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Epidemiology of obesity

January 01, 1970

Obesity has been observed throughout human history. Many early depictions of the human form in art and sculpture appear obese.[2] However, it was not until the 20th century that obesity became common — so much so that, in 1997, the World Health Organization (WHO) formally recognized obesity as a global epidemic[3] and estimated that the worldwide prevalence of obesity has nearly tripled since 1975.[4] Obesity is defined as having a body mass index (BMI) greater than or equal to 30 kg/m2, and in June 2013 the American Medical Association classified it as a disease.[5]

Share of adults with BMIs > 30 (2022)
World obesity prevalence among males:[1]
  <5%
  5-10%
  10-15%
  15-20%
  20-25%
  25-30%
  30-35%
  35-40%
  40-45%
  45-50%
  50-55%
  >55%
World obesity prevalence among females:[1]
  <5%
  5-10%
  10-15%
  15-20%
  20-25%
  25-30%
  30-35%
  35-40%
  40-45%
  45-50%
  50-55%
  >55%

In countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), one child out of five is overweight or obese.[6] Once considered a problem only of high-income countries, obesity rates are rising worldwide. In 2014, the mean BMI in 128 countries was above the threshold for overweight.[7] Globally, there are now more people who are obese than who are underweight, a trend observed in every region over the world except parts of sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.[8] In 2013, an estimated 2.1 billion adults were overweight, as compared with 857 million in 1980.[9] Of adults who are overweight, 31% are obese.[8] Increases in obesity have been seen most in urban settings.[10]

Since body fat can be measured in several ways, statistics on the epidemiology of obesity vary between sources. While BMI is the most basic and commonly used indicator of obesity, other measures include waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio, skinfold thicknesses, and bioelectrical impedance.[11] The rate of obesity increases with age at least up to 50 or 60 years old.[12] Sex- and gender-based differences also influence the prevalence of obesity. Globally there are more obese women than men, but the numbers differ depending on how obesity is measured.[13][14]

Africa edit

See also: Obesity in the Middle East and North Africa

Obesity rates in Western Africa are estimated to be 10%. Rates of obesity among women are three times those found in men. In urban West Africa rates of obesity doubled between the 1990s and 2000s.[15]

Egypt edit

In Egypt, according to data from the 2016 Global Burden of Disease study, overweight and obesity (as measured by high BMI) was the country's leading risk factor driving the most death and disability combined.[16]

Asia edit

China edit

Main article: Obesity in China

In the twenty first century, China faces challenges of obesity and chronic disease.[17] This is believed to be primarily due to the rapid declines in physical activity and changing dietary habits which have occurred between the 1980s and the 2000s. The decline in physical activity is attributed to increasing technology in the workplace and changing leisure activities.[17]

In 1989 65% of Chinese had jobs that required heavy labor. This decreased to 51% in the year 2000.[17] Combined with this has been a change to a diet higher in meat and oil,[17] and an increase in overall available calories.[18] Available calories per person increased from 2,330 kilocalories (9,700 kJ) per day in 1980 to 2,940 kilocalories (12,300 kJ) per day in 2002.[18] Rates of overweight and obese adults increased 12.9% in 1991 to 27.3% in 2004.[19]

Overall rates of obesity are below 5% in China as a whole but are greater than 20% in some cities.[20]

India edit

Main article: Obesity in India

Obesity has reached epidemic proportions in India in the 21st century, with morbid obesity affecting 5% of the country's population.[21] Obesity is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease and NGOs such as the Indian Heart Association have been raising awareness about this issue.[22] Urbanization and modernization has been associated with obesity.[23] In Northern India obesity was most prevalent in urban populations (male = 5.5%, female = 12.6%), followed by the urban slums (male = 1.9%, female = 7.2%). Obesity rates were the lowest in rural populations (male = 1.6%, female = 3.8%).[23]

Socioeconomic class also had an effect on the rate of obesity. Women of high socioeconomic class had rates of 10.4% as opposed to 0.9% in women of low socioeconomic class.[24] With people moving into urban centers and wealth increasing, concerns about an obesity epidemic in India are growing.[citation needed]

Iran edit

In Iran the prevalence of obesity was 26.3% in 2008. Prevalence of obesity was more among women (39.5%) than men (14.5%).[25]

Japan edit

Using the WHO criteria Japan has the lowest rate of obesity among the OECD member countries at 3.2%.[26][27] However, as Asian populations are particularly susceptible to the health risks of excess adipose tissue, the Japanese have redefined obesity as any BMI greater than 25.[28] Using this cut off value the prevalence of obesity in Japan would be 20%, a threefold increase from 1962 to 2002.[29] A 2008 report stated that 28.6% of men and 20.6% of women in Japan were considered to be obese.[30]

Pakistan edit

Main article: Obesity in Pakistan

Changing lifestyles, owing to urbanisation, as well as diet issues are the main reasons for obesity in Pakistan. According to a recent[when?] study, approximately one out of four Pakistani adults (or 22.2% of individuals) are classified as obese.[31][32]

Taiwan edit

In 2002, 15% of children from 6 to 12 years of age were overweight; by gender, 15.5% of males and 14.4% of females were overweight. In the same age range, 12% of children were obese; by gender, 14.7% of males and 9.1% of females were categorized as obese. In 2005, 14.9% children from 6 to 12 years of age were overweight; by gender, 15.85% of males and 14.02% of females were overweight. 10.3% were categorized as obese; by gender, 10.92% of males and 9.73% of females were categorized as obese.[citation needed]

Based on these numbers, the trends were inconclusive, although with more than 10% of the age group being obese, obesity does appear to be a problem.[33]

Europe edit

 
Rates of obesity in the Netherlands between 1981 and 2006

Between the 1970s and the 2000s, rates of obesity in most European countries have increased. During the 1990s and 2000s, the 27 countries making up the EU reported rates of obesity from 10–27% in men and from 10–38% in women.[34]

The most recent combined Eurostat statistics, for 2009, show that, among the 19 EU Member States for which data are available, the proportion of obese people in the adult population varied in 2008/9 between 8.0% (Romania) and 23.9% (UK) for women and between 7.6% (Romania) and 24.7% (Malta) for men. Overall the UK had the highest proportions, and Romania the lowest. Men, the elderly and people with lower educations also have significantly higher obesity rates.[35]

United Kingdom edit

Main article: Obesity in the United Kingdom

In the UK the rate of obesity has increased about fourfold over the last 30 years, reaching levels of 22–24% in 2008/9.[12][35]

Year Percent males obese Percent females obese
1980 6% 8%
1993 13% 16%
2000 21% 21%
2008/9 22% 24%

North America edit

 
Obesity rates as a percentage of total population in OECD member countries in the years 1996–2003 (according to BMI)[26]

Epidemiological data show that, among high-income countries, obesity prevalence is highest in the United States and Mexico.[6]

Canada edit

Main article: Obesity in Canada

The number of Canadians who are obese has risen dramatically in recent years. In 2004, direct measurements of height and weight found 23.1% of Canadians older than 18 had a BMI greater than 30. When broken down into degrees of obesity, 15.2% were class I (BMI 30–34.9), 5.1% were class II (BMI 35–39.9), and 2.7%, class III (BMI ≥ 40). This is in contrast to self-reported data the previous year of 15.2% and in 1978/1979 of 13.8%. The greatest increases occurred among the more severe degrees of obesity; class III obesity increased from 0.9% to 2.7% from 1978/1979 to 2004. Obesity in Canada varies by ethnicity; people of Aboriginal origin have a significantly higher rate of obesity (37.6%) than the national average.[36]

In children obesity has substantially increased between 1989 and 2004 with rates in boys increasing from 2% to 10% and rates among girls increasing from 2% to 9%.[37]

Mexico edit

Main article: Obesity in Mexico

Mexico has one of the highest rates of obesity among OECD countries, second only to the United States. To combat the epidemic, in 2014 Mexico implemented new taxes levied on food with excessive energy content and on sugar-sweetened beverages.[6]

United States edit

Main article: Obesity in the United States
 
The increase in obesity rates in the US as seen from 1985 to 2010 to the point where every state has at least a 20% obesity rate has caused it to become a significant focus of public health in recent years.
 
The percent of people per state who were obese (BMI>30) in 2011:[38]
  > 30%
  25% to < 30%
  20% to < 25%
  15% to < 20%
  10% to < 15%
  < 10%
  No data

Obesity rates in the United States have nearly tripled since the 1960s. In 1962, about 13% of adult Americans were obese,[39] and by 2002, obesity rates reached 33% of the adult population.[40] According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Study collected between the 1970s and 2004, the prevalence of overweight and obesity increased steadily among all groups of Americans.[41][42] The numbers continue to rise; as of 2007, 33% of men and 36% of women were obese,[43] and by 2015–2016, 39.6% of the total adult population (37.9% of men and 41.1% of women) had obesity.[44] As of 2017-2018, 42.4% of U.S. adults aged 20 and over were obese (43% for men and 41.9% for women).[45]

Obesity rates vary between diverse social groups, with some racial groups and low-income individuals more likely to be obese while other minorities show lower rates. As of 2014 the rates were as low as 12% for non-Hispanic Asian women and as high as 57% among African American women.[46][47]

The incidence of obesity also varies with geography. The American South has been referred to as the "Stroke belt", "Obesity belt", or "Diabetes belt", to reflect the fact that residents of the region have high rates of these three conditions, compared to people of the same race/ethnicity elsewhere in the country.[48]

Based on a study in 2008, estimates of obesity that rely on self-reported data arrive at a rate of 22% among non-Hispanic white females, whereas studies that involve direct measurement show that the rate was closer to 34% at that time.[49]

The prevalence of class III (morbid) obesity (BMI ≥ 40) has increased the most dramatically, from 1.3% in the late 1970s,[50] to 2.9% in 1988-94, to 4.7% in 2000,[51] to 5.7% in 2008, and to 7.7% in 2014.[47] Among African American women, its prevalence is estimated to be as high as 17%.[47]

The rate of increase in the incidence of obesity began to slow in the 2000s, but as of 2014, obesity, severe obesity, and obesity in children continued to rise.[43][47]

 
Prevalence of obesity between 1960 and 2004 in the USA

Obesity is one of the leading health issues in the United States, with some estimates suggesting that obesity results in about 300,000 excess deaths per year.[52] However, in 2005 using different methodology, research at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention produced a nationwide estimate of 129,000 excess deaths per year relative to individuals with a BMI of 21 to 25.[53] In contrast, a 2013 review found that obesity was not associated with higher mortality than normal weight, and that overweight was associated with lower mortality than was normal weight.[54]

South America and the Caribbean edit

Surveys in different Caribbean countries found that 7-20% of males and 22-48% of females over the age of 15 are obese.[55] Trinidad and Tobago has the highest obesity in the Caribbean, with over 30% of its adult population overweight, ranking the country sixth in the world.[56] The Bahamas have a major obesity epidemic: 48.6% of people between 15 and 64 years old are obese.[57] A female adolescent from the Bahamas is more likely to be overweight than her male counterpart. In Jamaica, 7.2% of men over the age of 20 are obese, while 31.5% of women are obese.[58]

Oceania and the Pacific edit

 
According to 2007 statistics from the World Health Organization (WHO), Australia has the third-highest prevalence of overweight adults in the English-speaking world.[59]

Australia edit

Main article: Obesity in Australia

According to self-reported and measured results of the 2007–2008 National Health Survey, 61% of Australians were overweight (above a 25 BMI), with 24% falling into the "obese" category (above a 30 BMI). Men were more likely to be overweight (67.7%) and obese (25.5%) than women (30.9% and 23.4% respectively).[60]

New Zealand edit

Main article: Obesity in New Zealand

Obesity in New Zealand has become an important national health concern in recent years,[when?] with high numbers of people afflicted in every age and ethnic group.[61] In 2011/12, 28.4% of New Zealand adults were obese,[62] a number only surpassed in the English-speaking world by the United States.[59][61]

South Pacific edit

Main article: Obesity in the Pacific
See also: Obesity in Nauru

Many of the island nations of the South Pacific have very high rates of obesity. Nauru has the highest rates of obesity in the world (94.5%) followed by Samoa, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the American Samoa. Being big has traditionally been associated with health, beauty, and status and many of these beliefs remain prevalent today.[63]

See also edit

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External links edit

January 01, 1970
epidemiology, obesity, obesity, been, observed, throughout, human, history, many, early, depictions, human, form, sculpture, appear, obese, however, until, 20th, century, that, obesity, became, common, much, that, 1997, world, health, organization, formally, r. Obesity has been observed throughout human history Many early depictions of the human form in art and sculpture appear obese 2 However it was not until the 20th century that obesity became common so much so that in 1997 the World Health Organization WHO formally recognized obesity as a global epidemic 3 and estimated that the worldwide prevalence of obesity has nearly tripled since 1975 4 Obesity is defined as having a body mass index BMI greater than or equal to 30 kg m2 and in June 2013 the American Medical Association classified it as a disease 5 Share of adults with BMIs gt 30 2022 World obesity prevalence among males 1 lt 5 5 10 10 15 15 20 20 25 25 30 30 35 35 40 40 45 45 50 50 55 gt 55 World obesity prevalence among females 1 lt 5 5 10 10 15 15 20 20 25 25 30 30 35 35 40 40 45 45 50 50 55 gt 55 In countries of the Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development OECD one child out of five is overweight or obese 6 Once considered a problem only of high income countries obesity rates are rising worldwide In 2014 the mean BMI in 128 countries was above the threshold for overweight 7 Globally there are now more people who are obese than who are underweight a trend observed in every region over the world except parts of sub Saharan Africa and Asia 8 In 2013 an estimated 2 1 billion adults were overweight as compared with 857 million in 1980 9 Of adults who are overweight 31 are obese 8 Increases in obesity have been seen most in urban settings 10 Since body fat can be measured in several ways statistics on the epidemiology of obesity vary between sources While BMI is the most basic and commonly used indicator of obesity other measures include waist circumference waist to hip ratio skinfold thicknesses and bioelectrical impedance 11 The rate of obesity increases with age at least up to 50 or 60 years old 12 Sex and gender based differences also influence the prevalence of obesity Globally there are more obese women than men but the numbers differ depending on how obesity is measured 13 14 Contents 1 Africa 1 1 Egypt 2 Asia 2 1 China 2 2 India 2 3 Iran 2 4 Japan 2 5 Pakistan 2 6 Taiwan 3 Europe 3 1 United Kingdom 4 North America 4 1 Canada 4 2 Mexico 4 3 United States 5 South America and the Caribbean 6 Oceania and the Pacific 6 1 Australia 6 2 New Zealand 6 3 South Pacific 7 See also 8 References 9 External linksAfrica editSee also Obesity in the Middle East and North Africa Obesity rates in Western Africa are estimated to be 10 Rates of obesity among women are three times those found in men In urban West Africa rates of obesity doubled between the 1990s and 2000s 15 Egypt edit In Egypt according to data from the 2016 Global Burden of Disease study overweight and obesity as measured by high BMI was the country s leading risk factor driving the most death and disability combined 16 Asia editChina edit Main article Obesity in China In the twenty first century China faces challenges of obesity and chronic disease 17 This is believed to be primarily due to the rapid declines in physical activity and changing dietary habits which have occurred between the 1980s and the 2000s The decline in physical activity is attributed to increasing technology in the workplace and changing leisure activities 17 In 1989 65 of Chinese had jobs that required heavy labor This decreased to 51 in the year 2000 17 Combined with this has been a change to a diet higher in meat and oil 17 and an increase in overall available calories 18 Available calories per person increased from 2 330 kilocalories 9 700 kJ per day in 1980 to 2 940 kilocalories 12 300 kJ per day in 2002 18 Rates of overweight and obese adults increased 12 9 in 1991 to 27 3 in 2004 19 Overall rates of obesity are below 5 in China as a whole but are greater than 20 in some cities 20 India edit Main article Obesity in India Obesity has reached epidemic proportions in India in the 21st century with morbid obesity affecting 5 of the country s population 21 Obesity is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease and NGOs such as the Indian Heart Association have been raising awareness about this issue 22 Urbanization and modernization has been associated with obesity 23 In Northern India obesity was most prevalent in urban populations male 5 5 female 12 6 followed by the urban slums male 1 9 female 7 2 Obesity rates were the lowest in rural populations male 1 6 female 3 8 23 Socioeconomic class also had an effect on the rate of obesity Women of high socioeconomic class had rates of 10 4 as opposed to 0 9 in women of low socioeconomic class 24 With people moving into urban centers and wealth increasing concerns about an obesity epidemic in India are growing citation needed Iran edit In Iran the prevalence of obesity was 26 3 in 2008 Prevalence of obesity was more among women 39 5 than men 14 5 25 Japan edit Using the WHO criteria Japan has the lowest rate of obesity among the OECD member countries at 3 2 26 27 However as Asian populations are particularly susceptible to the health risks of excess adipose tissue the Japanese have redefined obesity as any BMI greater than 25 28 Using this cut off value the prevalence of obesity in Japan would be 20 a threefold increase from 1962 to 2002 29 A 2008 report stated that 28 6 of men and 20 6 of women in Japan were considered to be obese 30 Pakistan edit Main article Obesity in Pakistan Changing lifestyles owing to urbanisation as well as diet issues are the main reasons for obesity in Pakistan According to a recent when study approximately one out of four Pakistani adults or 22 2 of individuals are classified as obese 31 32 Taiwan edit In 2002 15 of children from 6 to 12 years of age were overweight by gender 15 5 of males and 14 4 of females were overweight In the same age range 12 of children were obese by gender 14 7 of males and 9 1 of females were categorized as obese In 2005 14 9 children from 6 to 12 years of age were overweight by gender 15 85 of males and 14 02 of females were overweight 10 3 were categorized as obese by gender 10 92 of males and 9 73 of females were categorized as obese citation needed Based on these numbers the trends were inconclusive although with more than 10 of the age group being obese obesity does appear to be a problem 33 Europe edit nbsp Rates of obesity in the Netherlands between 1981 and 2006 Between the 1970s and the 2000s rates of obesity in most European countries have increased During the 1990s and 2000s the 27 countries making up the EU reported rates of obesity from 10 27 in men and from 10 38 in women 34 The most recent combined Eurostat statistics for 2009 show that among the 19 EU Member States for which data are available the proportion of obese people in the adult population varied in 2008 9 between 8 0 Romania and 23 9 UK for women and between 7 6 Romania and 24 7 Malta for men Overall the UK had the highest proportions and Romania the lowest Men the elderly and people with lower educations also have significantly higher obesity rates 35 United Kingdom edit Main article Obesity in the United Kingdom In the UK the rate of obesity has increased about fourfold over the last 30 years reaching levels of 22 24 in 2008 9 12 35 Year Percent males obese Percent females obese 1980 6 8 1993 13 16 2000 21 21 2008 9 22 24 North America edit nbsp Obesity rates as a percentage of total population in OECD member countries in the years 1996 2003 according to BMI 26 Epidemiological data show that among high income countries obesity prevalence is highest in the United States and Mexico 6 Canada edit Main article Obesity in Canada The number of Canadians who are obese has risen dramatically in recent years In 2004 direct measurements of height and weight found 23 1 of Canadians older than 18 had a BMI greater than 30 When broken down into degrees of obesity 15 2 were class I BMI 30 34 9 5 1 were class II BMI 35 39 9 and 2 7 class III BMI 40 This is in contrast to self reported data the previous year of 15 2 and in 1978 1979 of 13 8 The greatest increases occurred among the more severe degrees of obesity class III obesity increased from 0 9 to 2 7 from 1978 1979 to 2004 Obesity in Canada varies by ethnicity people of Aboriginal origin have a significantly higher rate of obesity 37 6 than the national average 36 In children obesity has substantially increased between 1989 and 2004 with rates in boys increasing from 2 to 10 and rates among girls increasing from 2 to 9 37 Mexico edit Main article Obesity in Mexico Mexico has one of the highest rates of obesity among OECD countries second only to the United States To combat the epidemic in 2014 Mexico implemented new taxes levied on food with excessive energy content and on sugar sweetened beverages 6 United States edit Main article Obesity in the United States nbsp The increase in obesity rates in the US as seen from 1985 to 2010 to the point where every state has at least a 20 obesity rate has caused it to become a significant focus of public health in recent years nbsp The percent of people per state who were obese BMI gt 30 in 2011 38 gt 30 25 to lt 30 20 to lt 25 15 to lt 20 10 to lt 15 lt 10 No data Obesity rates in the United States have nearly tripled since the 1960s In 1962 about 13 of adult Americans were obese 39 and by 2002 obesity rates reached 33 of the adult population 40 According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Study collected between the 1970s and 2004 the prevalence of overweight and obesity increased steadily among all groups of Americans 41 42 The numbers continue to rise as of 2007 33 of men and 36 of women were obese 43 and by 2015 2016 39 6 of the total adult population 37 9 of men and 41 1 of women had obesity 44 As of 2017 2018 42 4 of U S adults aged 20 and over were obese 43 for men and 41 9 for women 45 Obesity rates vary between diverse social groups with some racial groups and low income individuals more likely to be obese while other minorities show lower rates As of 2014 the rates were as low as 12 for non Hispanic Asian women and as high as 57 among African American women 46 47 The incidence of obesity also varies with geography The American South has been referred to as the Stroke belt Obesity belt or Diabetes belt to reflect the fact that residents of the region have high rates of these three conditions compared to people of the same race ethnicity elsewhere in the country 48 Based on a study in 2008 estimates of obesity that rely on self reported data arrive at a rate of 22 among non Hispanic white females whereas studies that involve direct measurement show that the rate was closer to 34 at that time 49 The prevalence of class III morbid obesity BMI 40 has increased the most dramatically from 1 3 in the late 1970s 50 to 2 9 in 1988 94 to 4 7 in 2000 51 to 5 7 in 2008 and to 7 7 in 2014 47 Among African American women its prevalence is estimated to be as high as 17 47 The rate of increase in the incidence of obesity began to slow in the 2000s but as of 2014 obesity severe obesity and obesity in children continued to rise 43 47 nbsp Prevalence of obesity between 1960 and 2004 in the USA Obesity is one of the leading health issues in the United States with some estimates suggesting that obesity results in about 300 000 excess deaths per year 52 However in 2005 using different methodology research at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention produced a nationwide estimate of 129 000 excess deaths per year relative to individuals with a BMI of 21 to 25 53 In contrast a 2013 review found that obesity was not associated with higher mortality than normal weight and that overweight was associated with lower mortality than was normal weight 54 South America and the Caribbean editSurveys in different Caribbean countries found that 7 20 of males and 22 48 of females over the age of 15 are obese 55 Trinidad and Tobago has the highest obesity in the Caribbean with over 30 of its adult population overweight ranking the country sixth in the world 56 The Bahamas have a major obesity epidemic 48 6 of people between 15 and 64 years old are obese 57 A female adolescent from the Bahamas is more likely to be overweight than her male counterpart In Jamaica 7 2 of men over the age of 20 are obese while 31 5 of women are obese 58 Oceania and the Pacific edit nbsp According to 2007 statistics from the World Health Organization WHO Australia has the third highest prevalence of overweight adults in the English speaking world 59 Australia edit Main article Obesity in Australia According to self reported and measured results of the 2007 2008 National Health Survey 61 of Australians were overweight above a 25 BMI with 24 falling into the obese category above a 30 BMI Men were more likely to be overweight 67 7 and obese 25 5 than women 30 9 and 23 4 respectively 60 New Zealand edit Main article Obesity in New Zealand Obesity in New Zealand has become an important national health concern in recent years when with high numbers of people afflicted in every age and ethnic group 61 In 2011 12 28 4 of New Zealand adults were obese 62 a number only surpassed in the English speaking world by the United States 59 61 South Pacific edit Main article Obesity in the Pacific See also Obesity in Nauru Many of the island nations of the South Pacific have very high rates of obesity Nauru has the highest rates of obesity in the world 94 5 followed by Samoa the Federated States of Micronesia and the American Samoa Being big has traditionally been associated with health beauty and status and many of these beliefs remain prevalent today 63 See also editFood industry Food politics Epidemiology of childhood obesity Epidemiology of metabolic syndrome Obesogen Overnutrition Sugar industry Ultra processed food World Health OrganizationReferences edit a b www worldobesity org PDF Global prevalence of overweight and obesity Archived from the original PDF on March 5 2016 Retrieved Jan 8 2016 Haslam D March 2007 Obesity a medical history 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annurev publhealth 26 021304 144628 ISSN 0163 7525 PMID 15760288 Flegal KM Carroll MD Ogden CL Johnson CL 2002 Prevalence and Trends in Obesity Among US Adults 1999 2000 JAMA The Journal of the American Medical Association 288 14 1723 7 doi 10 1001 jama 288 14 1723 PMID 12365955 S2CID 1951078 Allison DB Fontaine KR Manson JR Stevens J Vanitallie TB 1999 Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States JAMA 282 16 1530 8 doi 10 1001 jama 282 16 1530 PMID 10546692 Flegal Katherine M et al 2005 Excess Deaths Associated with Underweight Overweight and Obesity Journal of the American Medical Association 293 15 1861 67 doi 10 1001 jama 293 15 1861 PMID 15840860 Flegal KM Kit BK Orpana H Graubard BI January 2013 Association of all cause mortality with overweight and obesity using standard body mass index categories a systematic review and meta analysis JAMA 309 1 71 82 doi 10 1001 jama 2012 113905 PMC 4855514 PMID 23280227 Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2015 01 26 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Trinidad tops obesity list in the Caribbean Archived from the original on 2020 05 07 Retrieved 2015 01 26 The Bahamas FAO Nutrition Country Profiles FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS 1 Aug 2003 Web 26 Feb 2015 lt ftp ftp fao org ag agn nutrition ncp bhsmap pdf permanent dead link gt FAO NUTRITION COUNTRY PROFILES Jamaica FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS 1 Aug 2003 Web 26 Jan 2015 lt http www fao org docrep 017 aq027e aq027e pdf gt a b Lauren Streib February 8 2007 World s Fattest Countries Forbes Archived from the original on October 16 2007 Retrieved 2009 02 12 Body section Overweight and Obesity 2007 08 Archived from the original PDF on 2016 09 03 Retrieved 2012 03 19 a b Obesity Social Report 2008 Ministry of Social Development June 1 2008 Retrieved 2009 07 05 Ministry of Health 2012 The Health of New Zealand Adults 2011 12 Wellington Ministry of Health Obesity in the Pacific Too Big To Ignore PDF Secretariat of the Pacific Community WHO 2002 Archived from the original PDF on 2014 09 11 Retrieved 2008 09 30 External links editWorld Health Organisation Global Database on Body Mass Index Ogden Cynthia L et al 2013 Prevalence of obesity among adults United States 2011 2012 Hyattsville Md U S Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Health Statistics Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Epidemiology of obesity amp oldid 1211971709, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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