestinian Authority and ultimately with certain factions in Israel Ultimately the core problem that extremism presents in situations of protracted conflict is less the severity of the activities although violence trauma and escalation are obvious concerns but more so the closed fixed and intolerant nature of extremist attitudes and their subsequent imperviousness to change 4 Difference from radicalism Edit Astrid Botticher notes several differences between radicalism and extremism among them in goals idealistic vs restorative emancipatory vs anti democratic morals particular vs universal approach towards diversity acceptance vs disdain and use of violence pragmatic and selective vs legitimate and acceptable 6 Theories of extremism EditEric Hoffer and Arthur Schlesinger Jr were two political writers during the mid 20th century who gave what they purported to be accounts of political extremism Hoffer wrote The True Believer and The Passionate State of Mind about the psychology and sociology of those who join fanatical mass movements Schlesinger wrote The Vital Center championing a supposed center of politics within which mainstream political discourse takes place and underscoring the alleged need for societies to draw definite lines regarding what falls outside of this acceptability Seymour Martin Lipset argued that besides the extremism of the left and right there is also an extremism of the center and that it actually formed the base of fascism 7 Laird Wilcox identifies 21 alleged traits of a political extremist ranging from a tendency to character assassination and hateful behavior like name calling and labelling to general character traits like a tendency to view opponents and critics as essentially evil a tendency to substitute intimidation for argument or groupthink 8 Extremism is not a standalone characteristic The attitude or behavior of an extremist may be represented as part of a spectrum which ranges from mild interest through obsession to fanaticism and extremism The alleged similarity between the extreme left and extreme right or perhaps between opposing religious zealots may mean only that all these are unacceptable from the standpoint of the mainstream or majority Economist Ronald Wintrobe 9 argues that many extremist movements even though having completely different ideologies share a common set of characteristics As an example he lists the following common characteristics between Jewish fundamentalists and the extremists of Hamas 10 Both are against any compromise with the other side Both are entirely sure of their position Both advocate and sometimes use violence to achieve their ends Both are nationalistic Both are intolerant of dissent within their group Both demonize the other side Psychological Edit Among the explanations for extremism is one that views it as a plague Arno Gruen said The lack of identity associated with extremists is the result of self destructive self hatred that leads to feelings of revenge toward life itself and a compulsion to kill one s own humanness In this context extremism is seen as not a tactic nor an ideology but as a pathological illness which feeds on the destruction of life 4 Dr Kathleen Taylor believes religious fundamentalism is a mental illness and is curable 11 There are distinct psychological features of extremists that contribute to conflict among societal groups Jan Willem van Prooijen identified them as psychological distress cognitive simplicity overconfidence and intolerance 12 Another view is that extremism is an emotional outlet for severe feelings stemming from persistent experiences of oppression insecurity humiliation resentment loss and rage which are presumed to lead individuals and groups to adopt conflict engagement strategies which fit or feel consistent with these experiences 4 Extremism is seen by other researchers as a rational strategy in a game over power 4 as described in the works of Eli Berman In a 2018 study at University College London scientists have demonstrated that people with extreme political views both extreme right and extreme left had significantly worse metacognition or the ability of a person to recognize they are wrong and modify their views when presented with contrary evidence thus creating an opinion that supports only their idea of wrong and right People found on either of the political extremes were shown to have much greater but misplaced confidence in their beliefs and resisted change 13 A 2019 study found that political extremism on both the left and right tended to have four common psychological features psychological distress stimulates the adoption of an extreme ideological outlook extreme ideologies tend to have relatively simplistic black white perceptions of the social world said mental simplicity causes overconfidence in judgements and political extremists are less tolerant of different groups and opinions than moderates 14 Criticism EditAfter being accused of extremism Martin Luther King Jr criticized the mainstream usage of the term in his Letter from Birmingham Jail But though I was initially disappointed at being categorized as an extremist as I continued to think about the matter I gradually gained a measure of satisfaction from the label Was not Jesus an extremist for love Was not Amos an extremist for justice Was not Martin Luther an extremist So the question is not whether we will be extremists but what kind of extremists we will be Will we be extremists for hate or for love Will we be extremists for the preservation of injustice or for the extension of justice 15 16 In his 1964 acceptance speech at the 1964 Republican National Convention Barry Goldwater said I would remind you that extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice And let me remind you also that moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue 17 Robert F Kennedy said What is objectionable what is dangerous about extremists is not that they are extreme but that they are intolerant The evil is not what they say about their cause but what they say about their opponents citation needed In Russia the laws prohibiting extremist content are used to suppress the freedom of speech through very broad and flexible interpretation 18 Published material classified as extremist and thus prosecuted included protests against the court rulings in the Bolotnaya Square case calling for illegal action criticism of overspending by a local governor insult of the authorities publishing a poem in support of Ukraine inciting hatred 19 20 an open letter against a war in Chechnya by the writer Polina Zherebcova 21 the Jehovah s Witnesses movement in Russia 22 Raphael Lemkin and articles by the initiator of the Genocide Convention of 1948 23 Tushar Gandhi Mahatma Gandhi s great grandson says India s Hindu nationalism is a threat to Gandhi s legacy and that the ideology of hate division and polarization that led to Gandhi s assassination by a religious zealot in 1948 has captured India 24 Other terms EditThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed October 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Since the 1990s in United States politics the term Sister Souljah moment has been used to describe a politician s public repudiation of an allegedly extremist person or group statement or position which might otherwise be associated with his own party citation needed The term subversive was often used interchangeably in the United States at least with extremist during the Cold War period although the two words are not synonymous citation needed See also EditChristian terrorism Cumulative extremism Domestic Extremism Lexicon False consensus effect Fundamentalism Hate group Hindutva Horseshoe theory Islamic extremism Kahanism Political extremism in Japan Religious persecution Sikh extremism Terrorism Vigilantism Violent extremismReferences EditCitations Edit Definition of extremism Merriam Webster Dictionary Retrieved 4 December 2015 Extremism definition of The Free Dictionary Retrieved 4 December 2015 Mogahed Dalia 2006 The Battle for Hearts and Minds Moderate vs Extremist Views in the Muslim World PDF WikiLeaks p 2 a b c d e f Dr Peter T Coleman and Dr Andrea Bartoli Addressing Extremism pp 3 4 Extremismus Bundesministerium des Innern und fur Heimat in German Retrieved 2023 02 17 Botticher Astrid 2017 Towards Academic Consensus Definitions of Radicalism and Extremism Perspectives on Terrorism 11 4 73 77 ISSN 2334 3745 JSTOR 26297896 G M Tamas On Post Fascism Archived 2014 08 26 at the Wayback Machine Boston Review Summer 2000 Laird Wilcox on Extremist Traits Lairdwilcox com Retrieved 2013 09 08 Economics at University of Western Ontario Economics uwo ca Retrieved 2013 09 08 Wintrobe 2006 p 5 Bruxelles Simon de 30 May 2013 Science may one day cure Islamic radicals The Times London Retrieved 2013 05 31 van Prooijen Jan Willem Krouwel Andre P M 2019 04 01 Psychological Features of Extreme Political Ideologies Current Directions in Psychological Science 28 2 159 163 doi 10 1177 0963721418817755 ISSN 0963 7214 People with extreme political views cannot tell when they are wrong study finds The Independent 2018 12 17 Retrieved 2018 12 23 van Prooijen Jan Willem and Andre PM Krouwel Psychological Features of Extreme Political Ideologies Current Directions in Psychological Science 2018 0963721418817755 Letter From a Birmingham Jail The Martin Luther King Jr Research and Education Institute kinginstitute stanford edu Retrieved 18 October 2018 What Martin Luther King taught me about extremism independent co uk 29 August 2013 Retrieved 18 October 2018 Washingtonpost com Goldwater Speech www washingtonpost com Retrieved 18 October 2018 Paul Goble 29 March 2015 FSB Increasingly Involved in Misuse of Anti Extremism Laws SOVA Says The Interpreter Magazine Retrieved 2015 04 01 Examples of forbidden content Zapretno info 2014 Archived from the original on 30 October 2014 Retrieved 2014 10 29 Neef Christian Schepp Matthias 22 April 2014 The Propaganda War Opposition Sings Kremlin Tune on Ukraine Spiegel Online Retrieved 2015 06 10 Otkrytoe Pismo Hodorkovskomu o Voyne v Chechne Priznali Ekstremistskim meduza io Retrieved 2015 07 08 Russian Appellate Court Decision Reverses Ban of JW ORG Website Retrieved 2015 08 20 Federalnyj spisok ekstremistskih materialov doros do p 3152 SOVA Center for Information and Analysis Retrieved 2015 11 28 Hate ideology consuming India Gandhi s great grandson DAWN COM 2023 01 30 Retrieved 2023 01 30 Cited publications Edit George John and Laird Wilcox Nazis Communists Klansmen and Others on the Fringe Political Extremism in America Prometheus Books 1992 ISBN 0 87975 680 2 Himmelstein Jerome L All But Sleeping with the Enemy Studying the Radical Right Up Close ASA San Francisco 1988 Hoffer Eric The True Believer Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements Various editions first published 1951 Schlesinger Arthur Jr The Vital Center The Politics of Freedom Various editions first published 1949 Wilcox Laird What Is Political Extremism retrieved from The Voluntaryist newsletter 27 1987 Ronald Wintrobe 2006 Rational Extremism The Political Economy of Radicalism Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 85964 6 Further reading EditBartlett Jamie Birdwell Jonathan April 16 2010 The Edge of Violence A Radical Approach to Extremism Demos Archived from the original on 2010 10 09 Nawaz Maajid Radical My Journey out of Islamist Extremism Lyons Press 2013 van Ginkel Bibi Engaging Civil Society in Countering Violent Extremism ICCT The Hague 2012 External links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Extremism Look up extremism in Wiktionary the free dictionary The M and S Collection at the Library of Congress contains materials on Extremist Movements Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Extremism amp oldid 1151025145, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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