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Jameson's mamba

January 01, 1970

Jameson's mamba (Dendroaspis jamesoni) is a species of highly venomous snake native to equatorial Africa. A member of the mamba genus, Dendroaspis, it is slender with dull green upper parts and cream underparts and generally ranges from 1.5 to 2.2 m (4 ft 11 in to 7 ft 3 in) in length. Described by Scottish naturalist Thomas Traill in 1843, it has two recognised subspecies: the nominate subspecies from central and west sub-Saharan Africa and the eastern black-tailed subspecies from eastern sub-Saharan Africa, mainly western Kenya.

Jameson's mamba
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Genus: Dendroaspis
Species:
D. jamesoni
Binomial name
Dendroaspis jamesoni
(Traill, 1843)[2]
Range of Jameson's mamba
Synonyms[3]
  • Elaps jamesoni – Traill, 1843
  • Dendraspis jamesoni – Günther, 1858
  • Dendroaspis jamesoni – Schmidt, 1923

Predominantly arboreal, Jameson's mamba preys mainly on birds and mammals. Its venom consists of both neurotoxins and cardiotoxins. Symptoms of envenomation in humans include pain and swelling at the bite site, followed by swelling, chills, sweating, abdominal pain and vomiting, with subsequent slurred speech, difficulty breathing and paralysis. Fatalities have been recorded within three to four hours of being bitten. The venom of the eastern subspecies is around twice as potent as that of the nominate subspecies.

Taxonomy and etymology edit

Jameson's mamba was first described as Elaps jamesoni in 1843 by Thomas Traill, a Scottish doctor, zoologist and scholar of medical jurisprudence.[4] The specific epithet is in honour of Robert Jameson, Traill's contemporary and the Regius Professor of Natural History at the University of Edinburgh where Traill studied.[5] In 1848, German naturalist Hermann Schlegel created the genus Dendroaspis, designating Jameson's mamba as the type species.[6] The generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words δένδρον (dendron, 'tree') and ἀσπίς (aspis 'asp').[7] The genus was misspelt as Dendraspis by French zoologist Auguste Duméril in 1856,[8] and went generally uncorrected by subsequent authors. In 1936, Dutch herpetologist Leo Brongersma corrected the spelling to the original.[9]

In 1936, British biologist Arthur Loveridge described a new subspecies D. jamesoni kaimosae, from a specimen collected from the Kaimosi Forest in western Kenya, observing that it had fewer subcaudal scales and a black (rather than green) tail.[10] Analysis of the components of the venom of all mambas places Jameson's mamba as sister species to the western green mamba (Dendroaspis viridis), as shown in the cladogram below.[11]

king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)

Jameson's mamba – western subspecies (Dendroaspis j. jamesoni)

Jameson's mamba – eastern subspecies (Dendroaspis j. kaimosae)

western green mamba (Dendroaspis viridis)

eastern green mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps)

black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis)

Description edit

Jameson's mamba is a long and slender snake with smooth scales and a tail which typically accounts for 20 to 25% of its total length. The total length (including tail) of an adult snake is approximately 1.5–2.2 m (4 ft 11 in – 7 ft 3 in). It may grow as large as 2.64 m (8 ft 8 in).[12] The general consensus is that the sexes are of similar sizes, although fieldwork in southeastern Nigeria found that males were significantly larger than females.[13] Adults tend to be dull green across the back, blending to pale green towards the underbelly with scales generally edged with black. The neck, throat and underparts are typically cream or yellowish in colour. Jameson's mamba has a narrow and elongated head containing small eyes and round pupils. Like the western green mamba, the neck may be flattened. The subspecies D. jamesoni kaimosae, which is found in the eastern part of the species' range, features a black tail, while central and western examples typically have a pale green or yellow tail.[12] The thin fangs are attached to the upper jaw and have a furrow running down their anterior surface.[4]

Scalation edit

See also: Snake scale § Nomenclature of scales

The number and pattern of scales on a snake's body play a key role in the identification and differentiation at the species level.[14] Jameson's mamba has between 15 and 17 rows of dorsal scales at midbody, 210 to 236 (Subsp.) jamesoni) or 202 to 227 ventral scales (Subsp. kaimosae), 94 to 122 (Subsp. jamesoni) or 94 to 113 (Subsp. kaimosae) divided subcaudal scales, and a divided anal scale.[a] Its mouth is lined with 7 to 9 (usually 8) supralabial scales above and 8 to 10 (usually 9) sublabial scales below, the fourth ones located over and under the eye.[16] Its eyes have three preocular, three postocular and one subocular scale.[12]

Distribution and habitat edit

 
Subsp. jamesoni navigating a tree, Korup National Park
 
Dorsal view of scales

Jameson's mamba occurs mostly in Central Africa and West Africa, and in some parts of East Africa.[3] In Central Africa it can be found from Angola northwards to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, and as far north as the Imatong Mountains of South Sudan.[12] In West Africa it ranges from Ghana eastwards to Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.[3] In East Africa it can be found in Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania.[12] The subspecies D. jamesoni kaimosae is endemic to East Africa and chiefly found in western Kenya, where its type locality is located, as well as in Uganda, Rwanda, and the adjacent Democratic Republic of the Congo.[3] It is a relatively common and widespread snake, particularly across its western range. Fieldwork in Nigeria indicated the species is sedentary.[13]

Found in primary and secondary rainforests, woodland, forest-savanna and deforested areas at elevations of up to 2,200 metres (7,200 ft) high,[12] Jameson's mamba is an adaptable species; it persists in areas where there has been extensive deforestation and human development. It is often found around buildings, town parks, farmlands and plantations.[12] Jameson's mamba is a highly arboreal snake, more so than its close relatives the eastern green mamba and western green mamba, and significantly more so than the black mamba.[13]

Behaviour and ecology edit

Jameson's mamba is a highly agile snake. Like other mambas it is capable of flattening its neck in mimicry of a cobra when it feels threatened, and its body shape and length give an ability to strike at significant range. Generally not aggressive, it will typically attempt to escape if confronted.[12][13]

Breeding edit

In Nigeria males fight each other for access to females (and then breed) over the dry season of December, January and February;[13] mating was recorded in September in the Kakamega Forest in Kenya.[17] Jameson's mamba is oviparous; the female lays a clutch of 5–16 eggs; in Nigeria laying was recorded from April to June, and most likely soon after November in Uganda.[17] Egg clutches have been recovered from abandoned termite colonies.[13]

Diet and predators edit

Jameson's mamba has been difficult to study in the field due to its arboreal nature and green coloration. It has not been observed hunting but is thought to use a sit-and-wait strategy, which has been reported for the eastern green mamba. The bulk of its diet is made up of birds and tree-dwelling mammals,[13] such as cisticolas, woodpeckers, doves, squirrels, shrews and mice.[17] Smaller individuals of under 100 cm (40 in) in length have been recorded feeding on lizards such as the common agama, and toads. There is no evidence they have adapted to hunting terrestrial rodents such as rats,[13] though they have been recorded eating rodents in Kenya, and have accepted them in captivity.[17]

The main predators of this species are birds of prey, including the martial eagle, bateleur, and the Congo serpent eagle. Other predators may include the honey badger, other snakes, and species of mongoose.[18]

Venom edit

 
Subsp. kaimosae, the more venomous subspecies
 
Subsp. kaimosae from beneath, showing ventral scales

Jameson's mamba is classified as a Snake of Medical Importance in Sub-Saharan Africa by the World Health Organization,[b][19] although there are few records of snakebites.[17] Field observations over a 16-year period in the Niger Delta in southern Nigeria found that both humans and snakes were most active in rural areas during the rainy season, April to August, hence rendering this a peak period for snakebite. As well as succumbing to snakebites, workers were reported to have perished from falling from trees after encountering Jameson's mambas in the canopy of trees in palm oil plantations.[20] Snake bites are rare in cities but more common in forested areas in countries such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo; the country's poor infrastructure and lack of facilities render access to antivenom difficult.[21]

Like other mambas, the venom of the Jameson's mamba is highly neurotoxic.[22] Symptoms of envenomation by this species include pain and swelling of the bite site. Systemic effects include generalised swelling, chills, sweating, abdominal pain and vomiting, with subsequent slurred speech, difficulty breathing, and paralysis. Death has been recorded within three to four hours of being bitten;[17] there is an unconfirmed report of a child dying within 30 minutes.[22] With an average intravenous murine median lethal dose (LD50) of 0.53 mg/kg,[c] the venom of the eastern subspecies kaimosae is more than twice as potent as that of the nominate subspecies jamesoni at 1.2 mg/kg. The reason for this is unclear as the venom compositions are similar between the two subspecies, though kaimosae has higher concentrations of the potent neurotoxin-1.[11]

Similarly to the venom of most other mambas, Jameson's mamba's contains predominantly three-finger toxin agents as well as dendrotoxins. Other toxins of the three-finger family present include alpha-neurotoxin, cardiotoxins and fasciculins.[11] Dendrotoxins are akin to kunitz-type protease inhibitors that interact with voltage-dependent potassium channels, stimulating acetylcholine and causing an excitatory effect,[24] and are thought to cause symptoms such as sweating.[25] Unlike that of many snake species, the venom of mambas has little phospholipase A2.[11] Although cardiotoxins have been isolated in higher proportions from its venom than other mamba species, their role in toxicity is unclear and probably not prominent.[22]

Treatment edit

The speed of onset of envenomation means that urgent medical attention is needed.[17] Standard first aid treatment for any bite from a suspected venomous snake is the application of a pressure bandage, minimisation of the victim's movement, and rapid conveyance to a hospital or clinic. Due to the neurotoxic nature of green mamba venom, an arterial tourniquet may be beneficial.[26] Tetanus toxoid is sometimes administered, though the main treatment is the administration of the appropriate antivenom.[27] Trivalent and monovalent[d] antivenoms for the black, eastern green, and Jameson's mambas became available in the 1950s and 1960s.[29]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ A divided scale is one split down the midline into two scales.[15]
  2. ^ Snakes of medical Importance include those with highly dangerous venom resulting in high rates of morbidity and mortality, or those that are common agents in snakebite.[19]
  3. ^ The strength or toxicity of snake venom is traditionally measured using the LD50 (lethal dose 50%) test; in essence, injecting a certain amount of toxin into number of mice and recording what dose kills half of them.[23]
  4. ^ A monovalent antivenom is specific for one toxin or species, while a polyvalent one is effective against multiple toxins or species.[28]

References edit

  1. ^ Luiselli, L., Wagner, P., Branch, W.R. & Howell, K. 2021. "Dendroaspis jamesoni". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T13265784A13265793. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-2.RLTS.T13265784A13265793.en 2021-12-16 at the Wayback Machine. Downloaded on 18 September 2021.
  2. ^ "Dendroaspis jamesoni". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
  3. ^ a b c d Uetz, Peter. "Dendroaspis jamesoni (Traill, 1843)". The Reptile Database. from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
  4. ^ a b Traill, Thomas (1843). "Description of the Elaps Jamesoni [sic], a New Species from Demerara". Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. 34: 53–55 – via Internet Archive.
  5. ^ Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0135-5. (Dendroaspis jamesoni, p. 133).
  6. ^ "Dendroaspis". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  7. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 109, 154. ISBN 978-0-19-910207-5.
  8. ^ Duméril, Auguste Henri André (1856). "Note sure les Reptiles du Gabon". Revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliquée (in French). 2 (8): 553–562 [557–558]. from the original on 2021-08-03. Retrieved 2021-08-03.
  9. ^ Brongersma, Leo Daniel (1936). "Herpetological note XIII". Zoologische Mededelingen. 19: 135.
  10. ^ Loveridge, Arthur (1936). "New tree snakes of the genera Thrasops and Dendraspis from Kenya Colony". Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. 49: 63–66. from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  11. ^ a b c d Ainsworth, Stuart; Petras, Daniel; Engmark, Mikael; Süssmuth, Roderich D.; Whiteley, Gareth; Albulescu, Laura-Oana; Kazandjian, Taline D.; Wagstaff, Simon C.; Rowley, Paul; Wüster, Wolfgang; Dorrestein, Pieter C.; Arias, Ana Silvia; Gutiérrez, José M.; Harrison, Robert A.; Casewell, Nicholas R.; Calvete, Juan J. (2018). "The medical threat of mamba envenoming in sub-Saharan Africa revealed by genus-wide analysis of venom composition, toxicity and antivenomics profiling of available antivenoms". Journal of Proteomics. 172: 173–189. doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2017.08.016. hdl:10261/279110. PMID 28843532. S2CID 217018550. from the original on 2020-10-06. Retrieved 2020-01-29.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h Spawls, Stephen; Howell, Kim; Drewes, Robert; Ashe, James (2002). A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa. Bloomsbury. pp. 463–464. ISBN 978-0-7136-6817-9.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h Luiselli, Luca; Francesco M. Angelici; Godfrey C. Akani (2000). "Large elapids and arboreality: the ecology of Jameson's green mamba (Dendroaspis jamesoni) in an Afrotropical forested region". Contributions to Zoology. 69 (3): 147–155. doi:10.1163/18759866-06903001. from the original on 2021-12-16. Retrieved 2021-07-31.
  14. ^ Hutchinson, Mark; Williams, Ian (2018). (PDF). South Australian Museum. Government of South Australia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2019. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  15. ^ Macdonald, Stewart. "snake scale count search". Australian Reptile Online Database. from the original on 2 March 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  16. ^ Chippaux, Jean-Phillipe; Jackson, Kate (2019). Snakes of Central and Western Africa (1 ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-1-4214-2719-5.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g Spawls, Steve; Branch, Bill (2020) [1995]. The Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Bloomsbury. pp. 123–125. ISBN 978-1-4729-6028-3.
  18. ^ Mattison, Chris (1987). Snakes of the World. Facts on File, Inc. p. 164.
  19. ^ a b WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization. "Guidelines for the production, control and regulation of snake antivenom immunoglobulins" (PDF). WHO Technical Report Series, No. 964. pp. 224–226. (PDF) from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2019.
  20. ^ Akani, Godfrey C.; Ebere, Nwabueze; Franco, Daniel; Eniang, Edem A.; Petrozzi, Fabio; Politano, Edoardo; Luiselli, Luca (2013). "Correlation between annual activity patterns of venomous snakes and rural people in the Niger Delta, southern Nigeria" (PDF). Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases. 19 (1): 2. doi:10.1186/1678-9199-19-2. PMC 3707103. PMID 23849681. (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-13. Retrieved 2021-03-10.
  21. ^ Cunningham, Hugh Kinsella (9 September 2019). "How Snakebites Became an Invisible Health Crisis in Congo". Pulitzer Center. from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2021.
  22. ^ a b c van Aswegen, G.; van Rooyen, J.M.; Fourie, C; Oberholzer, G (1996). "Putative cardiotoxicity of the venoms of three mamba species". Wilderness & Environmental Medicine. 7 (2): 115–21. doi:10.1580/1080-6032(1996)007[0115:PCOTVO]2.3.CO;2. PMID 11990104.
  23. ^ "Snake Venom". School of Chemistry. University of Bristol. from the original on 15 September 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
  24. ^ Laustsen, Andreas Hougaard; Lomonte, Bruno; Lohse, Brian; Fernández, Julián; Gutiérrez, José María (2015). "Unveiling the nature of black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) venom through venomics and antivenom immunoprofiling: Identification of key toxin targets for antivenom development". Journal of Proteomics. 119: 126–142. doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2015.02.002. PMID 25688917. S2CID 42454467.
  25. ^ Hodgson, Peter S.; Davidson, Terence M. (1996). "Biology and treatment of the mamba snakebite". Wilderness and Environmental Medicine. 7 (2): 133–145. doi:10.1580/1080-6032(1996)007[0133:BATOTM]2.3.CO;2. PMID 11990107.
  26. ^ Dreyer, S. B.; Dreyer, J. S. (November 2013). "Snake Bite: A review of Current Literature". East and Central African Journal of Surgery. 18 (3): 45–52. ISSN 2073-9990. from the original on 2021-08-25. Retrieved 2021-08-25.
  27. ^ Gutiérrez, José María; Calvete, Juan J.; Habib, Abdulrazaq G.; Harrison, Robert A.; Williams, David J.; Warrell, David A. (2017). "Snakebite envenoming" (PDF). Nature Reviews Disease Primers. 3 (3): 17063. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2017.63. PMID 28905944. S2CID 4916503. (PDF) from the original on 2020-11-25. Retrieved 2021-03-10.
  28. ^ Whyte, Ian (2012). "Antivenom update" (PDF). Australian Prescriber. 35 (5): 152–155. doi:10.18773/austprescr.2012.069. (PDF) from the original on 2021-09-18. Retrieved 2021-09-18.
  29. ^ Marais, Johan (2011). A Complete Guide to the Snakes of Southern Africa. Penguin Random House South Africa. ISBN 978-1-920544-64-5. from the original on 2021-12-16. Retrieved 2021-07-31.

External links edit

  •   Media related to Dendroaspis jamesoni at Wikimedia Commons

January 01, 1970
jameson, mamba, dendroaspis, jamesoni, species, highly, venomous, snake, native, equatorial, africa, member, mamba, genus, dendroaspis, slender, with, dull, green, upper, parts, cream, underparts, generally, ranges, from, length, described, scottish, naturalis. Jameson s mamba Dendroaspis jamesoni is a species of highly venomous snake native to equatorial Africa A member of the mamba genus Dendroaspis it is slender with dull green upper parts and cream underparts and generally ranges from 1 5 to 2 2 m 4 ft 11 in to 7 ft 3 in in length Described by Scottish naturalist Thomas Traill in 1843 it has two recognised subspecies the nominate subspecies from central and west sub Saharan Africa and the eastern black tailed subspecies from eastern sub Saharan Africa mainly western Kenya Jameson s mamba Conservation status Least Concern IUCN 3 1 1 Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Reptilia Order Squamata Suborder Serpentes Family Elapidae Genus Dendroaspis Species D jamesoni Binomial name Dendroaspis jamesoni Traill 1843 2 Range of Jameson s mamba Synonyms 3 Elaps jamesoni Traill 1843 Dendraspis jamesoni Gunther 1858 Dendroaspis jamesoni Schmidt 1923 Predominantly arboreal Jameson s mamba preys mainly on birds and mammals Its venom consists of both neurotoxins and cardiotoxins Symptoms of envenomation in humans include pain and swelling at the bite site followed by swelling chills sweating abdominal pain and vomiting with subsequent slurred speech difficulty breathing and paralysis Fatalities have been recorded within three to four hours of being bitten The venom of the eastern subspecies is around twice as potent as that of the nominate subspecies Contents 1 Taxonomy and etymology 2 Description 2 1 Scalation 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Behaviour and ecology 4 1 Breeding 4 2 Diet and predators 5 Venom 5 1 Treatment 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External linksTaxonomy and etymology editJameson s mamba was first described as Elaps jamesoni in 1843 by Thomas Traill a Scottish doctor zoologist and scholar of medical jurisprudence 4 The specific epithet is in honour of Robert Jameson Traill s contemporary and the Regius Professor of Natural History at the University of Edinburgh where Traill studied 5 In 1848 German naturalist Hermann Schlegel created the genus Dendroaspis designating Jameson s mamba as the type species 6 The generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words dendron dendron tree and ἀspis aspis asp 7 The genus was misspelt as Dendraspis by French zoologist Auguste Dumeril in 1856 8 and went generally uncorrected by subsequent authors In 1936 Dutch herpetologist Leo Brongersma corrected the spelling to the original 9 In 1936 British biologist Arthur Loveridge described a new subspecies D jamesoni kaimosae from a specimen collected from the Kaimosi Forest in western Kenya observing that it had fewer subcaudal scales and a black rather than green tail 10 Analysis of the components of the venom of all mambas places Jameson s mamba as sister species to the western green mamba Dendroaspis viridis as shown in the cladogram below 11 king cobra Ophiophagus hannah Jameson s mamba western subspecies Dendroaspis j jamesoni Jameson s mamba eastern subspecies Dendroaspis j kaimosae western green mamba Dendroaspis viridis eastern green mamba Dendroaspis angusticeps black mamba Dendroaspis polylepis Description editJameson s mamba is a long and slender snake with smooth scales and a tail which typically accounts for 20 to 25 of its total length The total length including tail of an adult snake is approximately 1 5 2 2 m 4 ft 11 in 7 ft 3 in It may grow as large as 2 64 m 8 ft 8 in 12 The general consensus is that the sexes are of similar sizes although fieldwork in southeastern Nigeria found that males were significantly larger than females 13 Adults tend to be dull green across the back blending to pale green towards the underbelly with scales generally edged with black The neck throat and underparts are typically cream or yellowish in colour Jameson s mamba has a narrow and elongated head containing small eyes and round pupils Like the western green mamba the neck may be flattened The subspecies D jamesoni kaimosae which is found in the eastern part of the species range features a black tail while central and western examples typically have a pale green or yellow tail 12 The thin fangs are attached to the upper jaw and have a furrow running down their anterior surface 4 Scalation edit See also Snake scale Nomenclature of scales The number and pattern of scales on a snake s body play a key role in the identification and differentiation at the species level 14 Jameson s mamba has between 15 and 17 rows of dorsal scales at midbody 210 to 236 Subsp jamesoni or 202 to 227 ventral scales Subsp kaimosae 94 to 122 Subsp jamesoni or 94 to 113 Subsp kaimosae divided subcaudal scales and a divided anal scale a Its mouth is lined with 7 to 9 usually 8 supralabial scales above and 8 to 10 usually 9 sublabial scales below the fourth ones located over and under the eye 16 Its eyes have three preocular three postocular and one subocular scale 12 Distribution and habitat edit nbsp Subsp jamesoni navigating a tree Korup National Park nbsp Dorsal view of scales Jameson s mamba occurs mostly in Central Africa and West Africa and in some parts of East Africa 3 In Central Africa it can be found from Angola northwards to the Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Central African Republic and as far north as the Imatong Mountains of South Sudan 12 In West Africa it ranges from Ghana eastwards to Togo Nigeria Cameroon Equatorial Guinea and Gabon 3 In East Africa it can be found in Uganda Kenya Rwanda Burundi and Tanzania 12 The subspecies D jamesoni kaimosae is endemic to East Africa and chiefly found in western Kenya where its type locality is located as well as in Uganda Rwanda and the adjacent Democratic Republic of the Congo 3 It is a relatively common and widespread snake particularly across its western range Fieldwork in Nigeria indicated the species is sedentary 13 Found in primary and secondary rainforests woodland forest savanna and deforested areas at elevations of up to 2 200 metres 7 200 ft high 12 Jameson s mamba is an adaptable species it persists in areas where there has been extensive deforestation and human development It is often found around buildings town parks farmlands and plantations 12 Jameson s mamba is a highly arboreal snake more so than its close relatives the eastern green mamba and western green mamba and significantly more so than the black mamba 13 Behaviour and ecology editJameson s mamba is a highly agile snake Like other mambas it is capable of flattening its neck in mimicry of a cobra when it feels threatened and its body shape and length give an ability to strike at significant range Generally not aggressive it will typically attempt to escape if confronted 12 13 Breeding edit In Nigeria males fight each other for access to females and then breed over the dry season of December January and February 13 mating was recorded in September in the Kakamega Forest in Kenya 17 Jameson s mamba is oviparous the female lays a clutch of 5 16 eggs in Nigeria laying was recorded from April to June and most likely soon after November in Uganda 17 Egg clutches have been recovered from abandoned termite colonies 13 Diet and predators edit Jameson s mamba has been difficult to study in the field due to its arboreal nature and green coloration It has not been observed hunting but is thought to use a sit and wait strategy which has been reported for the eastern green mamba The bulk of its diet is made up of birds and tree dwelling mammals 13 such as cisticolas woodpeckers doves squirrels shrews and mice 17 Smaller individuals of under 100 cm 40 in in length have been recorded feeding on lizards such as the common agama and toads There is no evidence they have adapted to hunting terrestrial rodents such as rats 13 though they have been recorded eating rodents in Kenya and have accepted them in captivity 17 The main predators of this species are birds of prey including the martial eagle bateleur and the Congo serpent eagle Other predators may include the honey badger other snakes and species of mongoose 18 Venom edit nbsp Subsp kaimosae the more venomous subspecies nbsp Subsp kaimosae from beneath showing ventral scales Jameson s mamba is classified as a Snake of Medical Importance in Sub Saharan Africa by the World Health Organization b 19 although there are few records of snakebites 17 Field observations over a 16 year period in the Niger Delta in southern Nigeria found that both humans and snakes were most active in rural areas during the rainy season April to August hence rendering this a peak period for snakebite As well as succumbing to snakebites workers were reported to have perished from falling from trees after encountering Jameson s mambas in the canopy of trees in palm oil plantations 20 Snake bites are rare in cities but more common in forested areas in countries such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo the country s poor infrastructure and lack of facilities render access to antivenom difficult 21 Like other mambas the venom of the Jameson s mamba is highly neurotoxic 22 Symptoms of envenomation by this species include pain and swelling of the bite site Systemic effects include generalised swelling chills sweating abdominal pain and vomiting with subsequent slurred speech difficulty breathing and paralysis Death has been recorded within three to four hours of being bitten 17 there is an unconfirmed report of a child dying within 30 minutes 22 With an average intravenous murine median lethal dose LD50 of 0 53 mg kg c the venom of the eastern subspecies kaimosae is more than twice as potent as that of the nominate subspecies jamesoni at 1 2 mg kg The reason for this is unclear as the venom compositions are similar between the two subspecies though kaimosae has higher concentrations of the potent neurotoxin 1 11 Similarly to the venom of most other mambas Jameson s mamba s contains predominantly three finger toxin agents as well as dendrotoxins Other toxins of the three finger family present include alpha neurotoxin cardiotoxins and fasciculins 11 Dendrotoxins are akin to kunitz type protease inhibitors that interact with voltage dependent potassium channels stimulating acetylcholine and causing an excitatory effect 24 and are thought to cause symptoms such as sweating 25 Unlike that of many snake species the venom of mambas has little phospholipase A2 11 Although cardiotoxins have been isolated in higher proportions from its venom than other mamba species their role in toxicity is unclear and probably not prominent 22 Treatment edit The speed of onset of envenomation means that urgent medical attention is needed 17 Standard first aid treatment for any bite from a suspected venomous snake is the application of a pressure bandage minimisation of the victim s movement and rapid conveyance to a hospital or clinic Due to the neurotoxic nature of green mamba venom an arterial tourniquet may be beneficial 26 Tetanus toxoid is sometimes administered though the main treatment is the administration of the appropriate antivenom 27 Trivalent and monovalent d antivenoms for the black eastern green and Jameson s mambas became available in the 1950s and 1960s 29 See also edit nbsp Snakes portalNotes edit A divided scale is one split down the midline into two scales 15 Snakes of medical Importance include those with highly dangerous venom resulting in high rates of morbidity and mortality or those that are common agents in snakebite 19 The strength or toxicity of snake venom is traditionally measured using the LD50 lethal dose 50 test in essence injecting a certain amount of toxin into number of mice and recording what dose kills half of them 23 A monovalent antivenom is specific for one toxin or species while a polyvalent one is effective against multiple toxins or species 28 References edit Luiselli L Wagner P Branch W R amp Howell K 2021 Dendroaspis jamesoni The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021 e T13265784A13265793 https dx doi org 10 2305 IUCN UK 2021 2 RLTS T13265784A13265793 en Archived 2021 12 16 at the Wayback Machine Downloaded on 18 September 2021 Dendroaspis jamesoni Integrated Taxonomic Information System Retrieved 8 March 2015 a b c d Uetz Peter Dendroaspis jamesoni Traill 1843 The Reptile Database Archived from the original on 4 November 2013 Retrieved 27 April 2012 a b Traill Thomas 1843 Description of the Elaps Jamesoni sic a New Species from Demerara Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal 34 53 55 via Internet Archive Beolens Bo Watkins Michael Grayson Michael 2011 The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press ISBN 978 1 4214 0135 5 Dendroaspis jamesoni p 133 Dendroaspis Integrated Taxonomic Information System Retrieved 9 December 2013 Liddell Henry George Scott Robert 1980 A Greek English Lexicon Abridged ed Oxford University Press pp 109 154 ISBN 978 0 19 910207 5 Dumeril Auguste Henri Andre 1856 Note sure les Reptiles du Gabon Revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliquee in French 2 8 553 562 557 558 Archived from the original on 2021 08 03 Retrieved 2021 08 03 Brongersma Leo Daniel 1936 Herpetological note XIII Zoologische Mededelingen 19 135 Loveridge Arthur 1936 New tree snakes of the genera Thrasops and Dendraspis from Kenya Colony Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 49 63 66 Archived from the original on 2016 03 05 Retrieved 2018 02 20 a b c d Ainsworth Stuart Petras Daniel Engmark Mikael Sussmuth Roderich D Whiteley Gareth Albulescu Laura Oana Kazandjian Taline D Wagstaff Simon C Rowley Paul Wuster Wolfgang Dorrestein Pieter C Arias Ana Silvia Gutierrez Jose M Harrison Robert A Casewell Nicholas R Calvete Juan J 2018 The medical threat of mamba envenoming in sub Saharan Africa revealed by genus wide analysis of venom composition toxicity and antivenomics profiling of available antivenoms Journal of Proteomics 172 173 189 doi 10 1016 j jprot 2017 08 016 hdl 10261 279110 PMID 28843532 S2CID 217018550 Archived from the original on 2020 10 06 Retrieved 2020 01 29 a b c d e f g h Spawls Stephen Howell Kim Drewes Robert Ashe James 2002 A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa Bloomsbury pp 463 464 ISBN 978 0 7136 6817 9 a b c d e f g h Luiselli Luca Francesco M Angelici Godfrey C Akani 2000 Large elapids and arboreality the ecology of Jameson s green mamba Dendroaspis jamesoni in an Afrotropical forested region Contributions to Zoology 69 3 147 155 doi 10 1163 18759866 06903001 Archived from the original on 2021 12 16 Retrieved 2021 07 31 Hutchinson Mark Williams Ian 2018 Key to the Snakes of South Australia PDF South Australian Museum Government of South Australia Archived from the original PDF on 18 July 2019 Retrieved 19 August 2021 Macdonald Stewart snake scale count search Australian Reptile Online Database Archived from the original on 2 March 2021 Retrieved 3 May 2019 Chippaux Jean Phillipe Jackson Kate 2019 Snakes of Central and Western Africa 1 ed Johns Hopkins University Press p 109 ISBN 978 1 4214 2719 5 a b c d e f g Spawls Steve Branch Bill 2020 1995 The Dangerous Snakes of Africa Bloomsbury pp 123 125 ISBN 978 1 4729 6028 3 Mattison Chris 1987 Snakes of the World Facts on File Inc p 164 a b WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization Guidelines for the production control and regulation of snake antivenom immunoglobulins PDF WHO Technical Report Series No 964 pp 224 226 Archived PDF from the original on 14 February 2020 Retrieved 1 January 2019 Akani Godfrey C Ebere Nwabueze Franco Daniel Eniang Edem A Petrozzi Fabio Politano Edoardo Luiselli Luca 2013 Correlation between annual activity patterns of venomous snakes and rural people in the Niger Delta southern Nigeria PDF Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases 19 1 2 doi 10 1186 1678 9199 19 2 PMC 3707103 PMID 23849681 Archived PDF from the original on 2017 08 13 Retrieved 2021 03 10 Cunningham Hugh Kinsella 9 September 2019 How Snakebites Became an Invisible Health Crisis in Congo Pulitzer Center Archived from the original on 31 July 2021 Retrieved 31 July 2021 a b c van Aswegen G van Rooyen J M Fourie C Oberholzer G 1996 Putative cardiotoxicity of the venoms of three mamba species Wilderness amp Environmental Medicine 7 2 115 21 doi 10 1580 1080 6032 1996 007 0115 PCOTVO 2 3 CO 2 PMID 11990104 Snake Venom School of Chemistry University of Bristol Archived from the original on 15 September 2009 Retrieved 18 September 2021 Laustsen Andreas Hougaard Lomonte Bruno Lohse Brian Fernandez Julian Gutierrez Jose Maria 2015 Unveiling the nature of black mamba Dendroaspis polylepis venom through venomics and antivenom immunoprofiling Identification of key toxin targets for antivenom development Journal of Proteomics 119 126 142 doi 10 1016 j jprot 2015 02 002 PMID 25688917 S2CID 42454467 Hodgson Peter S Davidson Terence M 1996 Biology and treatment of the mamba snakebite Wilderness and Environmental Medicine 7 2 133 145 doi 10 1580 1080 6032 1996 007 0133 BATOTM 2 3 CO 2 PMID 11990107 Dreyer S B Dreyer J S November 2013 Snake Bite A review of Current Literature East and Central African Journal of Surgery 18 3 45 52 ISSN 2073 9990 Archived from the original on 2021 08 25 Retrieved 2021 08 25 Gutierrez Jose Maria Calvete Juan J Habib Abdulrazaq G Harrison Robert A Williams David J Warrell David A 2017 Snakebite envenoming PDF Nature Reviews Disease Primers 3 3 17063 doi 10 1038 nrdp 2017 63 PMID 28905944 S2CID 4916503 Archived PDF from the original on 2020 11 25 Retrieved 2021 03 10 Whyte Ian 2012 Antivenom update PDF Australian Prescriber 35 5 152 155 doi 10 18773 austprescr 2012 069 Archived PDF from the original on 2021 09 18 Retrieved 2021 09 18 Marais Johan 2011 A Complete Guide to the Snakes of Southern Africa Penguin Random House South Africa ISBN 978 1 920544 64 5 Archived from the original on 2021 12 16 Retrieved 2021 07 31 External links edit nbsp Media related to Dendroaspis jamesoni at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Jameson 27s mamba amp oldid 1217457595, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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