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Enlightened absolutism

January 01, 1970

Enlightened absolutism, also called enlightened despotism, refers to the conduct and policies of European absolute monarchs during the 18th and early 19th centuries who were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment, espousing them to enhance their power.[1] The concept originated during the Enlightenment period in the 18th and into the early 19th centuries. An enlightened absolutist is a non-democratic or authoritarian leader who exercises their political power based upon the principles of the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs distinguished themselves from ordinary rulers by claiming to rule for their subjects' well-being. John Stuart Mill stated that despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians, provided the end be their improvement.[2]

Enlightened absolutists' beliefs about royal power were typically similar to those of regular despots, both recognizing that they were destined to rule. Enlightened rulers may have played a part in the abolition of serfdom in Europe.[3] The enlightened despotism of Emperor Joseph II of the Holy Roman Empire is summarized as, "Everything for the people, nothing by the people".[4]

History edit

Enlightened absolutism is the theme of an essay by Frederick the Great, who ruled Prussia from 1740 to 1786, defending this system of government.[5] When the prominent French Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire fell out of favor in France, he eagerly accepted Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. He believed that an enlightened monarchy was the only real way for society to advance. Frederick was an enthusiast of French ideas. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."[6]

Enlightened absolutists held that royal power emanated not from divine right but from a social contract whereby a despot was entrusted with the power to govern through a social contract in lieu of any other governments. The monarchs of enlightened absolutism strengthened their authority by improving the lives of their subjects. The monarch’s taking responsibility for his subjects precluded their political participation.

The difference between an absolutist and an enlightened absolutist is based on a broad analysis of the degree to which they embraced the Age of Enlightenment. Historians debate the actual implementation of enlightened absolutism. They distinguish between the "enlightenment" of the ruler personally, versus that of his regime. For example, Frederick the Great was tutored in the ideas of the French Enlightenment in his youth, and maintained those ideas in his private life as an adult, but in many ways was unable or unwilling to effect enlightened reforms in practice.[7] Other rulers such as the Marquis of Pombal, prime minister of Portugal, used the ideas and practices of the Enlightenment not only to achieve reforms but also to enhance autocracy, crush opposition, suppress criticism, advance colonial economic exploitation, and consolidate personal control and profit.[citation needed]

The concept of enlightened absolutism was formally described by the German historian Wilhelm Roscher in 1847[8] and remains controversial among scholars.[9]

Centralized control necessitated centralized systematic information on the nation. A major renovation was the collection, use and interpretation of numerical and statistical data, ranging from trade statistics, harvest reports, death notices to population censuses. Starting in the 1760s, officials in France and Germany began increasingly to rely on quantitative data for systematic planning, especially regarding long-term economic growth. It combined the utilitarian agenda of "enlightened absolutism" with the new ideas being developed in economics. In Germany and France, the trend was especially strong in Cameralism and Physiocracy.[10]

Major nations edit

Government responses to the Age of Enlightenment varied widely. In several nations with powerful rulers, called "enlightened despots" by historians, leaders of the Enlightenment were welcomed at Court and helped design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger national states.[11] In France the government was hostile, and the philosophers fought against its censorship. The British government generally ignored the Enlightenment's leaders.

Frederick the Great, who ruled Prussia 1740–1786, was an enthusiast for French ideas[citation needed] (he ridiculed German culture and was unaware of the remarkable advances it was undergoing[citation needed]). Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government,[citation needed] was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace.[citation needed] Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit".[12] He wrote an essay on "Benevolent Despotism" defending this system of government.[13]

Empress Catherine II of Russia sponsored the Russian Enlightenment. She incorporated many ideas of Enlightenment philosophers, especially Montesquieu, in her Nakaz, which was intended to revise Russian law. However, inviting the famous French philosopher Denis Diderot to her court worked out poorly.[14]

Charles III, King of Spain from 1759 to 1788, tried to rescue his empire from decay through far-reaching reforms such as weakening the Church and its monasteries, promoting science and university research, facilitating trade and commerce, modernizing agriculture and avoiding wars. The centralization of power in Madrid angered the local nobility, and challenged the traditional autonomy of cities, and so resistance grew steadily. Consequently, Spain relapsed after his death.[15][16]

Emperor Joseph II, ruler of Austria 1780–1790, was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out, and his regime became a comedy of errors.[17]

In some countries the initiative came not from rulers but from senior officials such as the Marquis of Pombal, who was Joseph I of Portugal's Secretary of State.[18] For a brief period in Denmark Johann Friedrich Struensee attempted to govern in terms of Enlightenment principles. After issuing 1,069 decrees in 13 months covering many major reforms, his enemies overthrew him, and he was executed and quartered.[19]

Associated rulers edit

In other cultures edit

China edit

Xuezhi Guo contrasts the Confucian ideal of a "humane ruler" (renjun) with the ideal of Chinese legalists, who he says "intended to create a truly 'enlightened ruler' (mingjun) who is able to effectively rule the masses and control his bureaucracy"; this ruler would be a "skillful manipulator and successful politician who uses means or 'technique' in achieving self-protection and political control". Guo quotes Benjamin I. Schwartz as describing the features of "a truly Legalist 'enlightened ruler'":[29]

He must be anything but an arbitrary despot if one means by a despot a tyrant who follows all his impulses, whims and passions. Once the systems which maintain the entire structure are in place, he must not interfere with their operation. He may use the entire system as a means to the achievement of his national and international ambitions, but to do so he must not disrupt its impersonal workings. He must at all times be able to maintain an iron wall between his private life and public role. Concubines, friends, flatterers and charismatic saints must have no influence whatsoever on the course of policy, and he must never relax his suspicions of the motives of those who surround him.[30][29]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Perry et al. 2015, p. 442.
  2. ^ Mill 1989, p. 13.
  3. ^ "Disappearance of Serfdom. France. England. Italy. Germany. Spain". www.1902encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2015-12-07.
  4. ^ World of the Habsburgs. . Textmode. World of the Habsburgs. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved 2015-10-21. Even Joseph's early writings reveal his attitude towards the office of ruler. He thought that a monarch should sacrifice everything for the welfare of his people. In keeping with his maxim 'Everything for the people, nothing by the people', he did not think that subjects should be given a voice in the political process. Joseph saw his role as that of a benevolent despot who was obliged to coerce his unwitting people for their own good.
  5. ^ Reprinted in Isaac Kramnick (1995). The Portable Enlightenment Reader. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-024566-0. Retrieved 26 August 2013.
  6. ^ Giles MacDonogh, Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters (2001) p. 341
  7. ^ H. M. Scott, ed., Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth-Century Europe, (University of Michigan Press, 1990)
  8. ^ A. Lentin (ed.), Enlightened Absolutism (1760–1790), Aveiro, 1985, p. ix.
  9. ^ Charles Ingrao, "The Problem of 'Enlightened Absolutism and the German States," Journal of Modern History Vol. 58, Supplement: Politics and Society in the Holy Roman Empire, 1500–1806 (Dec., 1986), pp. S161–S180 in JSTOR
  10. ^ Lars Behrisch, "Statistics and Politics in the 18th Century." Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung (2016) 41#2: 238–257. online
  11. ^ Stephen J. Lee, Aspects of European history, 1494–1789 (1990) pp. 258–266
  12. ^ Giles MacDonogh, Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters (2001) p. 341
  13. ^ Reprinted in Isaac Kramnick, ed. The Portable Enlightenment Reader (1995)
  14. ^ Isabel de Madariaga, "Catherine the Great" in H. M. Scott ed., Enlightened Absolutism (1990). [page needed][ISBN missing]
  15. ^ Nicholas Henderson, "Charles III of Spain: An Enlightened Despot," History Today, Nov 1968, Vol. 18 Issue 10, pp. 673–682 and Issue 11, pp. 760–768
  16. ^ Francisco Javier Guillamón Álvarez, "Institutional Reform and Municipal Government in the Spanish Empire in the Eighteenth Century." Itinerario 20.3 (1996): 109–123.
  17. ^ Nicholas Henderson, "Joseph II", History Today (March 1991) 41:21–27
  18. ^ Benjamin Otis Frick, The Enlightened Despotism of the Eighteenth Century in Portugal: The Marquis of Pombal (1902).
  19. ^ Henry Steele Commager, "Struensee and the Enlightenment", The search for a usable past, and other essays in historiography (1967) pp. 349–623.
  20. ^ * McKay, A History of Western Society, Houghton Mifflin, 2006, pp. 616–619
    • R. K. Massie, Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman, Random House, 2012
  21. ^ a b c H. M. Scott, 1990, p. 1.
  22. ^ H. M. Scott, 1990, pp. 265ff.
  23. ^ a b H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era 1760–1815, University of Minnesota Press, 1986, pp. 142ff. ISBN 0-8166-1392-3.
  24. ^ Ustun, Kadir (2013). The New Order and Its Enemies: Opposition to Military Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1789–1807 (PhD thesis). Columbia University. doi:10.7916/D80Z79P1. Retrieved 23 December 2022.
  25. ^ "On the Border Between East and West: Turkey from the 19th Century to the Foundation of the Republic". J. J. Strossmayer University. 2011. Retrieved 23 December 2022.
  26. ^ Kolesnikov-Jessop, Sonia (2009-04-09). "A Chinese Emperor's Savoir-Vivre". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
  27. ^ "The Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors". projects.mcah.columbia.edu. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
  28. ^ Bearne, Catherine Mary (1907). A Sister of Marie Antoinette: The Life-Story of Maria Carolina, Queen of Naples. London: T. Fisher Unwin, p. 142.
  29. ^ a b Guo, Xuezhi (2002). The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical and Cultural Perspective. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. p. 141. ISBN 9780275972592.
  30. ^ Benjanmin I. Schwartz p. 345, The World of Thought in Ancient China

Further reading edit

  • Behrens, Betty. "Enlightened despotism." Historical Journal 18.2 (1975): 401–408.
  • Gagliardo, John G. (1967). Enlightened Despotism.
  • Gershoy, Leo. (1963). From Despotism to Revolution, 1763–1789 (1944). online free to borrow
  • Krieger, Leonard. An essay on the theory of enlightened despotism (U of Chicago Press, 1975).
  • Ingrao, Charles. "The problem of 'enlightened absolutism' and the German States." Journal of Modern History 58 (1986): S161–S180. online
  • McHugh, James T. "Last of the enlightened despots: A comparison of President Mikhail Gorbachev and Emperor Joseph II." Social Science Journal 32.1 (1995): 69–85 online.
  • Mill, John Stuart (1989). J. S. Mill: 'On Liberty' and Other Writings. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-37917-5.
  • Mueller, Christine L. (1994) "Enlightened Absolutism" Austrian History Yearbook: 1994, Vol. 25, pp. 159–183. Covers the recent historiography of the role in 18th-century Austrian statecraft.
  • Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, James; Jacob, Margaret; Daly, Jonathan (2015). Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Volume I: To 1789. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-44548-2.
  • Scott, H. M. "Whatever Happened to the Enlightened Despots?." History 68#223 (1983), pp. 245–257 online
  • Scott, H. M. ed. (1990). Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth-Century Europe.
  • Szabo, Franz. Kaunitz and Enlightened Absolutism 1753–1780 (1994) online as ACLS Humanities E-Book

External links edit

  • "Joseph II Biography". A&E Television Networks. Retrieved 2015-10-21.
  • World of the Habsburgs. "Joseph II: The long-awaited son". Textmode. World of the Habsburgs. Retrieved 2015-10-21. 'Everything for the people, nothing by the people'
  • "Enlightened despotism". Britannica.

January 01, 1970
enlightened, absolutism, also, called, enlightened, despotism, refers, conduct, policies, european, absolute, monarchs, during, 18th, early, 19th, centuries, were, influenced, ideas, enlightenment, espousing, them, enhance, their, power, concept, originated, d. Enlightened absolutism also called enlightened despotism refers to the conduct and policies of European absolute monarchs during the 18th and early 19th centuries who were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment espousing them to enhance their power 1 The concept originated during the Enlightenment period in the 18th and into the early 19th centuries An enlightened absolutist is a non democratic or authoritarian leader who exercises their political power based upon the principles of the Enlightenment Enlightened monarchs distinguished themselves from ordinary rulers by claiming to rule for their subjects well being John Stuart Mill stated that despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians provided the end be their improvement 2 Enlightened absolutists beliefs about royal power were typically similar to those of regular despots both recognizing that they were destined to rule Enlightened rulers may have played a part in the abolition of serfdom in Europe 3 The enlightened despotism of Emperor Joseph II of the Holy Roman Empire is summarized as Everything for the people nothing by the people 4 Contents 1 History 2 Major nations 3 Associated rulers 4 In other cultures 4 1 China 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External linksHistory editEnlightened absolutism is the theme of an essay by Frederick the Great who ruled Prussia from 1740 to 1786 defending this system of government 5 When the prominent French Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire fell out of favor in France he eagerly accepted Frederick s invitation to live at his palace He believed that an enlightened monarchy was the only real way for society to advance Frederick was an enthusiast of French ideas Frederick explained My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice to enlighten minds cultivate morality and to make people as happy as it suits human nature and as the means at my disposal permit 6 Enlightened absolutists held that royal power emanated not from divine right but from a social contract whereby a despot was entrusted with the power to govern through a social contract in lieu of any other governments The monarchs of enlightened absolutism strengthened their authority by improving the lives of their subjects The monarch s taking responsibility for his subjects precluded their political participation The difference between an absolutist and an enlightened absolutist is based on a broad analysis of the degree to which they embraced the Age of Enlightenment Historians debate the actual implementation of enlightened absolutism They distinguish between the enlightenment of the ruler personally versus that of his regime For example Frederick the Great was tutored in the ideas of the French Enlightenment in his youth and maintained those ideas in his private life as an adult but in many ways was unable or unwilling to effect enlightened reforms in practice 7 Other rulers such as the Marquis of Pombal prime minister of Portugal used the ideas and practices of the Enlightenment not only to achieve reforms but also to enhance autocracy crush opposition suppress criticism advance colonial economic exploitation and consolidate personal control and profit citation needed The concept of enlightened absolutism was formally described by the German historian Wilhelm Roscher in 1847 8 and remains controversial among scholars 9 Centralized control necessitated centralized systematic information on the nation A major renovation was the collection use and interpretation of numerical and statistical data ranging from trade statistics harvest reports death notices to population censuses Starting in the 1760s officials in France and Germany began increasingly to rely on quantitative data for systematic planning especially regarding long term economic growth It combined the utilitarian agenda of enlightened absolutism with the new ideas being developed in economics In Germany and France the trend was especially strong in Cameralism and Physiocracy 10 Major nations editGovernment responses to the Age of Enlightenment varied widely In several nations with powerful rulers called enlightened despots by historians leaders of the Enlightenment were welcomed at Court and helped design laws and programs to reform the system typically to build stronger national states 11 In France the government was hostile and the philosophers fought against its censorship The British government generally ignored the Enlightenment s leaders Frederick the Great who ruled Prussia 1740 1786 was an enthusiast for French ideas citation needed he ridiculed German culture and was unaware of the remarkable advances it was undergoing citation needed Voltaire who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government citation needed was eager to accept Frederick s invitation to live at his palace citation needed Frederick explained My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice to enlighten minds cultivate morality and to make people as happy as it suits human nature and as the means at my disposal permit 12 He wrote an essay on Benevolent Despotism defending this system of government 13 Empress Catherine II of Russia sponsored the Russian Enlightenment She incorporated many ideas of Enlightenment philosophers especially Montesquieu in her Nakaz which was intended to revise Russian law However inviting the famous French philosopher Denis Diderot to her court worked out poorly 14 Charles III King of Spain from 1759 to 1788 tried to rescue his empire from decay through far reaching reforms such as weakening the Church and its monasteries promoting science and university research facilitating trade and commerce modernizing agriculture and avoiding wars The centralization of power in Madrid angered the local nobility and challenged the traditional autonomy of cities and so resistance grew steadily Consequently Spain relapsed after his death 15 16 Emperor Joseph II ruler of Austria 1780 1790 was over enthusiastic announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors 17 In some countries the initiative came not from rulers but from senior officials such as the Marquis of Pombal who was Joseph I of Portugal s Secretary of State 18 For a brief period in Denmark Johann Friedrich Struensee attempted to govern in terms of Enlightenment principles After issuing 1 069 decrees in 13 months covering many major reforms his enemies overthrew him and he was executed and quartered 19 Associated rulers editImages of enlightened absolutist monarchs nbsp Peter I of Russia 1682 1725 nbsp Catherine II of Russia nbsp Charles III of Spain nbsp Christian VII of Denmark nbsp Mahmud II nbsp Ferdinand IV of Naples nbsp Qianlong Emperor nbsp Mihailo Obrenovic III of Serbia nbsp Frederick II of Prussia nbsp Gustav III of Sweden nbsp Joseph I of Portugal nbsp Joseph II Holy Roman Emperor nbsp Napoleon I of France Peter the Great of Russia 1682 1725 Catherine the Great of Russia 1762 1796 20 Charles III of Spain 1759 1788 21 Frederick the Great of Prussia 1740 1786 22 Napoleon Bonaparte as First Consul of French Republic 1799 1804 and as Emperor of The First French Empire 1804 1814 Frederick VI of Denmark 1808 1839 23 Gustav III of Sweden 1771 1792 23 Joseph II Holy Roman Emperor 1765 1790 21 Joseph I of Portugal through his minister the Marquis of Pombal 1750 1777 Maria Theresa 1740 1780 Selim III 1789 1808 24 Mahmud II 1808 1839 25 Leopold I Grand Duke of Tuscany 1765 1790 21 Kangxi Emperor 1661 1722 26 Qianlong Emperor 1735 1796 27 Ferdinand IV of Naples 1816 1825 Maria Carolina of Austria Queen of Naples 28 and Sicily 1768 1814 Christian VII of Denmark through his minister Johann Friedrich Struensee 1770 1772 Philip Duke of Parma through his minister Guillaume du Tillot 1748 1765 Francesco III d Este Duke of Modena 1737 1780 Ercole III d Este Duke of Modena 1780 1796 Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia 1730 1773 Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia 1773 1796 Mihailo Obrenovic III of Serbia 1839 1842 1860 1868 In other cultures editChina editXuezhi Guo contrasts the Confucian ideal of a humane ruler renjun with the ideal of Chinese legalists who he says intended to create a truly enlightened ruler mingjun who is able to effectively rule the masses and control his bureaucracy this ruler would be a skillful manipulator and successful politician who uses means or technique in achieving self protection and political control Guo quotes Benjamin I Schwartz as describing the features of a truly Legalist enlightened ruler 29 He must be anything but an arbitrary despot if one means by a despot a tyrant who follows all his impulses whims and passions Once the systems which maintain the entire structure are in place he must not interfere with their operation He may use the entire system as a means to the achievement of his national and international ambitions but to do so he must not disrupt its impersonal workings He must at all times be able to maintain an iron wall between his private life and public role Concubines friends flatterers and charismatic saints must have no influence whatsoever on the course of policy and he must never relax his suspicions of the motives of those who surround him 30 29 See also editBenevolent dictatorship Liberal autocracy Noblesse oblige Philosopher king Social imperialism Soft despotismReferences edit Perry et al 2015 p 442 Mill 1989 p 13 Disappearance of Serfdom France England Italy Germany Spain www 1902encyclopedia com Retrieved 2015 12 07 World of the Habsburgs Joseph II The long awaited son Textmode World of the Habsburgs Archived from the original on July 22 2023 Retrieved 2015 10 21 Even Joseph s early writings reveal his attitude towards the office of ruler He thought that a monarch should sacrifice everything for the welfare of his people In keeping with his maxim Everything for the people nothing by the people he did not think that subjects should be given a voice in the political process Joseph saw his role as that of a benevolent despot who was obliged to coerce his unwitting people for their own good Reprinted in Isaac Kramnick 1995 The Portable Enlightenment Reader Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 024566 0 Retrieved 26 August 2013 Giles MacDonogh Frederick the Great A Life in Deed and Letters 2001 p 341 H M Scott ed Enlightened Absolutism Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth Century Europe University of Michigan Press 1990 A Lentin ed Enlightened Absolutism 1760 1790 Aveiro 1985 p ix Charles Ingrao The Problem of Enlightened Absolutism and the German States Journal of Modern History Vol 58 Supplement Politics and Society in the Holy Roman Empire 1500 1806 Dec 1986 pp S161 S180 in JSTOR Lars Behrisch Statistics and Politics in the 18th Century Historical Social Research Historische Sozialforschung 2016 41 2 238 257 online Stephen J Lee Aspects of European history 1494 1789 1990 pp 258 266 Giles MacDonogh Frederick the Great A Life in Deed and Letters 2001 p 341 Reprinted in Isaac Kramnick ed The Portable Enlightenment Reader 1995 Isabel de Madariaga Catherine the Great in H M Scott ed Enlightened Absolutism 1990 page needed ISBN missing Nicholas Henderson Charles III of Spain An Enlightened Despot History Today Nov 1968 Vol 18 Issue 10 pp 673 682 and Issue 11 pp 760 768 Francisco Javier Guillamon Alvarez Institutional Reform and Municipal Government in the Spanish Empire in the Eighteenth Century Itinerario 20 3 1996 109 123 Nicholas Henderson Joseph II History Today March 1991 41 21 27 Benjamin Otis Frick The Enlightened Despotism of the Eighteenth Century in Portugal The Marquis of Pombal 1902 Henry Steele Commager Struensee and the Enlightenment The search for a usable past and other essays in historiography 1967 pp 349 623 McKay A History of Western Society Houghton Mifflin 2006 pp 616 619 R K Massie Catherine the Great Portrait of a Woman Random House 2012 a b c H M Scott 1990 p 1 H M Scott 1990 pp 265ff a b H Arnold Barton Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era 1760 1815 University of Minnesota Press 1986 pp 142ff ISBN 0 8166 1392 3 Ustun Kadir 2013 The New Order and Its Enemies Opposition to Military Reform in the Ottoman Empire 1789 1807 PhD thesis Columbia University doi 10 7916 D80Z79P1 Retrieved 23 December 2022 On the Border Between East and West Turkey from the 19th Century to the Foundation of the Republic J J Strossmayer University 2011 Retrieved 23 December 2022 Kolesnikov Jessop Sonia 2009 04 09 A Chinese Emperor s Savoir Vivre The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2023 11 06 The Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors projects mcah columbia edu Retrieved 2023 11 07 Bearne Catherine Mary 1907 A Sister of Marie Antoinette The Life Story of Maria Carolina Queen of Naples London T Fisher Unwin p 142 a b Guo Xuezhi 2002 The Ideal Chinese Political Leader A Historical and Cultural Perspective Westport CT Praeger Publishers p 141 ISBN 9780275972592 Benjanmin I Schwartz p 345 The World of Thought in Ancient ChinaFurther reading editBehrens Betty Enlightened despotism Historical Journal 18 2 1975 401 408 Gagliardo John G 1967 Enlightened Despotism Gershoy Leo 1963 From Despotism to Revolution 1763 1789 1944 online free to borrow Krieger Leonard An essay on the theory of enlightened despotism U of Chicago Press 1975 Ingrao Charles The problem of enlightened absolutism and the German States Journal of Modern History 58 1986 S161 S180 online McHugh James T Last of the enlightened despots A comparison of President Mikhail Gorbachev and Emperor Joseph II Social Science Journal 32 1 1995 69 85 online Mill John Stuart 1989 J S Mill On Liberty and Other Writings Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 37917 5 Mueller Christine L 1994 Enlightened Absolutism Austrian History Yearbook 1994 Vol 25 pp 159 183 Covers the recent historiography of the role in 18th century Austrian statecraft Perry Marvin Chase Myrna Jacob James Jacob Margaret Daly Jonathan 2015 Western Civilization Ideas Politics and Society Volume I To 1789 Cengage Learning ISBN 978 1 305 44548 2 Scott H M Whatever Happened to the Enlightened Despots History 68 223 1983 pp 245 257 online Scott H M ed 1990 Enlightened Absolutism Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth Century Europe Szabo Franz Kaunitz and Enlightened Absolutism 1753 1780 1994 online as ACLS Humanities E BookExternal links edit Joseph II Biography A amp E Television Networks Retrieved 2015 10 21 World of the Habsburgs Joseph II The long awaited son Textmode World of the Habsburgs Retrieved 2015 10 21 Everything for the people nothing by the people Enlightened despotism Britannica Portal nbsp politics Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Enlightened absolutism amp oldid 1189729918, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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