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Cephalic index

December 07, 2023

Not to be confused with encephalization.

The cephalic index or cranial index is a number obtained by taking the maximum width (biparietal diameter or BPD, side to side) of the head of an organism, multiplying it by 100 and then dividing it by their maximum length (occipitofrontal diameter or OFD, front to back). The index was once used to categorize human beings in the first half of the 20th century, but today it is used to categorize dogs and cats.

Cephalic index viewed from above the head

Historic use in anthropology edit

Early anthropology edit

 
1898 Cephalic index map of Eastern Europe

The cephalic index was used by anthropologists in the early 20th century as a tool categorize human populations. It was used to describe an individual's appearance and for estimating the age of fetuses for legal and obstetrical reasons.

The cephalic index was defined by Swedish professor of anatomy Anders Retzius (1796–1860) and first used in physical anthropology to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. The theory became closely associated with the development of racial anthropology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when historians attempted to use ancient remains to model population movements in terms of racial categories. American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon also used the index in the 1960s, by which time it had been largely discredited.

 
Cephalic indexes of skull shapes. Long skull (left) – cephalic index 71.4; tall skull (center) – cephalic index 81; broad skull (right) – cephalic index 85

In the cephalic index model, human beings were characterized by having either a dolichocephalic (long-headed), mesaticephalic (moderate-headed), or brachycephalic (short-headed) cephalic index or cranial index.

 
The children of the Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in June 1917, with loss of hair after fighting measles: among them, Tatiana had the skull with least cephalic index.

Indices edit

 
1896 World cephalic index map

Cephalic indices are grouped as in the following table:

Females Males Scientific term Meaning Alternative term
< 75 < 75.9 dolichocephalic 'long-headed'
75 to 83 76 to 81 mesaticephalic 'medium-headed' mesocephalic; mesocranial
> 83 > 81.1 brachycephalic 'short-headed' brachycranial

Technically, the measured factors are defined as the maximum width of the bones that surround the head above the supramastoid crest (behind the cheekbones), and the maximum length from the most easily noticed part of the glabella (between the eyebrows) to the most easily noticed point on the back part of the head.

Controversy edit

The usefulness of the cephalic index was questioned by Giuseppe Sergi, who argued that cranial morphology provided a better means to model racial ancestry.[1] Also, Franz Boas studied the children of immigrants to the United States in 1910 to 1912, noting that the children's cephalic index differed significantly from their parents', implying that local environmental conditions had a significant effect on the development of head shape.[2]

Boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a single generation, then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race and mapping ancestral populations. Scholars such as Earnest Hooton continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved. Boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic.

In 2002, a paper by Sparks and Jantz re-evaluated some of Boas's original data using new statistical techniques and concluded that there was a "relatively high genetic component" of head shape.[3] Ralph Holloway of Columbia University argues that the new research raises questions about whether the variations in skull shape have "adaptive meaning and whether, in fact, normalizing selection might be at work on the trait, where both extremes, hyperdolichocephaly and hyperbrachycephaly, are at a slight selective disadvantage."[2]

In 2003, anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that most of Boas's original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity.[4] In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks's and Jantz's analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims, and that Sparks's and Jantz's data support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas's method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor.[4]

Jantz and Sparks responded to Gravlee et al., reiterating that Boas' findings lacked biological meaning, and that the interpretation of Boas' results common in the literature was biologically inaccurate.[5] In a later study, the same authors concluded that the effects Boas observed were likely the result of population-specific environmental effects such as changes in cultural practices for cradling infants, rather than the effects of a general "American environment" which caused populations in America to converge to a common cranial type, as Boas had suggested.[6][7]

Vertical cephalic index edit

The vertical cephalic index, also known as the length-height index, was a less-commonly measured head ratio.[8][9] In the vertical cephalic index model, humans beings were characterized by having either a chamaecranic (low-skulled), orthocranic (medium high-skulled), or hypsicranic (high-skulled) cephalic index or cranial index.

Medicine edit

The cephalic index is also used in medicine, especially in the planning and effectiveness analysis of cranial deformity corrections.[10] The index is a useful tool in assessing the morphology of cranial deformities in clinical settings.[11] The index is used while looking at the fetal head shape, and can change in certain situations (ex. breech presentation, ruptured membranes, twin pregnancy).[12]

Modern use in animal breeding edit

The cephalic index is used in the categorisation of animals, especially breeds of dogs and cats.

Brachycephalic animals edit

 
Brachycephalic French Bulldog, with visible indications of laboured breathing.
 
English Bulldog: Left: 1900–1920. Middle: Switzerland-Champion *1963 †1971. Right: Female *1985 †1993.
 
Craniofacial angle of a Boxer

A brachycephalic skull is relatively broad and short (typically with the breadth at least 80% of the length). Dog breeds such as the pug are sometimes classified as "extreme brachycephalic".[13] Because of the health issues brachycephaly is regarded as torture breeding[14][15][16][17] as it often leads to the brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome.

List of brachycephalic dogs edit

 
Breeds with less extreme brachycephalia, such as the Boxer, have less compromised thermoregulation and thus are more tolerant of vigorous exercise and heat.

[18]

List of brachycephalic cats edit

 
An Exotic Shorthair

[19][20]

List of brachycephalic pigs edit

[21]

List of brachycephalic rabbits edit

[21][22]

Other edit

Mesaticephalic animals edit

 
Mesocephalic Labrador Retriever

A mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. Mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. When dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not "mesocephalic", but rather "mesaticephalic", which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity. The breeds below exemplify this category.[23][24]

List of mesaticephalic canines edit

List of mesaticephalic cats edit

Note: Almost all felines are mesaticephalic

List of mesaticephalic rabbits edit

Other edit

Dolichocephalic animals edit

 
Dolichocephalic Borzoi

A dolichocephalic skull is relatively long-headed (typically with the breadth less than 80% or 75% of the length).

List of dolichocephalic canids edit

List of dolichocephalic felines edit

List of dolichocephalic leporids edit

Other edit

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Killgrove K (2005). (PDF) (Masters thesis). UNC Chapel Hill. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 March 2012.
  2. ^ a b Holloway RL (November 2002). "Head to head with Boas: did he err on the plasticity of head form?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (23): 14622–3. Bibcode:2002PNAS...9914622H. doi:10.1073/pnas.242622399. PMC 137467. PMID 12419854.
  3. ^ Sparks CS, Jantz RL (November 2002). "A reassessment of human cranial plasticity: Boas revisited". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (23): 14636–14639. Bibcode:2002PNAS...9914636S. doi:10.1073/pnas.222389599. PMC 137471. PMID 12374854.. See also the discussion in Holloway RL (November 2002). "Head to head with Boas: did he err on the plasticity of head form?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (23): 14622–14623. Bibcode:2002PNAS...9914622H. doi:10.1073/pnas.242622399. PMC 137467. PMID 12419854.
  4. ^ a b Gravlee CC, Bernard HR, Leonard WR (March 2003). (PDF). American Anthropologist. 105 (1): 125–138. doi:10.1525/aa.2003.105.1.125. hdl:2027.42/65137. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 July 2014. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
  5. ^ Sparks CS, Jantz RL (2003). "Changing Times, Changing Faces: Franz Boas's Immigrant Study in Modern Perspective". American Anthropologist. 105 (2): 333–337. doi:10.1525/aa.2003.105.2.333.
  6. ^ Jantz RL, Logan MH (2010). "Why does head form change in children of immigrants? A reappraisal". American Journal of Human Biology. 22 (5): 702–707. doi:10.1002/ajhb.21070. PMID 20737620. S2CID 12686512.
  7. ^ Spradley MK, Weisensee K (2017). "Ancestry Estimation: The Importance, The History, and The Practice". In Langley NR, Tersigni-Tarrant MT (eds.). Forensic Anthropology: A Comprehensive Introduction (Second ed.). CRC Press. pp. 165–166. ISBN 978-1-4987-3612-1.
  8. ^ https://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/length-height%20index. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  9. ^ Chandrashekhar, Chikatapu; Salve, Vishal Manoharrao (2013). "The Study of Vertical Cephalic Index (Length-Height Index) and Transverse Cephalic Index (Breadth-Height Index) of Andhra Region (India)". Asian Journal of Medical Sciences. 3 (3): 6–11. doi:10.3126/ajms.v3i3.4650.
  10. ^ Likus, Wirginia; Bajor, Grzegorz; Gruszczynska, Katrzyna; Baron, Jan; Markowski, Jaroslaw; Machnikowska-Sokolowska, Magdalena; Milka, Daniela; Lepich, Tomasz (4 February 2014). "Cephalic Index in the First Three Years of Life: Study of Children with Normal Brain Development Based on Computed Tomography". TheScientificWorldJournal. 2014: 502836. doi:10.1155/2014/502836. PMC 3933399. PMID 24688395.
  11. ^ Nam, Heesung; Han, Nami; Eom, Mi Ja; Kook, Minjung; Kim, Jeeyoung (30 April 2021). "Cephalic Index of Korean Children With Normal Brain Development During the First 7 Years of Life Based on Computed Tomography". Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine. 45 (2): 141–149. doi:10.5535/arm.20235. ISSN 2234-0645. PMC 8137378. PMID 33985316.
  12. ^ Weerakkody, Yuranga. "Cephalic index | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org". Radiopaedia. Retrieved 6 April 2023.
  13. ^ "Brachycephalic Health". www.thekennelclub.org.uk. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
  14. ^ FOUR PAWS International: The suffering of dogs with genetic disorders
  15. ^ Anne Fawcett, Vanessa Barrs, Magdoline Awad et al.: Consequences and Management of Canine Brachycephaly in Veterinary Practice: Perspectives from Australian Veterinarians and Veterinary Specialists
  16. ^ Border Wars: Torture breeding
  17. ^ FECAVA: Brachycephalic issues: shared resources
  18. ^ Lowrey, Sassafras (10 June 2022). "Brachycephalic Dog Breeds: A Guide to Flat-Faced Dogs". American Kennel Club. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
  19. ^ "Brachycephalic Breeds of Cats | ASPCA Pet Health Insurance". www.aspcapetinsurance.com. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  20. ^ "Breathing Problems in Flat-faced Cat Breeds | Purina". www.purina-arabia.com. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  21. ^ a b Geiger M, Schoenebeck JJ, Schneider RA, Schmidt MJ, Fischer MS, Sánchez-Villagra MR (14 August 2021). "Exceptional Changes in Skeletal Anatomy under Domestication: The Case of Brachycephaly". Integrative Organismal Biology. 3 (1): obab023. doi:10.1093/iob/obab023. PMC 8366567. PMID 34409262.
  22. ^ "Brachy breeds – not just dogs! Rabbits too". 24 March 2017.
  23. ^ Evans HE (1994). Miller's Anatomy of the Dog (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. p. 132. ISBN 9780721632001. OCLC 827702042.
  24. ^ mesaticephalic. 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2019 – via The Free Dictionary. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |work= ignored (help)

External links edit

 
Look up cephalic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Cephalic Index".
  • Brachycephalic Experienced Veterinarians Database 30 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine

December 07, 2023
cephalic, index, confused, with, encephalization, cephalic, index, cranial, index, number, obtained, taking, maximum, width, biparietal, diameter, side, side, head, organism, multiplying, then, dividing, their, maximum, length, occipitofrontal, diameter, front. Not to be confused with encephalization The cephalic index or cranial index is a number obtained by taking the maximum width biparietal diameter or BPD side to side of the head of an organism multiplying it by 100 and then dividing it by their maximum length occipitofrontal diameter or OFD front to back The index was once used to categorize human beings in the first half of the 20th century but today it is used to categorize dogs and cats Cephalic index viewed from above the head Contents 1 Historic use in anthropology 1 1 Early anthropology 1 2 Indices 1 3 Controversy 2 Vertical cephalic index 3 Medicine 4 Modern use in animal breeding 4 1 Brachycephalic animals 4 1 1 List of brachycephalic dogs 4 1 2 List of brachycephalic cats 4 1 3 List of brachycephalic pigs 4 1 4 List of brachycephalic rabbits 4 1 5 Other 4 2 Mesaticephalic animals 4 2 1 List of mesaticephalic canines 4 2 2 List of mesaticephalic cats 4 2 3 List of mesaticephalic rabbits 4 2 4 Other 4 3 Dolichocephalic animals 4 3 1 List of dolichocephalic canids 4 3 2 List of dolichocephalic felines 4 3 3 List of dolichocephalic leporids 4 3 4 Other 5 See also 6 References 7 External linksHistoric use in anthropology editEarly anthropology edit nbsp 1898 Cephalic index map of Eastern EuropeThe cephalic index was used by anthropologists in the early 20th century as a tool categorize human populations It was used to describe an individual s appearance and for estimating the age of fetuses for legal and obstetrical reasons The cephalic index was defined by Swedish professor of anatomy Anders Retzius 1796 1860 and first used in physical anthropology to classify ancient human remains found in Europe The theory became closely associated with the development of racial anthropology in the 19th and early 20th centuries when historians attempted to use ancient remains to model population movements in terms of racial categories American anthropologist Carleton S Coon also used the index in the 1960s by which time it had been largely discredited nbsp Cephalic indexes of skull shapes Long skull left cephalic index 71 4 tall skull center cephalic index 81 broad skull right cephalic index 85In the cephalic index model human beings were characterized by having either a dolichocephalic long headed mesaticephalic moderate headed or brachycephalic short headed cephalic index or cranial index nbsp The children of the Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in June 1917 with loss of hair after fighting measles among them Tatiana had the skull with least cephalic index Indices edit nbsp 1896 World cephalic index mapCephalic indices are grouped as in the following table Females Males Scientific term Meaning Alternative term lt 75 lt 75 9 dolichocephalic long headed 75 to 83 76 to 81 mesaticephalic medium headed mesocephalic mesocranial gt 83 gt 81 1 brachycephalic short headed brachycranialTechnically the measured factors are defined as the maximum width of the bones that surround the head above the supramastoid crest behind the cheekbones and the maximum length from the most easily noticed part of the glabella between the eyebrows to the most easily noticed point on the back part of the head Controversy edit The usefulness of the cephalic index was questioned by Giuseppe Sergi who argued that cranial morphology provided a better means to model racial ancestry 1 Also Franz Boas studied the children of immigrants to the United States in 1910 to 1912 noting that the children s cephalic index differed significantly from their parents implying that local environmental conditions had a significant effect on the development of head shape 2 Boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a single generation then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race and mapping ancestral populations Scholars such as Earnest Hooton continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved Boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic In 2002 a paper by Sparks and Jantz re evaluated some of Boas s original data using new statistical techniques and concluded that there was a relatively high genetic component of head shape 3 Ralph Holloway of Columbia University argues that the new research raises questions about whether the variations in skull shape have adaptive meaning and whether in fact normalizing selection might be at work on the trait where both extremes hyperdolichocephaly and hyperbrachycephaly are at a slight selective disadvantage 2 In 2003 anthropologists Clarence C Gravlee H Russell Bernard and William R Leonard reanalyzed Boas s data and concluded that most of Boas s original findings were correct Moreover they applied new statistical computer assisted methods to Boas s data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity 4 In a later publication Gravlee Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks s and Jantz s analysis They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas s claims and that Sparks s and Jantz s data support Boas For example they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment Boas however looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States They argue that Boas s method is more useful because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor 4 Jantz and Sparks responded to Gravlee et al reiterating that Boas findings lacked biological meaning and that the interpretation of Boas results common in the literature was biologically inaccurate 5 In a later study the same authors concluded that the effects Boas observed were likely the result of population specific environmental effects such as changes in cultural practices for cradling infants rather than the effects of a general American environment which caused populations in America to converge to a common cranial type as Boas had suggested 6 7 Vertical cephalic index editThe vertical cephalic index also known as the length height index was a less commonly measured head ratio 8 9 In the vertical cephalic index model humans beings were characterized by having either a chamaecranic low skulled orthocranic medium high skulled or hypsicranic high skulled cephalic index or cranial index Medicine editThe cephalic index is also used in medicine especially in the planning and effectiveness analysis of cranial deformity corrections 10 The index is a useful tool in assessing the morphology of cranial deformities in clinical settings 11 The index is used while looking at the fetal head shape and can change in certain situations ex breech presentation ruptured membranes twin pregnancy 12 Modern use in animal breeding editThe cephalic index is used in the categorisation of animals especially breeds of dogs and cats Brachycephalic animals edit nbsp Brachycephalic French Bulldog with visible indications of laboured breathing nbsp English Bulldog Left 1900 1920 Middle Switzerland Champion 1963 1971 Right Female 1985 1993 nbsp Craniofacial angle of a BoxerA brachycephalic skull is relatively broad and short typically with the breadth at least 80 of the length Dog breeds such as the pug are sometimes classified as extreme brachycephalic 13 Because of the health issues brachycephaly is regarded as torture breeding 14 15 16 17 as it often leads to the brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome List of brachycephalic dogs edit nbsp Breeds with less extreme brachycephalia such as the Boxer have less compromised thermoregulation and thus are more tolerant of vigorous exercise and heat 18 Affenpinscher American Bulldog American Bully Boston Terrier Boxer Brussels Griffon Bulldog Bullmastiff Cane Corso Cavalier King Charles Spaniel Apple headed Chihuahua Chow Chow Dogo Argentino Dogue de Bordeaux English Mastiff English Bulldog Fila Brasileiro French Bulldog Japanese Chin King Charles Spaniel Lhasa Apso Lowchen Neapolitan Mastiff Newfoundland Olde English Bulldogge Pekingese Perro de Presa Canario Pit bull Pug Pyrenean Mastiff Shar Pei Shih Tzu Tibetan Spaniel Tosa List of brachycephalic cats edit nbsp An Exotic Shorthair 19 20 British Shorthair Burmese cat Exotic Shorthair Himalayan cat Persian cat Scottish Fold White tiger List of brachycephalic pigs edit 21 Middle White NeijiangList of brachycephalic rabbits edit 21 22 Lionhead rabbit Lop rabbit Netherland Dwarf rabbit Dwarf Papillon rabbit Dwarf Hotot rabbit Jersey Wooly rabbit American Fuzzylop rabbitOther edit Giant panda Ross seal Spectacled bear Walrus WombatMesaticephalic animals edit nbsp Mesocephalic Labrador RetrieverA mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width Mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic When dealing with animals especially dogs the more appropriate and commonly used term is not mesocephalic but rather mesaticephalic which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity The breeds below exemplify this category 23 24 List of mesaticephalic canines edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message African Wild Dog Alaskan Malamute almost all spaniels almost all spitz except for the Chow Chow American Eskimo Dog American Foxhound Appenzeller Sennenhund Australian Cattle Dog Australian Shepherd Basenji Beagle Bearded Collie Beauceron Belgian Malinois Belgian Sheepdog Bernese Mountain Dog Bichon Frise Black and Tan Coonhound Border Collie Cardigan Welsh Corgi Chesapeake Bay Retriever pear and deer headed Chihuahuas Chinese Crested Chinook Curly Coated Retriever Dalmatian Dhole English Foxhound Field Spaniel Finnish Lapphund Finnish Spitz Flat Coated Retriever German Shorthaired Pointer German Wirehaired Pointer German Spitz Golden Retriever Irish Setter Komondor Labrador Retriever Miniature Pinscher Pomeranian Poodle Miniature and Toy most terriers Mudi Pembroke Welsh Corgi Puli Rottweiler Samoyed Siberian Husky St Bernard Vizsla Weimaraner Wirehaired Vizsla Xoloitzcuintle List of mesaticephalic cats edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Note Almost all felines are mesaticephalic Abyssinian American Shorthair American Bobtail Bengal cat Birman Bombay cat Burmese cat Chartreux Chausie Colorpoint Shorthair Cymric cat Egyptian Mau Felid hybrids Felis or small cats Maine Coon Manx Munchkin cat Norwegian forest cat Ocicat Pallas s cat Ragdoll Russian Blue Russian White Black and Tabby Selkirk Rex Siberian cat Somali Toyger Turkish Angora Turkish Van List of mesaticephalic rabbits edit Dutch rabbit Mini Rex Polish rabbit New Zealand rabbit American SableOther edit Aardwolf Alligator American black bear Brown bear Brown hyena Fur seal Guinea pig Leopard seal Raccoon Sea lion Sloth bear Spotted hyena Striped hyena Sun bear Tasmanian devilDolichocephalic animals edit nbsp Dolichocephalic BorzoiA dolichocephalic skull is relatively long headed typically with the breadth less than 80 or 75 of the length List of dolichocephalic canids edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Afghan Hound Airedale Terrier Azawakh Basset Hound Bedlington Terrier Bloodhound Borzoi Bull terrier Cesky Terrier Coyote Dachshund Doberman Pinscher Dingo Fox Terrier Galgo Espanol German Shepherd Dog Great Dane Greyhound Irish Terrier Irish Wolfhound Italian Greyhound Kangaroo hound Kanni Kerry Blue Terrier Khalag Tazi Long dog Lurcher Manchester Terrier Miniature Bull Terrier Peruvian Inca Orchid Pharaoh Hound Poodle Standard Rampur Greyhound Red fox Rough Collie Russian Black Terrier Saluki Schnauzer Scottish Deerhound Scottish Terrier Sealyham Terrier Serbian Hound Shetland Sheepdog Silken Windhound Sloughi Smooth Collie Taigan Welsh Terrier Whippet Wolf List of dolichocephalic felines edit This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Balinese Devon Rex Donskoy Jaguar Javanese Leopard Lion Ocelot Oriental Bicolor and Tricolor Oriental Longhair Oriental Shorthair Panthera hybrid Peterbald Sabertooth cats Savannah Siamese Snow leopard Sphynx Tiger List of dolichocephalic leporids edit English Spot English Lop Belgian Hare All true haresOther edit Bontebok Crocodile Domestic horse Donkey Gharial Grevy s zebra Hartebeest Hyrax Kangaroo Mule Onager Plains zebra Polar bear Thylacine Warthog Wild boar WildebeestSee also editCephalic index in cats and dogs Craniometry Phrenology Human skullReferences edit Killgrove K 2005 Bioarchaeology in the Roman World PDF Masters thesis UNC Chapel Hill Archived from the original PDF on 28 March 2012 a b Holloway RL November 2002 Head to head with Boas did he err on the plasticity of head form Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99 23 14622 3 Bibcode 2002PNAS 9914622H doi 10 1073 pnas 242622399 PMC 137467 PMID 12419854 Sparks CS Jantz RL November 2002 A reassessment of human cranial plasticity Boas revisited Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99 23 14636 14639 Bibcode 2002PNAS 9914636S doi 10 1073 pnas 222389599 PMC 137471 PMID 12374854 See also the discussion in Holloway RL November 2002 Head to head with Boas did he err on the plasticity of head form Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99 23 14622 14623 Bibcode 2002PNAS 9914622H doi 10 1073 pnas 242622399 PMC 137467 PMID 12419854 a b Gravlee CC Bernard HR Leonard WR March 2003 Heredity environment and cranial form A reanalysis of Boas s immigrant data PDF American Anthropologist 105 1 125 138 doi 10 1525 aa 2003 105 1 125 hdl 2027 42 65137 Archived from the original PDF on 30 July 2014 Retrieved 23 March 2018 Sparks CS Jantz RL 2003 Changing Times Changing Faces Franz Boas s Immigrant Study in Modern Perspective American Anthropologist 105 2 333 337 doi 10 1525 aa 2003 105 2 333 Jantz RL Logan MH 2010 Why does head form change in children of immigrants A reappraisal American Journal of Human Biology 22 5 702 707 doi 10 1002 ajhb 21070 PMID 20737620 S2CID 12686512 Spradley MK Weisensee K 2017 Ancestry Estimation The Importance The History and The Practice In Langley NR Tersigni Tarrant MT eds Forensic Anthropology A Comprehensive Introduction Second ed CRC Press pp 165 166 ISBN 978 1 4987 3612 1 https www merriam webster com medical length height 20index a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a Missing or empty title help Chandrashekhar Chikatapu Salve Vishal Manoharrao 2013 The Study of Vertical Cephalic Index Length Height Index and Transverse Cephalic Index Breadth Height Index of Andhra Region India Asian Journal of Medical Sciences 3 3 6 11 doi 10 3126 ajms v3i3 4650 Likus Wirginia Bajor Grzegorz Gruszczynska Katrzyna Baron Jan Markowski Jaroslaw Machnikowska Sokolowska Magdalena Milka Daniela Lepich Tomasz 4 February 2014 Cephalic Index in the First Three Years of Life Study of Children with Normal Brain Development Based on Computed Tomography TheScientificWorldJournal 2014 502836 doi 10 1155 2014 502836 PMC 3933399 PMID 24688395 Nam Heesung Han Nami Eom Mi Ja Kook Minjung Kim Jeeyoung 30 April 2021 Cephalic Index of Korean Children With Normal Brain Development During the First 7 Years of Life Based on Computed Tomography Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine 45 2 141 149 doi 10 5535 arm 20235 ISSN 2234 0645 PMC 8137378 PMID 33985316 Weerakkody Yuranga Cephalic index Radiology Reference Article Radiopaedia org Radiopaedia Retrieved 6 April 2023 Brachycephalic Health www thekennelclub org uk Retrieved 17 February 2020 FOUR PAWS International The suffering of dogs with genetic disorders Anne Fawcett Vanessa Barrs Magdoline Awad et al Consequences and Management of Canine Brachycephaly in Veterinary Practice Perspectives from Australian Veterinarians and Veterinary Specialists Border Wars Torture breeding FECAVA Brachycephalic issues shared resources Lowrey Sassafras 10 June 2022 Brachycephalic Dog Breeds A Guide to Flat Faced Dogs American Kennel Club Retrieved 6 May 2023 Brachycephalic Breeds of Cats ASPCA Pet Health Insurance www aspcapetinsurance com Retrieved 13 March 2023 Breathing Problems in Flat faced Cat Breeds Purina www purina arabia com Retrieved 13 March 2023 a b Geiger M Schoenebeck JJ Schneider RA Schmidt MJ Fischer MS Sanchez Villagra MR 14 August 2021 Exceptional Changes in Skeletal Anatomy under Domestication The Case of Brachycephaly Integrative Organismal Biology 3 1 obab023 doi 10 1093 iob obab023 PMC 8366567 PMID 34409262 Brachy breeds not just dogs Rabbits too 24 March 2017 Evans HE 1994 Miller s Anatomy of the Dog 3rd ed Philadelphia Saunders p 132 ISBN 9780721632001 OCLC 827702042 mesaticephalic 2012 Retrieved 2 January 2019 via The Free Dictionary a href Template Cite encyclopedia html title Template Cite encyclopedia cite encyclopedia a work ignored help External links edit nbsp Look up cephalic in Wiktionary the free dictionary nbsp Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Cephalic Index Cephalic index Brachycephalic Experienced Veterinarians Database Archived 30 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Cephalic index amp oldid 1185098174, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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