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Council of Ephesus

The Council of Ephesus was a council of Christian bishops convened in Ephesus (near present-day Selçuk in Turkey) in AD 431 by the Roman Emperor Theodosius II. This third ecumenical council, an effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom,[1] confirmed the original Nicene Creed,[2] and condemned the teachings of Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, who held that the Virgin Mary may be called the Christotokos, "Christ-bearer" but not the Theotokos, "God-bearer". It met in June and July 431 at the Church of Mary in Ephesus in Anatolia.

Council of Ephesus
Image in the church Notre-Dame de Fourvières, France. The priest standing right in the middle is Cyril of Alexandria. On the throne is the Virgin Mary and child Jesus.
Date431
Accepted by
Previous council
First Council of Constantinople
Next council
Council of Chalcedon
Convoked byEmperor Theodosius II
PresidentCyril of Alexandria
Attendance200–250 (papal representatives arrived late)
TopicsNestorianism, Theotokos, Pelagianism, Premillennialism
Documents and statements
Confirmation of the original Nicene Creed, condemnations of heresies, declaration of Mary as "Theotokos", eight canons
Chronological list of ecumenical councils

Background

Nestorius' doctrine, Nestorianism, which emphasized the distinction between Christ's human and divine natures and argued that Mary should be called Christotokos (Christ-bearer) but not Theotokos (God-bearer), had brought him into conflict with other church leaders, most notably Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria. Nestorius himself had requested the Emperor to convene the council, hoping that it would prove his orthodoxy; the council in fact condemned his teachings as heresy. The council declared Mary as Theotokos (Mother of God).[3]

Nestorius' dispute with Cyril had led the latter to seek validation from Pope Celestine I, who offered his support for Cyril to request that Nestorius recant his position or face excommunication. Nestorius pleaded with the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II to call a council in which all grievances could be aired, hoping that he would be vindicated and Cyril condemned.

Approximately 250 bishops were present. The proceedings were conducted in a heated atmosphere of confrontation and recriminations and created severe tensions between Cyril and Theodosius II. Nestorius was decisively outplayed by Cyril and removed from his see, and his teachings were officially anathematized. This precipitated the Nestorian Schism, by which churches supportive of Nestorius, especially in the Persian Empire of the Sassanids, were severed from the rest of Christendom and became known as Nestorian Christianity, or the Church of the East, whose present-day representatives are the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Chaldean Syrian Church, and the Chaldean Catholic Church (which restored communion with Rome).

History

Political context

John McGuckin cites the "innate rivalry" between Alexandria and Constantinople as an important factor in the controversy between Cyril of Alexandria and Nestorius.[4] However, he emphasizes that, as much as political competition contributed to an "overall climate of dissent", the controversy cannot be reduced merely to the level of "personality clashes" or "political antagonisms". According to McGuckin, Cyril viewed the "elevated intellectual argument about christology" as ultimately one and the same as the "validity and security of the simple Christian life".[5]

Even within Constantinople, some supported the Roman-Alexandrian and others supported the Nestorian factions. For example, Pulcheria supported the Roman-Alexandrian popes while the emperor and his wife supported Nestorius.[6]

Theological context

Contention over Nestorius' teachings, which he developed during his studies at the School of Antioch, largely revolved around his rejection of the long-used title Theotokos ("Carrier of God") for the Virgin Mary. Shortly after his arrival in Constantinople, Nestorius became involved in the disputes of two theological factions, which differed in their Christology.

McGuckin ascribes Nestorius' importance to his being the representative of the Antiochene tradition and characterizes him as a "consistent, if none too clear, exponent of the longstanding Antiochene dogmatic tradition." Nestorius was greatly surprised that what he had always taught in Antioch without any controversy whatsoever should prove to be so objectionable to the Christians of Constantinople. Nestorius emphasized the dual natures of Christ, trying to find a middle ground between those who emphasized the fact that in Christ God had been born as a man, and insisted on calling the Virgin Mary Theotokos (Greek: Θεοτόκος, "God-bearer"), and those that rejected that title because God as an eternal being could not have been born. Nestorius suggested the title Christotokos (Χριστοτόκος, "Christ-bearer"), but this proposal did not gain acceptance on either side.

Nestorius tried to answer a question considered unsolved: "How can Jesus Christ, being part man, not be partially a sinner as well, since man is by definition a sinner since the Fall?" To solve that he taught that Mary, the mother of Jesus gave birth to the incarnate Christ, not the divine Logos who existed before Mary and indeed before time itself. The Logos occupied the part of the human soul (the part of man that was stained by the Fall). But wouldn't the absence of a human soul make Jesus less human? Nestorius rejected this proposition, answering that, because the human soul was based on the archetype of the Logos, only to become polluted by the Fall, Jesus was "more" human for having the Logos and not "less". Consequently, Nestorius argued that the Virgin Mary should be called Christotokos, Greek for "Carrier of Christ", and not Theotokos, Greek for "Carrier of God".

Nestorius believed that no union between the human and divine was possible. If such a union of human and divine occurred, Nestorius believed that Christ could not truly be consubstantial with God and consubstantial with us because he would grow, mature, suffer and die (which Nestorius argued God cannot do) and also would possess the power of God that would separate him from being equal to humans.

According to McGuckin, several mid-twentieth-century accounts have tended to "romanticise" Nestorius; in opposition to this view, he asserts that Nestorius was no less dogmatic and uncompromising than Cyril, and that he was clearly just as prepared to use his political and canonical powers as Cyril or any of the other hierarchs of the period.[7]

Nestorius's opponents charged him with detaching Christ's divinity and humanity into two persons existing in one body, thereby denying the reality of the Incarnation. Eusebius, a layman who later became the bishop of the neighbouring Dorylaeum was the first to accuse Nestorius of heresy, but his most forceful opponent was Patriarch Cyril of Alexandria. Cyril argued that Nestorianism split Jesus in half and denied that he was both human and divine.

Cyril appealed to Pope Celestine I, charging Nestorius with heresy. The Pope agreed and gave Cyril his authority to serve a notice to Nestorius to recant his views within ten days or else be excommunicated. Before acting on the Pope's commission, Cyril convened a synod of Egyptian bishops which condemned Nestorius as well. Cyril then sent four suffragan bishops to deliver both the Pope's commission as well as the synodal letter of the Egyptian bishops. Cyril sent a letter to Nestorius known as "The Third Epistle of Saint Cyril to Nestorius." This epistle drew heavily on the established Patristic Constitutions and contained the most famous article of Alexandrian Orthodoxy: "The Twelve Anathemas of Saint Cyril." In these anathemas, Cyril excommunicated anyone who followed the teachings of Nestorius. For example, "Anyone who dares to deny the Holy Virgin the title Theotokos is Anathema!" Nestorius however, still would not repent. McGuckin points out that other representatives of the Antiochene tradition such as John of Antioch, Theodoret and Andrew of Samosata were able to recognize "the point of the argument for Christ's integrity" and concede the "ill-advised nature of Nestorius' immoveability."[8] Concerned at the potential for a negative result at a council, they urged Nestorius to yield and accept the use of the title Theotokos when referring to the Virgin Mary.[9]

For example, John of Antioch wrote to Nestorius urging him to submit to the Pope's judgment and cease stirring up controversy over a word that he disliked (Theotokos) but which could be interpreted as having an orthodox meaning especially in light of the fact that many saints and doctors of the church had sanctioned the word by using it themselves. John wrote to Nestorius, "Don't lose your head. Ten days! It will not take you twenty-four hours to give the needed answer.... Ask advice of men you can trust. Ask them to tell you the facts, not just what they think will please you.... You have the whole of the East against you, as well as Egypt." Despite this advice from his colleagues, Nestorius persisted in maintaining the rightness of his position.

Convocation

 
Council of Ephesus in 431, in the Basilica of Fourvière, Lyon

On 19 November, Nestorius, anticipating the ultimatum which was about to be delivered, convinced Emperor Theodosius II to summon a general council through which Nestorius hoped to convict Cyril of heresy and thereby vindicate his own teachings. Theodosius issued a Sacra calling for the metropolitan bishops to assemble in the city of Ephesus, which was a special seat for the veneration of Mary, where the theotokos formula was popular. Each bishop was to bring only his more eminent suffragans. The date set by the Emperor for the opening of the council was Pentecost (7 June) 431.[10]

McGuckin notes that the vagueness of the Sacra resulted in wide variations of interpretation by different bishops. In particular, the vastness of John of Antioch's ecclesiastical territory required a lengthy period to notify and gather his delegates. Because the overland trip from Antioch to Ephesus was long and arduous, John composed his delegation of his metropolitan bishops who were restricted to bring no more than two suffragans each. By doing so, he minimized the number who would have to travel to Ephesus. Neither of the emperors attended the council. Theodosius appointed Count Candidian as the head of the imperial palace guard to represent him, to supervise the proceedings of the Council, and to keep good order in the city of Ephesus. Despite Nestorius' agenda of prosecuting Cyril, Theodosius intended for the council to focus strictly on the christological controversy. He thus gave Candidianus strict directions to remain neutral and not to interfere in the theological proceedings. It is generally assumed that Candidian initially maintained his neutrality as instructed by the emperor and only gradually became more biased towards Nestorius. McGuckin, however, suggests that Candidian may have favored Nestorius from the start.[11][12]

Assembly

Celestine sent Arcadius and Projectus, to represent himself and his Roman council; in addition, he sent the Roman priest, Philip, as his personal representative. Cyril Patriarch of Alexandria was president of the council. Celestine had directed the papal legates not to take part in the discussions, but to give judgment on them.[13]

Bishops arrived in Ephesus over a period of several weeks. While waiting for the other bishops to arrive, they engaged in informal discussions characterized as tending to "exasperate rather than heal their differences".[14] The metropolitan of Ephesus, Memnon, was already present with his 52 bishops. Nestorius and his 16 bishops were the first to arrive shortly after Easter. As archbishop of the imperial city of Constantinople, he traveled with a detachment of troops who were under the command of Count Candidian. McGuckin notes that the troops were not there to serve as Nestorius' bodyguard but to support Candidian in his role as the emperor's representative. However, McGuckin theorizes that Candidian's progressive abandonment of neutrality in favor of Nestorius may have created the perception that Candidian's troops were, in fact, there to support Nestorius.[15] Candidian ordered all monks and lay strangers to leave the city; he further instructed the bishops not to leave on any pretext until the council was concluded.[14] Several sources comment that the purpose of this injunction was to prevent bishops from leaving the council to appeal to the emperor directly.[16]

According to McGuckin, Memnon, as bishop of Ephesus, commanded the "fervent and unquestioned loyalty" of the local populace and thus could count on the support of local factions to counterbalance the military might of Candidian's troops.[17] In view of the verdict of Rome against Nestorius, Memnon refused to have communion with Nestorius, closing the churches of Ephesus to him.[18]

Cyril brought with him 50 bishops, arriving only a few days before Pentecost.[19] There were very few bishops representing the West, as the papal representatives would not arrive until July.[20] The Palestinian delegation of 16 bishops and Metropolitan Flavian of Philippi arrived 5 days after the date that had been set for opening the council, and aligned themselves with Cyril.[20]

At this point, Cyril announced his intention to open the council; however, Candidian enjoined him from doing so on the grounds that the Roman and Antiochean delegations had not arrived yet.[9] Cyril initially acceded to Candidian's injunction knowing that he could not legally convene a council without the official reading of the Emperor's Sacra.[21]

A number of bishops, who were undecided between Nestorius and Cyril, did not want to give Cyril, as one party in the dispute, the right to chair the meeting and decide the agenda;[22] however, they began to take Cyril's side for various reasons.[23]

Various circumstances including a detour necessitated by flooding as well as sickness and death of some of the delegates seriously delayed John of Antioch and his bishops.[24] It was rumored that John might be delaying his arrival in order to avoid participating in a council which was likely to condemn Nestorius as a heretic.[13]

First session – June 22

Two weeks after the date set for the council, John and the bulk of his Syrian group (42 members) had not yet appeared. At this point, Cyril formally opened the council on Monday 22 June by enthroning the Gospels in the centre of the church, as a symbol of Christ's presence among the assembled bishops.[25]

Despite three separate summons, Nestorius refused to acknowledge Cyril's authority to stand in judgment of him and considered the opening of the council before the arrival of the Antiochene contingent as a "flagrant injustice".[9][13] The 68 bishops who opposed opening the council entered the church in protest, arriving with Count Candidian who declared that the assembly was illegal and must disperse.[26] He urged Cyril to wait four more days for the Syrian delegation to arrive.[27] However, since even the bishops opposed to opening the council were now present, Cyril maneuvered Candidian by means of a ruse to read out the text of the Emperor's decree of convocation, which the assembly then acclaimed as recognition of its own legality.[28]

Arrival of the Antiochene delegation

When John of Antioch and his Syrian bishops finally reached Ephesus five days after the council, they met with Candidian who informed them that Cyril had begun a council without them and had ratified Celestine's conviction of Nestorius as a heretic. Angered at having undertaken such a long and arduous journey only to have been pre-empted by actions taken by Cyril's council, John and the Syrian bishops held their own Council with Candidian presiding.[29][30] This council condemned Cyril for espousing the Arian, Apollinarian and Eunomian heresies and condemned Memnon for inciting violence. The bishops at this council deposed both Cyril and Memnon.[9] Initially, the emperor concurred with the actions of John's council but eventually withdrew his concurrence.[citation needed]

Second Session – July 10

The second session was held in Memnon's episcopal residence. Philip, as papal legate, opened the proceedings by commenting that the present question regarding Nestorius had already been decided by Pope Celestine as evidenced by his letter, which had been read to the assembled bishops in the first session. He indicated that he had a second letter from Celestine which was read to the bishops now in attendance. The letter contained a general exhortation to the council, and concluded by saying that the legates had instructions to carry out what the pope had decided on the question and expressed Celestine's confidence that the council would agree. The bishops indicated their approval by acclaiming Celestine and Cyril. Projectus indicated that the papal letter enjoined the council to put into effect the sentence pronounced by Celestine. Firmus, the Exarch of Caesarea in Cappadocia, responded that the pope's sentence had already been carried out in the first session. The session closed with the reading of the pope's letter to the emperor.[13]

Third Session – July 11

Having read the Acts of the first session, the papal legates indicated that all that was required was that the council's condemnation of Nestorius be formally read in their presence. When this had been done, the three legates each confirmed the council's actions, signing the Acts of all three sessions. The council sent a letter to Theodosius indicating that the condemnation of Nestorius had been agreed upon not only by the bishops of the East meeting in Ephesus but also of the bishops of the West who had convened at a synod in Rome convened by Celestine. The bishops asked Theodosius to allow them to go home since so many of them suffered from their presence at Ephesus.[13]

Fourth Session – July 16

At the fourth session, Cyril and Memnon presented a formal protest against John of Antioch for convening a separate conciliabulum. The council issued a summons for him to appear before them, but he would not even receive the envoys who were sent to serve him the summons.[13]

Fifth Session – July 17

Next day the fifth session was held in the same church. John had set up a placard in the city accusing the synod of the Apollinarian heresy. He was again cited, and this was counted as the third canonical summons. He paid no attention. In consequence the council suspended and excommunicated him, together with thirty-four bishops of his party, but refrained from deposing them. Some of John's party had already deserted him, and he had gained only a few. In the letters to the emperor and the pope which were then dispatched, the synod described itself as now consisting of 210 bishops. The long letter to Celestine gave a full account of the council, and mentioned that the pope's decrees against the Pelagians had been read and confirmed.[13]

Sixth Session – July 22

At this session, the bishops approved Canon 7 which condemned any departure from the creed established by the First Council of Nicaea, in particular an exposition by the priest Charisius. According to a report from Cyril to Celestine, Juvenal of Jerusalem tried and failed to create for himself a patriarchate from the territory of the Antiochene patriarchate in which his see lay. He ultimately succeeded in this goal twenty years later at the Council of Chalcedon.[13]

Seventh Session – July 31

At this session, the council approved the claim of the bishops of Cyprus that their see had been anciently and rightly exempt from the jurisdiction of Antioch. The council also passed five canons condemning Nestorius and Caelestius and their followers as heretics and a sixth one decreeing deposition from clerical office or excommunication for those who did not accept the Council's decrees.

Canons and declarations

 
Cyril of Alexandria

Eight canons were passed:

  • Canon 1–5 condemned Nestorius and Caelestius and their followers as heretics
  • Canon 6 decreed deposition from clerical office or excommunication for those who did not accept the Council's decrees
  • Canon 7 condemned any departure from the creed established by the First Council of Nicaea (325), in particular an exposition by the priest Charisius.
  • Canon 8 condemned interference by the Bishop of Antioch in affairs of the Church in Cyprus and decreed generally, that no bishop was to "assume control of any province which has not heretofore, from the very beginning, been under his own hand or that of his predecessors […] lest the Canons of the Fathers be transgressed".[2]

The Council denounced Nestorius' teaching as erroneous and decreed that Jesus was one person (hypostasis), and not two separate persons, yet possessing both a human and divine nature. The Virgin Mary was to be called Theotokos, a Greek word that means "God-bearer" (the one who gave birth to God).

The Council declared it "unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as a rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with the Holy Ghost in Nicæa".[2] It quoted the Nicene Creed as adopted by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, not as added to and modified by the First Council of Constantinople in 381.[31][32][33][34]

Although some scholars, such as Norman Cohn and Peter Toon, have suggested that the Council of Ephesus rejected premillennialism, this is a misconception, and there is no evidence of the Council making any such declaration.[35][36]

Confirmation of the Council's acts

The bishops at Cyril's council outnumbered those at John of Antioch's council by nearly four to one. In addition, they had the agreement of the papal legates and the support of the population of Ephesus who supported their bishop, Memnon.

However, Count Candidian and his troops supported Nestorius as did Count Irenaeus. The emperor had always been a firm supporter of Nestorius, but had been somewhat shaken by the reports of the council. Cyril's group was unable to communicate with the emperor because of interference from supporters of Nestorius both at Constantinople and at Ephesus. Ultimately, a messenger disguised as a beggar was able to carry a letter to Constantinople by hiding it in a hollow cane.

Although Emperor Theodosius had long been a staunch supporter of Nestorius, his loyalty seems to have been shaken by the reports from Cyril's council and caused him to arrive at the extraordinary decision to ratify the depositions decreed by both councils. Thus, he declared that Cyril, Memnon, and John were all deposed. Memnon and Cyril were kept in close confinement. But in spite of all the efforts of the Antiochene party, the representatives of the envoys whom the council was eventually allowed to send, with the legate Philip, to the Court, persuaded the emperor to accept Cyril's council as the true one. Seeing the writing on the wall and anticipating his fate, Nestorius requested permission to retire to his former monastery. The synod was dissolved in the beginning of October, and Cyril arrived amid much joy at Alexandria on 30 October. Pope Celestine had died on July 27 but his successor, Sixtus III, gave papal confirmation to the council's actions.

Aftermath

 
Christological spectrum during the 5th–7th centuries showing the views of The Church of the East (light blue), Miaphysite (light red) and the western churches i.e. Eastern Orthodox and Catholic (light purple)

The events created a major schism between the followers of the different versions of the council, which was only mended by difficult negotiations. The factions that supported John of Antioch acquiesced in the condemnation of Nestorius and, after additional clarifications, accepted the decisions of Cyril's council. However, the rift would open again during the debates leading up to the Council of Chalcedon.

Persia had long been home to a Christian community that had been persecuted by the Zoroastrian majority, which had accused it of Roman leanings. In 424, the Persian Church declared itself independent of the Byzantine and all other churches, in order to ward off allegations of foreign allegiance. Following the Nestorian Schism, the Persian Church increasingly aligned itself with the Nestorians, a measure encouraged by the Zoroastrian ruling class. The Persian Church became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine over the next decades, furthering the divide between Christianity in Persia and in the Roman Empire. In 486 the Metropolitan of Nisibis, Barsauma, publicly accepted Nestorius' mentor, Theodore of Mopsuestia, as a spiritual authority. In 489 when the School of Edessa in Mesopotamia was closed by Byzantine Emperor Zeno for its Nestorian teachings, the school relocated to its original home of Nisibis, becoming again the School of Nisibis, leading to a wave of Nestorian immigration into Persia. The Persian patriarch Mar Babai I (497–502) reiterated and expanded upon the church's esteem for Theodore, solidifying the church's adoption of Nestorianism.[37]

Conciliation

In 1994, the Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East marked the resolution of a dispute between those two churches that had existed since the Council of Ephesus. They expressed their common understanding of doctrine concerning the divinity and humanity of Christ, and recognized the legitimacy and rightness of their respective descriptions of Mary as, on the Assyrian side, "the Mother of Christ our God and Saviour", and, on the Catholic side, as "the Mother of God" and also as "the Mother of Christ".[38]

See also

References

  1. ^ Richard Kieckhefer (1989). "Papacy". Dictionary of the Middle Ages. ISBN 978-0-684-18275-9.
  2. ^ a b c [clarification needed]
    • Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry, eds. (1996) [1890], A select library of Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian church, Second series, vol. VII, Grand Rapids, Michigan, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, ISBN 0-8028-8121-1 – via Internet Archive
    • Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry, eds. (1890–1900), A select library of Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian church, Second Series, vol. 14, The Seven Ecumenical Councils, New York: Christian Literature Co. – via Internet Archive
    • Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry, eds. (1890), "Early Church Fathers: Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers", The Tertullian Project, II
  3. ^ Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson (2004), Mary, Mother of God
  4. ^ McGuckin, p. 12
  5. ^ McGuckin, pp. 19–21
  6. ^ Gabra, Gawdat (2009). The A to Z of the Coptic Church. Scarecrow Press. p. 97.
  7. ^ McGuckin, p. 21
  8. ^ McGuckin, pp. 22–23
  9. ^ a b c d Kelly, Joseph (2009). The ecumenical councils of the Catholic Church: a history. Liturgical Press. ISBN 9780814657034.
  10. ^ McGuckin, pp. 53–54
  11. ^ McGuckin, p. 53
  12. ^ "Saint Cyril of Alexandria and the Council of Ephesus". Retrieved 2011-09-25.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h "Catholic Encyclopedia – Council of Ephesus".
  14. ^ a b Robertson, John Craigie (1854). History of the Christian Church. John Murray. p. 405. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  15. ^ McGuckin, p. 54
  16. ^ Headlam, Arthur Cayley (1892). ""The Council of Ephesus", The Church Quarterly Review, Vol. 33, (Arthur Cayley Headlam, ed.), Spottiswoode, 1892, p. 103".
  17. ^ McGuckin, p. 55
  18. ^ McGuckin, pp. 57–58
  19. ^ McGuckin, pp. 54–56
  20. ^ a b McGuckin, p. 57
  21. ^ McGuckin, p. 78; Nonetheless he must have been acutely aware that he could claim no legal status for his synod under imperial law until the official reading of the Emperor's Sacra had taken place.
  22. ^ McGuckin, p. 60
  23. ^ McGuckin, pp. 60–65
  24. ^ McGuckin, pp. 58–59
  25. ^ McGuckin, p. 77
  26. ^ McGuckin, pp. 77–78
  27. ^ Gibbon. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 115.
  28. ^ McGuckin, p. 79; When Candidian finished reading the Sacra he surely realised the full extent of his mistake. The Bishops acclaimed long life to the Emperor in demonstrative professions of loyalty, but now with the text officially declaimed in the symbolic presence of the whole Episcopal gathering the Synod of Ephesus was in formal session, legally as well as canonically sanctioned.
  29. ^ McGuckin, p. 59
  30. ^ J. B. Bury (1958). History of the later Roman Empire from the death of Theodosius I to the death of Justinian. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 353–. ISBN 978-0-486-20398-0. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  31. ^ "Extracts from the Acts of the Council of Ephesus, The Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius".
  32. ^ Johannes Roldanus, The Church in the Age of Constantine (Taylor & Francis 2006 ISBN 978-0-415-40903-2), p. 140
  33. ^ John Anthony McGuckin (editor), The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Theology (Wiley 2010 ISBN 978-1-4443-9254-8), p. 166
  34. ^ Adrian Fortescue, The Orthodox Eastern Church (Kessinger 2004 reprint ISBN 978-1-4179-1060-1), p. 383
  35. ^ Svigel, Michael J. (2003). "The Phantom Heresy: Did the Council of Ephesus (431) Condemn Chiliasm?". Trinity Journal. 24. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
  36. ^ Gumerlock, Francis X. (2004). "Millennialism and the Early Church Councils: Was Chiliasm Condemned at Constantinople?" (PDF). Fides et Historia. 36: 83–95. (PDF) from the original on 2015-05-08. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
  37. ^ "Nestorian". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 28, 2010.
  38. ^ Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East January 4, 2009, at the Wayback Machine

Sources

  • Bethune-Baker, James F. (1908). Nestorius and His Teaching: A Fresh Examination of the Evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107432987.
  • Grillmeier, Aloys (1975) [1965]. Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon (451) (2nd revised ed.). Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664223014.
  • McGuckin, John A. (1994). St. Cyril of Alexandria: The Christological Controversy: Its History, Theology, and Texts. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004312906.
  • Loon, Hans van (2009). The Dyophysite Christology of Cyril of Alexandria. Leiden-Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-9004173224.
  • Loofs, Friedrich (1914). Nestorius and his Place in the History of Christian Doctrine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107450769.
  • Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 9780881410563.
  • Norris, Richard A., ed. (1980). The Christological Controversy. Minneapolis: Fortess Press. ISBN 9780800614119.
  • Pásztori-Kupán, István (2006). Theodoret of Cyrus. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781134391769.
  • Seleznyov, Nikolai N. (2010). "Nestorius of Constantinople: Condemnation, Suppression, Veneration: With special reference to the role of his name in East-Syriac Christianity". Journal of Eastern Christian Studies. 62 (3–4): 165–190.
  • Wessel, Susan (2004). Cyril of Alexandria and the Nestorian Controversy: The Making of a Saint and of a Heretic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926846-7.

Further reading

External links

  • Medieval Sourcebook: Documents and letters concerning the Council of Ephesus
  • Extracts from the Acts of the council

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This article is about the ecumenical council held in 431 For the two later councils in the same city see Council of Ephesus disambiguation The Council of Ephesus was a council of Christian bishops convened in Ephesus near present day Selcuk in Turkey in AD 431 by the Roman Emperor Theodosius II This third ecumenical council an effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom 1 confirmed the original Nicene Creed 2 and condemned the teachings of Nestorius Patriarch of Constantinople who held that the Virgin Mary may be called the Christotokos Christ bearer but not the Theotokos God bearer It met in June and July 431 at the Church of Mary in Ephesus in Anatolia Council of EphesusImage in the church Notre Dame de Fourvieres France The priest standing right in the middle is Cyril of Alexandria On the throne is the Virgin Mary and child Jesus Date431Accepted byCatholic Church Eastern Orthodox Church Oriental Orthodox Churches Anglican Communion Lutheranism CalvinismPrevious councilFirst Council of ConstantinopleNext councilCouncil of ChalcedonConvoked byEmperor Theodosius IIPresidentCyril of AlexandriaAttendance200 250 papal representatives arrived late TopicsNestorianism Theotokos Pelagianism PremillennialismDocuments and statementsConfirmation of the original Nicene Creed condemnations of heresies declaration of Mary as Theotokos eight canonsChronological list of ecumenical councils Contents 1 Background 2 History 2 1 Political context 2 2 Theological context 2 3 Convocation 2 4 Assembly 2 5 First session June 22 2 6 Arrival of the Antiochene delegation 2 7 Second Session July 10 2 8 Third Session July 11 2 9 Fourth Session July 16 2 10 Fifth Session July 17 2 11 Sixth Session July 22 2 12 Seventh Session July 31 3 Canons and declarations 4 Confirmation of the Council s acts 5 Aftermath 5 1 Conciliation 6 See also 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External linksBackground EditNestorius doctrine Nestorianism which emphasized the distinction between Christ s human and divine natures and argued that Mary should be called Christotokos Christ bearer but not Theotokos God bearer had brought him into conflict with other church leaders most notably Cyril Patriarch of Alexandria Nestorius himself had requested the Emperor to convene the council hoping that it would prove his orthodoxy the council in fact condemned his teachings as heresy The council declared Mary as Theotokos Mother of God 3 Nestorius dispute with Cyril had led the latter to seek validation from Pope Celestine I who offered his support for Cyril to request that Nestorius recant his position or face excommunication Nestorius pleaded with the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II to call a council in which all grievances could be aired hoping that he would be vindicated and Cyril condemned Approximately 250 bishops were present The proceedings were conducted in a heated atmosphere of confrontation and recriminations and created severe tensions between Cyril and Theodosius II Nestorius was decisively outplayed by Cyril and removed from his see and his teachings were officially anathematized This precipitated the Nestorian Schism by which churches supportive of Nestorius especially in the Persian Empire of the Sassanids were severed from the rest of Christendom and became known as Nestorian Christianity or the Church of the East whose present day representatives are the Assyrian Church of the East the Ancient Church of the East the Chaldean Syrian Church and the Chaldean Catholic Church which restored communion with Rome History EditPolitical context Edit John McGuckin cites the innate rivalry between Alexandria and Constantinople as an important factor in the controversy between Cyril of Alexandria and Nestorius 4 However he emphasizes that as much as political competition contributed to an overall climate of dissent the controversy cannot be reduced merely to the level of personality clashes or political antagonisms According to McGuckin Cyril viewed the elevated intellectual argument about christology as ultimately one and the same as the validity and security of the simple Christian life 5 Even within Constantinople some supported the Roman Alexandrian and others supported the Nestorian factions For example Pulcheria supported the Roman Alexandrian popes while the emperor and his wife supported Nestorius 6 Theological context Edit See also Nestorianism Contention over Nestorius teachings which he developed during his studies at the School of Antioch largely revolved around his rejection of the long used title Theotokos Carrier of God for the Virgin Mary Shortly after his arrival in Constantinople Nestorius became involved in the disputes of two theological factions which differed in their Christology McGuckin ascribes Nestorius importance to his being the representative of the Antiochene tradition and characterizes him as a consistent if none too clear exponent of the longstanding Antiochene dogmatic tradition Nestorius was greatly surprised that what he had always taught in Antioch without any controversy whatsoever should prove to be so objectionable to the Christians of Constantinople Nestorius emphasized the dual natures of Christ trying to find a middle ground between those who emphasized the fact that in Christ God had been born as a man and insisted on calling the Virgin Mary Theotokos Greek 8eotokos God bearer and those that rejected that title because God as an eternal being could not have been born Nestorius suggested the title Christotokos Xristotokos Christ bearer but this proposal did not gain acceptance on either side Nestorius tried to answer a question considered unsolved How can Jesus Christ being part man not be partially a sinner as well since man is by definition a sinner since the Fall To solve that he taught that Mary the mother of Jesus gave birth to the incarnate Christ not the divine Logos who existed before Mary and indeed before time itself The Logos occupied the part of the human soul the part of man that was stained by the Fall But wouldn t the absence of a human soul make Jesus less human Nestorius rejected this proposition answering that because the human soul was based on the archetype of the Logos only to become polluted by the Fall Jesus was more human for having the Logos and not less Consequently Nestorius argued that the Virgin Mary should be called Christotokos Greek for Carrier of Christ and not Theotokos Greek for Carrier of God Nestorius believed that no union between the human and divine was possible If such a union of human and divine occurred Nestorius believed that Christ could not truly be consubstantial with God and consubstantial with us because he would grow mature suffer and die which Nestorius argued God cannot do and also would possess the power of God that would separate him from being equal to humans According to McGuckin several mid twentieth century accounts have tended to romanticise Nestorius in opposition to this view he asserts that Nestorius was no less dogmatic and uncompromising than Cyril and that he was clearly just as prepared to use his political and canonical powers as Cyril or any of the other hierarchs of the period 7 Nestorius s opponents charged him with detaching Christ s divinity and humanity into two persons existing in one body thereby denying the reality of the Incarnation Eusebius a layman who later became the bishop of the neighbouring Dorylaeum was the first to accuse Nestorius of heresy but his most forceful opponent was Patriarch Cyril of Alexandria Cyril argued that Nestorianism split Jesus in half and denied that he was both human and divine Cyril appealed to Pope Celestine I charging Nestorius with heresy The Pope agreed and gave Cyril his authority to serve a notice to Nestorius to recant his views within ten days or else be excommunicated Before acting on the Pope s commission Cyril convened a synod of Egyptian bishops which condemned Nestorius as well Cyril then sent four suffragan bishops to deliver both the Pope s commission as well as the synodal letter of the Egyptian bishops Cyril sent a letter to Nestorius known as The Third Epistle of Saint Cyril to Nestorius This epistle drew heavily on the established Patristic Constitutions and contained the most famous article of Alexandrian Orthodoxy The Twelve Anathemas of Saint Cyril In these anathemas Cyril excommunicated anyone who followed the teachings of Nestorius For example Anyone who dares to deny the Holy Virgin the title Theotokos is Anathema Nestorius however still would not repent McGuckin points out that other representatives of the Antiochene tradition such as John of Antioch Theodoret and Andrew of Samosata were able to recognize the point of the argument for Christ s integrity and concede the ill advised nature of Nestorius immoveability 8 Concerned at the potential for a negative result at a council they urged Nestorius to yield and accept the use of the title Theotokos when referring to the Virgin Mary 9 For example John of Antioch wrote to Nestorius urging him to submit to the Pope s judgment and cease stirring up controversy over a word that he disliked Theotokos but which could be interpreted as having an orthodox meaning especially in light of the fact that many saints and doctors of the church had sanctioned the word by using it themselves John wrote to Nestorius Don t lose your head Ten days It will not take you twenty four hours to give the needed answer Ask advice of men you can trust Ask them to tell you the facts not just what they think will please you You have the whole of the East against you as well as Egypt Despite this advice from his colleagues Nestorius persisted in maintaining the rightness of his position Convocation Edit Council of Ephesus in 431 in the Basilica of Fourviere Lyon On 19 November Nestorius anticipating the ultimatum which was about to be delivered convinced Emperor Theodosius II to summon a general council through which Nestorius hoped to convict Cyril of heresy and thereby vindicate his own teachings Theodosius issued a Sacra calling for the metropolitan bishops to assemble in the city of Ephesus which was a special seat for the veneration of Mary where the theotokos formula was popular Each bishop was to bring only his more eminent suffragans The date set by the Emperor for the opening of the council was Pentecost 7 June 431 10 McGuckin notes that the vagueness of the Sacra resulted in wide variations of interpretation by different bishops In particular the vastness of John of Antioch s ecclesiastical territory required a lengthy period to notify and gather his delegates Because the overland trip from Antioch to Ephesus was long and arduous John composed his delegation of his metropolitan bishops who were restricted to bring no more than two suffragans each By doing so he minimized the number who would have to travel to Ephesus Neither of the emperors attended the council Theodosius appointed Count Candidian as the head of the imperial palace guard to represent him to supervise the proceedings of the Council and to keep good order in the city of Ephesus Despite Nestorius agenda of prosecuting Cyril Theodosius intended for the council to focus strictly on the christological controversy He thus gave Candidianus strict directions to remain neutral and not to interfere in the theological proceedings It is generally assumed that Candidian initially maintained his neutrality as instructed by the emperor and only gradually became more biased towards Nestorius McGuckin however suggests that Candidian may have favored Nestorius from the start 11 12 Assembly Edit Celestine sent Arcadius and Projectus to represent himself and his Roman council in addition he sent the Roman priest Philip as his personal representative Cyril Patriarch of Alexandria was president of the council Celestine had directed the papal legates not to take part in the discussions but to give judgment on them 13 Bishops arrived in Ephesus over a period of several weeks While waiting for the other bishops to arrive they engaged in informal discussions characterized as tending to exasperate rather than heal their differences 14 The metropolitan of Ephesus Memnon was already present with his 52 bishops Nestorius and his 16 bishops were the first to arrive shortly after Easter As archbishop of the imperial city of Constantinople he traveled with a detachment of troops who were under the command of Count Candidian McGuckin notes that the troops were not there to serve as Nestorius bodyguard but to support Candidian in his role as the emperor s representative However McGuckin theorizes that Candidian s progressive abandonment of neutrality in favor of Nestorius may have created the perception that Candidian s troops were in fact there to support Nestorius 15 Candidian ordered all monks and lay strangers to leave the city he further instructed the bishops not to leave on any pretext until the council was concluded 14 Several sources comment that the purpose of this injunction was to prevent bishops from leaving the council to appeal to the emperor directly 16 According to McGuckin Memnon as bishop of Ephesus commanded the fervent and unquestioned loyalty of the local populace and thus could count on the support of local factions to counterbalance the military might of Candidian s troops 17 In view of the verdict of Rome against Nestorius Memnon refused to have communion with Nestorius closing the churches of Ephesus to him 18 Cyril brought with him 50 bishops arriving only a few days before Pentecost 19 There were very few bishops representing the West as the papal representatives would not arrive until July 20 The Palestinian delegation of 16 bishops and Metropolitan Flavian of Philippi arrived 5 days after the date that had been set for opening the council and aligned themselves with Cyril 20 At this point Cyril announced his intention to open the council however Candidian enjoined him from doing so on the grounds that the Roman and Antiochean delegations had not arrived yet 9 Cyril initially acceded to Candidian s injunction knowing that he could not legally convene a council without the official reading of the Emperor s Sacra 21 A number of bishops who were undecided between Nestorius and Cyril did not want to give Cyril as one party in the dispute the right to chair the meeting and decide the agenda 22 however they began to take Cyril s side for various reasons 23 Various circumstances including a detour necessitated by flooding as well as sickness and death of some of the delegates seriously delayed John of Antioch and his bishops 24 It was rumored that John might be delaying his arrival in order to avoid participating in a council which was likely to condemn Nestorius as a heretic 13 First session June 22 Edit Two weeks after the date set for the council John and the bulk of his Syrian group 42 members had not yet appeared At this point Cyril formally opened the council on Monday 22 June by enthroning the Gospels in the centre of the church as a symbol of Christ s presence among the assembled bishops 25 Despite three separate summons Nestorius refused to acknowledge Cyril s authority to stand in judgment of him and considered the opening of the council before the arrival of the Antiochene contingent as a flagrant injustice 9 13 The 68 bishops who opposed opening the council entered the church in protest arriving with Count Candidian who declared that the assembly was illegal and must disperse 26 He urged Cyril to wait four more days for the Syrian delegation to arrive 27 However since even the bishops opposed to opening the council were now present Cyril maneuvered Candidian by means of a ruse to read out the text of the Emperor s decree of convocation which the assembly then acclaimed as recognition of its own legality 28 Arrival of the Antiochene delegation Edit When John of Antioch and his Syrian bishops finally reached Ephesus five days after the council they met with Candidian who informed them that Cyril had begun a council without them and had ratified Celestine s conviction of Nestorius as a heretic Angered at having undertaken such a long and arduous journey only to have been pre empted by actions taken by Cyril s council John and the Syrian bishops held their own Council with Candidian presiding 29 30 This council condemned Cyril for espousing the Arian Apollinarian and Eunomian heresies and condemned Memnon for inciting violence The bishops at this council deposed both Cyril and Memnon 9 Initially the emperor concurred with the actions of John s council but eventually withdrew his concurrence citation needed Second Session July 10 Edit The second session was held in Memnon s episcopal residence Philip as papal legate opened the proceedings by commenting that the present question regarding Nestorius had already been decided by Pope Celestine as evidenced by his letter which had been read to the assembled bishops in the first session He indicated that he had a second letter from Celestine which was read to the bishops now in attendance The letter contained a general exhortation to the council and concluded by saying that the legates had instructions to carry out what the pope had decided on the question and expressed Celestine s confidence that the council would agree The bishops indicated their approval by acclaiming Celestine and Cyril Projectus indicated that the papal letter enjoined the council to put into effect the sentence pronounced by Celestine Firmus the Exarch of Caesarea in Cappadocia responded that the pope s sentence had already been carried out in the first session The session closed with the reading of the pope s letter to the emperor 13 Third Session July 11 Edit Having read the Acts of the first session the papal legates indicated that all that was required was that the council s condemnation of Nestorius be formally read in their presence When this had been done the three legates each confirmed the council s actions signing the Acts of all three sessions The council sent a letter to Theodosius indicating that the condemnation of Nestorius had been agreed upon not only by the bishops of the East meeting in Ephesus but also of the bishops of the West who had convened at a synod in Rome convened by Celestine The bishops asked Theodosius to allow them to go home since so many of them suffered from their presence at Ephesus 13 Fourth Session July 16 Edit At the fourth session Cyril and Memnon presented a formal protest against John of Antioch for convening a separate conciliabulum The council issued a summons for him to appear before them but he would not even receive the envoys who were sent to serve him the summons 13 Fifth Session July 17 Edit Next day the fifth session was held in the same church John had set up a placard in the city accusing the synod of the Apollinarian heresy He was again cited and this was counted as the third canonical summons He paid no attention In consequence the council suspended and excommunicated him together with thirty four bishops of his party but refrained from deposing them Some of John s party had already deserted him and he had gained only a few In the letters to the emperor and the pope which were then dispatched the synod described itself as now consisting of 210 bishops The long letter to Celestine gave a full account of the council and mentioned that the pope s decrees against the Pelagians had been read and confirmed 13 Sixth Session July 22 Edit At this session the bishops approved Canon 7 which condemned any departure from the creed established by the First Council of Nicaea in particular an exposition by the priest Charisius According to a report from Cyril to Celestine Juvenal of Jerusalem tried and failed to create for himself a patriarchate from the territory of the Antiochene patriarchate in which his see lay He ultimately succeeded in this goal twenty years later at the Council of Chalcedon 13 Seventh Session July 31 Edit At this session the council approved the claim of the bishops of Cyprus that their see had been anciently and rightly exempt from the jurisdiction of Antioch The council also passed five canons condemning Nestorius and Caelestius and their followers as heretics and a sixth one decreeing deposition from clerical office or excommunication for those who did not accept the Council s decrees Canons and declarations Edit Cyril of Alexandria Eight canons were passed Canon 1 5 condemned Nestorius and Caelestius and their followers as heretics Canon 6 decreed deposition from clerical office or excommunication for those who did not accept the Council s decrees Canon 7 condemned any departure from the creed established by the First Council of Nicaea 325 in particular an exposition by the priest Charisius Canon 8 condemned interference by the Bishop of Antioch in affairs of the Church in Cyprus and decreed generally that no bishop was to assume control of any province which has not heretofore from the very beginning been under his own hand or that of his predecessors lest the Canons of the Fathers be transgressed 2 The Council denounced Nestorius teaching as erroneous and decreed that Jesus was one person hypostasis and not two separate persons yet possessing both a human and divine nature The Virgin Mary was to be called Theotokos a Greek word that means God bearer the one who gave birth to God The Council declared it unlawful for any man to bring forward or to write or to compose a different ἑteran Faith as a rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with the Holy Ghost in Nicaea 2 It quoted the Nicene Creed as adopted by the First Council of Nicaea in 325 not as added to and modified by the First Council of Constantinople in 381 31 32 33 34 Although some scholars such as Norman Cohn and Peter Toon have suggested that the Council of Ephesus rejected premillennialism this is a misconception and there is no evidence of the Council making any such declaration 35 36 Confirmation of the Council s acts EditThe bishops at Cyril s council outnumbered those at John of Antioch s council by nearly four to one In addition they had the agreement of the papal legates and the support of the population of Ephesus who supported their bishop Memnon However Count Candidian and his troops supported Nestorius as did Count Irenaeus The emperor had always been a firm supporter of Nestorius but had been somewhat shaken by the reports of the council Cyril s group was unable to communicate with the emperor because of interference from supporters of Nestorius both at Constantinople and at Ephesus Ultimately a messenger disguised as a beggar was able to carry a letter to Constantinople by hiding it in a hollow cane Although Emperor Theodosius had long been a staunch supporter of Nestorius his loyalty seems to have been shaken by the reports from Cyril s council and caused him to arrive at the extraordinary decision to ratify the depositions decreed by both councils Thus he declared that Cyril Memnon and John were all deposed Memnon and Cyril were kept in close confinement But in spite of all the efforts of the Antiochene party the representatives of the envoys whom the council was eventually allowed to send with the legate Philip to the Court persuaded the emperor to accept Cyril s council as the true one Seeing the writing on the wall and anticipating his fate Nestorius requested permission to retire to his former monastery The synod was dissolved in the beginning of October and Cyril arrived amid much joy at Alexandria on 30 October Pope Celestine had died on July 27 but his successor Sixtus III gave papal confirmation to the council s actions Aftermath EditFurther information Church of the East Christological spectrum during the 5th 7th centuries showing the views of The Church of the East light blue Miaphysite light red and the western churches i e Eastern Orthodox and Catholic light purple The events created a major schism between the followers of the different versions of the council which was only mended by difficult negotiations The factions that supported John of Antioch acquiesced in the condemnation of Nestorius and after additional clarifications accepted the decisions of Cyril s council However the rift would open again during the debates leading up to the Council of Chalcedon Persia had long been home to a Christian community that had been persecuted by the Zoroastrian majority which had accused it of Roman leanings In 424 the Persian Church declared itself independent of the Byzantine and all other churches in order to ward off allegations of foreign allegiance Following the Nestorian Schism the Persian Church increasingly aligned itself with the Nestorians a measure encouraged by the Zoroastrian ruling class The Persian Church became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine over the next decades furthering the divide between Christianity in Persia and in the Roman Empire In 486 the Metropolitan of Nisibis Barsauma publicly accepted Nestorius mentor Theodore of Mopsuestia as a spiritual authority In 489 when the School of Edessa in Mesopotamia was closed by Byzantine Emperor Zeno for its Nestorian teachings the school relocated to its original home of Nisibis becoming again the School of Nisibis leading to a wave of Nestorian immigration into Persia The Persian patriarch Mar Babai I 497 502 reiterated and expanded upon the church s esteem for Theodore solidifying the church s adoption of Nestorianism 37 Conciliation Edit In 1994 the Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East marked the resolution of a dispute between those two churches that had existed since the Council of Ephesus They expressed their common understanding of doctrine concerning the divinity and humanity of Christ and recognized the legitimacy and rightness of their respective descriptions of Mary as on the Assyrian side the Mother of Christ our God and Saviour and on the Catholic side as the Mother of God and also as the Mother of Christ 38 See also EditMarian devotions Second Council of Nicaea 787 last of the 7 ecumenical councils affirmed a three level hierarchy of worship that apply to God the Virgin Mary and then to the other saintsReferences Edit Richard Kieckhefer 1989 Papacy Dictionary of the Middle Ages ISBN 978 0 684 18275 9 a b c clarification needed Schaff Philip Wace Henry eds 1996 1890 A select library of Nicene and post Nicene fathers of the Christian church Second series vol VII Grand Rapids Michigan MI Wm B Eerdmans ISBN 0 8028 8121 1 via Internet Archive Schaff Philip Wace Henry eds 1890 1900 A select library of Nicene and post Nicene fathers of the Christian church Second Series vol 14 The Seven Ecumenical Councils New York Christian Literature Co via Internet Archive Schaff Philip Wace Henry eds 1890 Early Church Fathers Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers The Tertullian Project II Carl E Braaten and Robert W Jenson 2004 Mary Mother of God McGuckin p 12 McGuckin pp 19 21 Gabra Gawdat 2009 The A to Z of the Coptic Church Scarecrow Press p 97 McGuckin p 21 McGuckin pp 22 23 a b c d Kelly Joseph 2009 The ecumenical councils of the Catholic Church a history Liturgical Press ISBN 9780814657034 McGuckin pp 53 54 McGuckin p 53 Saint Cyril of Alexandria and the Council of Ephesus Retrieved 2011 09 25 a b c d e f g h Catholic Encyclopedia Council of Ephesus a b Robertson John Craigie 1854 History of the Christian Church John Murray p 405 Retrieved 9 November 2015 McGuckin p 54 Headlam Arthur Cayley 1892 The Council of Ephesus The Church Quarterly Review Vol 33 Arthur Cayley Headlam ed Spottiswoode 1892 p 103 McGuckin p 55 McGuckin pp 57 58 McGuckin pp 54 56 a b McGuckin p 57 McGuckin p 78 Nonetheless he must have been acutely aware that he could claim no legal status for his synod under imperial law until the official reading of the Emperor s Sacra had taken place McGuckin p 60 McGuckin pp 60 65 McGuckin pp 58 59 McGuckin p 77 McGuckin pp 77 78 Gibbon The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire p 115 McGuckin p 79 When Candidian finished reading the Sacra he surely realised the full extent of his mistake The Bishops acclaimed long life to the Emperor in demonstrative professions of loyalty but now with the text officially declaimed in the symbolic presence of the whole Episcopal gathering the Synod of Ephesus was in formal session legally as well as canonically sanctioned McGuckin p 59 J B Bury 1958 History of the later Roman Empire from the death of Theodosius I to the death of Justinian Courier Dover Publications pp 353 ISBN 978 0 486 20398 0 Retrieved 8 October 2011 Extracts from the Acts of the Council of Ephesus The Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius Johannes Roldanus The Church in the Age of Constantine Taylor amp Francis 2006 ISBN 978 0 415 40903 2 p 140 John Anthony McGuckin editor The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Theology Wiley 2010 ISBN 978 1 4443 9254 8 p 166 Adrian Fortescue The Orthodox Eastern Church Kessinger 2004 reprint ISBN 978 1 4179 1060 1 p 383 Svigel Michael J 2003 The Phantom Heresy Did the Council of Ephesus 431 Condemn Chiliasm Trinity Journal 24 Retrieved 30 May 2020 Gumerlock Francis X 2004 Millennialism and the Early Church Councils Was Chiliasm Condemned at Constantinople PDF Fides et Historia 36 83 95 Archived PDF from the original on 2015 05 08 Retrieved 30 May 2020 Nestorian Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved January 28 2010 Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East Archived January 4 2009 at the Wayback MachineSources EditBethune Baker James F 1908 Nestorius and His Teaching A Fresh Examination of the Evidence Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781107432987 Grillmeier Aloys 1975 1965 Christ in Christian Tradition From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon 451 2nd revised ed Louisville Westminster John Knox Press ISBN 9780664223014 McGuckin John A 1994 St Cyril of Alexandria The Christological Controversy Its History Theology and Texts Leiden Brill ISBN 9789004312906 Loon Hans van 2009 The Dyophysite Christology of Cyril of Alexandria Leiden Boston Brill ISBN 978 9004173224 Loofs Friedrich 1914 Nestorius and his Place in the History of Christian Doctrine Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781107450769 Meyendorff John 1989 Imperial unity and Christian divisions The Church 450 680 A D Crestwood NY St Vladimir s Seminary Press ISBN 9780881410563 Norris Richard A ed 1980 The Christological Controversy Minneapolis Fortess Press ISBN 9780800614119 Pasztori Kupan Istvan 2006 Theodoret of Cyrus London amp New York Routledge ISBN 9781134391769 Seleznyov Nikolai N 2010 Nestorius of Constantinople Condemnation Suppression Veneration With special reference to the role of his name in East Syriac Christianity Journal of Eastern Christian Studies 62 3 4 165 190 Wessel Susan 2004 Cyril of Alexandria and the Nestorian Controversy The Making of a Saint and of a Heretic Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 926846 7 Further reading EditSt Cyril the Archbishop of Alexandria Life of the Saint Troparion and Kontakion OCA 0220 and 1595 Catholic Encyclopedia Ephesus Council ofExternal links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Council of Ephesus Eight canons promulgated by the Council of Ephesus Medieval Sourcebook Documents and letters concerning the Council of Ephesus Extracts from the Acts of the council Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Council of Ephesus amp oldid 1151929107, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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