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Brazen head

January 01, 1970

"Brazen Head" redirects here. For the pub reputed to be one of the oldest in Ireland, see The Brazen Head.

A brazen head, brass, or bronze head was a legendary automaton in the early modern period whose ownership was ascribed to late medieval scholars, such as Roger Bacon, who had developed a reputation as wizards. Made of brass or bronze, the male head was variously mechanical or magical. Like Odin's head of Mimir in Norse paganism,[n 1] it was reputed to be able to correctly answer any question put to it, although it was sometimes restricted to "yes" or "no" answers. In the seventeenth century, Thomas Browne considered them to be misunderstanding of the scholars' alchemical work,[1] while in modern times, Borlik argues that they came to serve as "a metonymy for the hubris of Renaissance intellectuals and artists".[2] Idries Shah devotes a chapter of his book The Sufis to providing an interpretation of this "head of wisdom" as well as the phrase making a head, stating that at its source the head "is none other than the symbol of the [Sufic] completed man."[3]

Roger Bacon's assistant Miles is confronted by the Brazen Head in a 1905 retelling of the story.

Legend edit

Chaucer's "The Squire's Tale" depicts a moving brazen horse among the gifts from an Arab and an Indian king to Cambuscan, and compares it to the Trojan horse.[4] It is likely that these accounts had their origin in allegorical treatments of alchemy[1] and in early machines whose owners pretended to have given them life or speech.[4] They may also have found inspiration in the Greek legends concerning Talos, the brass guardian of Minoan Crete.[5]

The first account of a talking head used to give its owner answers to his questions appears in William of Malmesbury's c. 1125 History of the English Kings, in a passage where he collects various rumors surrounding the polymath Pope Sylvester II, who was said to have traveled to al-Andalus and stolen a tome of secret knowledge, whose owner he was only able to escape through demonic assistance.[6][7][n 2] He was said to have cast the head of a statue using his knowledge of astrology. It would not speak until spoken to, but then answered any yes/no question put to it.[6]

The Roman poet Virgil, in his medieval role as a sorcerer, was credited with creating his own oracular head in Gautier de Metz's c. 1245 Image of the World (French: Image du Monde).[2] The 1319 Reynard the Fox (Renard le Contrefait) retold the story and may have been the first to specify that the head was made of brass.[2]

The heads were then ascribed to several of the major figures of the 12th- and 13th-century Renaissance, who introduced Europe to Arabian editions of Aristotelian logic and science, as well as the Muslims' own work on mathematics, optics, and astronomy. These included Robert Grosseteste,[11] Albertus Magnus, and—most famously[12]—Roger Bacon.[13] Grosseteste was said to have constructed "an hed of bras to... make it for to telle of suche thinges as befelle" over the course of seven years but then lost it through 30 seconds' neglect.[11] Its relics were supposedly held in a vault under Lincoln College.[14] Reports that Albertus Magnus had a head with a human voice and breath and "a certain reasoning process" bestowed by a cacodemon[15] eventually gave way to stories that he had built an entire automaton who was so overly talkative that his student Thomas Aquinas destroyed it for continually interrupting his train of thought.[4][14] Bacon, with the help of a Friar Bungy[14] or Bungay,[16] was said to have spent seven years building one of the devices in order to discover whether it would be possible to render Britain impregnable by ringing it with a wall of brass.[14][n 3] They only succeeded in their work once they compelled the assistance of a demon.[16] Like Grosseteste before them, however, they were said to have missed the decisive moment, either from forgetfulness[14] or exhaustion.[16] Having missed it, the head either collapsed or exploded[16] or was scrapped as useless.[14]

Other people reputed to have a brazen head include Boethius, Faust,[13] Arnaldus de Villa Nova,[19] Stephen of Tours,[20] and Enrique de Villena.[21] A brazen head also appears in the surviving accounts of the Carolingian Valentine and Nameless,[22] where it reveals the pair's royal origin in a necromancer's lair in Clarimond Castle;[4] despite the age of the base story, however, the earliest surviving copies date to the 15th century. It is thought to have been the basis for a lost Elizabethan drama.[2]

History edit

Hero of Alexandria wrote two books, the Pneumatica and Automata, about devices powered by steam, water, or air. These books were known to medieval Islamic science, and reappeared in Europe during the 12th- and 13th-century Renaissance.

The talking "Skull of Balsamo" was a mechanical illusion of the Viennese magician Joseffy. The skull was made of painted copper inset with real human teeth, answering questions by turning or clicking its lower jaw.[23]

In popular culture edit

 
An Elizabethan woodcut of Miles playing his tambour while Friars Bacon and Bungay sleep and their Brazen Head speaks: "Time is. Time was. Time is past."

Literature edit

Television edit

Video games edit

  • In The Savage Empire, the first Worlds of Ultima game, a brass head can be found and eventually reunited with its bejeweled body, creating a golem-like automaton that joins the player's party.
  • A metal head, referred to as "the Hidden Knowledge", appears in Atlantis: The Lost Tales, described as being able to answer all questions. This head, however, appears to be made of steel or silver, rather than brass.

Role playing games edit

  • The Sample Dungeon written by J. Eric Holmes for the 1977 Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set rulebook contains a room in which "set into the stone of the west wall is a bronze mask, about the size of a manhole cover. The eyes and mouth are shut". A riddle is inscribed, which if solved will cause the mask to open its eyes and speak, answering one question per day.[30]
  • The scenario The Auction for the Call of Cthulhu role playing game centers around the theft and recovery of a brazen head that is reputed to give answers to any question related to the Mythos.[31]

Namesakes edit

The Brazen Head pub in Dublin, established in 1198 and over 800 years old, is the second oldest pub in Ireland. There is also a Brazen Head pub in Limerick.

Additionally, there are bars named The Brazen Head in Brooklyn, New York; in Toronto, Ontario, Canada; and pubs in Omaha, Nebraska; in Marylebone in London; in Glasgow; in Bloemfontein, South Africa; and in Napier, New Zealand. There is a Brazen Head Inn in Mingo in West Virginia and San Francisco.

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Other speaking severed heads include the Celtic Bran the Blessed and the Greek Orpheus.
  2. ^ Malmesbury even notes that "probably some may regard all this as a fiction, because the vulgar are used to undermine the fame of scholars, saying that the man who excels in any admirable science, holds converse with the devil"[8] but professes himself willing to believe the stories about Sylvester because of the (spurious) accounts he had of the pope's "shameful end".[9] In fact, Sylvester's reputation as a sorcerer arose from the slanderous "Against Gregory VII and Urban II" (Latin: Contra Gregorium VII et Urbanum II), written c. 1085 by an imperial partisan—either St Benno of Osnabrück or Cardinal Benno of San Martino—anxious to discredit the independent papacy amid the Investiture Controversy.[10]
  3. ^ A project to construct a brass wall around Carmarthen had earlier been attributed to Merlin by the Welsh bards,[17] a story which reappeared in Spenser.[18]

References edit

Citations edit

  1. ^ a b Browne, Pseudo. Epid., Bk. VII, Ch. xvii, §7.
  2. ^ a b c d Borlik (2011), p. 130.
  3. ^ Shah, Idries (1977) [1964]. The Sufis. London, UK: Octagon Press. p. 225-227. ISBN 0-86304-020-9.
  4. ^ a b c d Warton (1778), p. 263–265.
  5. ^ Clegg (2003), p. 111.
  6. ^ a b Malmesbury, Chron., Bk. II., Ch. x., p. 181.
  7. ^ Truitt (2015), p. 71 ff.
  8. ^ Malmesbury, Chron., Bk. II., Ch. x., p. 174.
  9. ^ Malmesbury, Chron., Bk. II., Ch. x., p. 175.
  10. ^ Truitt (2015), p. 72–73.
  11. ^ a b Gower's c. 1390 Conf. Amant., Vol. II, Bk. IV, ll. 234–243: "The grete clerc Grossteste".
  12. ^ Truitt (2015), p. 69.
  13. ^ a b Butler, E. M.: The Myth of the Magus; Cambridge University Press, 1948
  14. ^ a b c d e f Worthies (1828), p. 48.
  15. ^ Delrio's 1599 Disquis. Magic., Vol. I, Ch. iv., p. 31. (in Latin)
  16. ^ a b c d Clegg (2003), p. 110.
  17. ^ Gerald, Itin. Cambr., Bk. I, Ch. vi.
  18. ^ Spenser, The Faerie Queene, III.3.9 & ff.
  19. ^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004), Machines Who Think (2nd ed.), Natick, MA: A. K. Peters, Ltd., ISBN 1-56881-205-1; p. 12
  20. ^ Breeze (1988).
  21. ^ de Larra, Mariano José; El doncel de Don Enrique el Doliente, chapter 30; from Obras Completas, Barcelona, Montaner y Simón, 1886
  22. ^ Val. & Ors., Ch. xxviii.
  23. ^ Abbott, David Phelps (1908), The Marvelous Creations of Joseffy, Open Court Publishing.
  24. ^ Cervantes, Don Quixote, Ch. lxii.
  25. ^ Cervantes, Miguel: Don Quixote de la Mancha; Rudolph Schevill and Adolfo Bonilla, editors, c. 1941; p. 282, line 26
  26. ^ Anders, Charlie Jane (18 May 2009), "Walt Whitman's Best Friend Wrote the First Robot Revolution Story", io9.
  27. ^ O'Conner, "The Brazen Android" (audiobook hosted at Internet Archive).
  28. ^ Baldwin, James (1905), "Friar Bacon and the Brazen Head", Thirty More Famous Stories Retold, Cincinnati: American Book Co..
  29. ^ Gibson, William (1 July 1984). Neuromancer. Ace Books. ISBN 0-441-56956-0. OCLC 10980207.
  30. ^ Holmes, J. Eric (1977). Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set (1st ed.). TSR, Inc. p. 43.
  31. ^ McCall, Randy. (1983). "Chapter 1: The Auction". In Petersen, Sandy (ed.). The Asylum and Other Tales. Chaosium. pp. 8–21.

Bibliography edit

  • Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), ""More than Art": Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay", The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature, Literary and Scientific Studies of Early Modernity, Farnham: TJ Int'l for Ashgate Publishing, pp. 129 ff, ISBN 978-0-7546-6865-7.
  • Breeze, Andrew (1988), "Roger Bacon's Head of Brass", Trivium, vol. 23, pp. 35–50.
  • Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5.
  • Truitt, E.R. (2015), "Talking Heads: Astral Science, Divination, and Legends of Medieval Philosophers", Medieval Robots: Mechanism, Magic, Nature, and Art, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 69–96, ISBN 978-0-8122-4697-1.
  • Warton, Thomas (1778), The History of English Poetry, from the Eleventh to the Seventeenth Century, reprinted by Ward, Lock, & Co. in 1875.
  • "Roger Bacon", The Worthies of the United Kingdom; or Biographical Accounts of the Lives of the Most Illustrious Men, in Arts, Arms, Literature, and Science, connected with Great Britain, London: D. Sidney for Knight & Lacey, 1828, pp. 39–48.

External links edit

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January 01, 1970
brazen, head, brazen, head, redirects, here, reputed, oldest, ireland, brazen, head, brazen, head, brass, bronze, head, legendary, automaton, early, modern, period, whose, ownership, ascribed, late, medieval, scholars, such, roger, bacon, developed, reputation. Brazen Head redirects here For the pub reputed to be one of the oldest in Ireland see The Brazen Head A brazen head brass or bronze head was a legendary automaton in the early modern period whose ownership was ascribed to late medieval scholars such as Roger Bacon who had developed a reputation as wizards Made of brass or bronze the male head was variously mechanical or magical Like Odin s head of Mimir in Norse paganism n 1 it was reputed to be able to correctly answer any question put to it although it was sometimes restricted to yes or no answers In the seventeenth century Thomas Browne considered them to be misunderstanding of the scholars alchemical work 1 while in modern times Borlik argues that they came to serve as a metonymy for the hubris of Renaissance intellectuals and artists 2 Idries Shah devotes a chapter of his book The Sufis to providing an interpretation of this head of wisdom as well as the phrase making a head stating that at its source the head is none other than the symbol of the Sufic completed man 3 Roger Bacon s assistant Miles is confronted by the Brazen Head in a 1905 retelling of the story Contents 1 Legend 2 History 3 In popular culture 3 1 Literature 3 2 Television 3 3 Video games 3 4 Role playing games 4 Namesakes 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 7 1 Citations 7 2 Bibliography 8 External linksLegend editChaucer s The Squire s Tale depicts a moving brazen horse among the gifts from an Arab and an Indian king to Cambuscan and compares it to the Trojan horse 4 It is likely that these accounts had their origin in allegorical treatments of alchemy 1 and in early machines whose owners pretended to have given them life or speech 4 They may also have found inspiration in the Greek legends concerning Talos the brass guardian of Minoan Crete 5 The first account of a talking head used to give its owner answers to his questions appears in William of Malmesbury s c 1125 History of the English Kings in a passage where he collects various rumors surrounding the polymath Pope Sylvester II who was said to have traveled to al Andalus and stolen a tome of secret knowledge whose owner he was only able to escape through demonic assistance 6 7 n 2 He was said to have cast the head of a statue using his knowledge of astrology It would not speak until spoken to but then answered any yes no question put to it 6 The Roman poet Virgil in his medieval role as a sorcerer was credited with creating his own oracular head in Gautier de Metz s c 1245 Image of the World French Image du Monde 2 The 1319 Reynard the Fox Renard le Contrefait retold the story and may have been the first to specify that the head was made of brass 2 The heads were then ascribed to several of the major figures of the 12th and 13th century Renaissance who introduced Europe to Arabian editions of Aristotelian logic and science as well as the Muslims own work on mathematics optics and astronomy These included Robert Grosseteste 11 Albertus Magnus and most famously 12 Roger Bacon 13 Grosseteste was said to have constructed an hed of bras to make it for to telle of suche thinges as befelle over the course of seven years but then lost it through 30 seconds neglect 11 Its relics were supposedly held in a vault under Lincoln College 14 Reports that Albertus Magnus had a head with a human voice and breath and a certain reasoning process bestowed by a cacodemon 15 eventually gave way to stories that he had built an entire automaton who was so overly talkative that his student Thomas Aquinas destroyed it for continually interrupting his train of thought 4 14 Bacon with the help of a Friar Bungy 14 or Bungay 16 was said to have spent seven years building one of the devices in order to discover whether it would be possible to render Britain impregnable by ringing it with a wall of brass 14 n 3 They only succeeded in their work once they compelled the assistance of a demon 16 Like Grosseteste before them however they were said to have missed the decisive moment either from forgetfulness 14 or exhaustion 16 Having missed it the head either collapsed or exploded 16 or was scrapped as useless 14 Other people reputed to have a brazen head include Boethius Faust 13 Arnaldus de Villa Nova 19 Stephen of Tours 20 and Enrique de Villena 21 A brazen head also appears in the surviving accounts of the Carolingian Valentine and Nameless 22 where it reveals the pair s royal origin in a necromancer s lair in Clarimond Castle 4 despite the age of the base story however the earliest surviving copies date to the 15th century It is thought to have been the basis for a lost Elizabethan drama 2 History editHero of Alexandria wrote two books the Pneumatica and Automata about devices powered by steam water or air These books were known to medieval Islamic science and reappeared in Europe during the 12th and 13th century Renaissance The talking Skull of Balsamo was a mechanical illusion of the Viennese magician Joseffy The skull was made of painted copper inset with real human teeth answering questions by turning or clicking its lower jaw 23 In popular culture edit nbsp An Elizabethan woodcut of Miles playing his tambour while Friars Bacon and Bungay sleep and their Brazen Head speaks Time is Time was Time is past Literature edit Robert Greene s c 1590 treatment of Bacon s brazen head the play Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay was one of the most successful Elizabethan comedies Miguel de Cervantes s 1605 Don Quixote lampoons the idea with Don Antonio Moreno s brazen head created for him by a Polish pupil of Escotillo 24 25 but which is later revealed to be fake Daniel Defoe s 1722 Journal of the Plague Year set in London s 1665 plague states that Bacon s brazen head was the usual sign over the establishments of fortune tellers Lord Byron references Bacon s brazen head in Don Juan Canto I stanza CCXVII 1818 Nathaniel Hawthorne referenced both Bacon s brazen head and Albertus Magnus s man of brass in his 1843 The Birth Mark and 1844 The Artist of the Beautiful William Douglas O Connor s 1891 The Brazen Android features Bacon attempting to use a steam powered brazen head to terrify King Henry into meeting Simon de Montfort s demands for greater democracy although he repents after his prototype explodes 26 27 James Baldwin s 1905 Thirty More Famous Stories Retold reset the story of Friar Bacon and the Brazen Head as a children s story 28 John Masefield s 1935 The Box of Delights includes a bronze head among its characters C S Lewis s 1945 novel That Hideous Strength features a disembodied talking head named Alcasan John Cowper Powys s 1956 The Brazen Head centres around Bacon and his eponymous head Philip K Dick s 1967 The Zap Gun has a guidance system which is plowshared into Ol Orville a featureless telepathic head sold as a novelty to the people of West Bloc but which the protagonist consults for serious ontological and practical questions John Bellairs s 1969 The Face in the Frost set in a fantasy 13th century includes a magic wielding Bacon whose rather deaf brazen head is used to fend off marauding Danes Avram Davidson s 1969 The Phoenix and the Mirror set in a fantasy version of the Roman Empire includes a talking head which gives its name to Vergil Magus s home the House of the Brazen Head It guards the house welcomes visitors and announces them to Vergil Robertson Davies s 1970 Fifth Business includes a brazen head used as part of a magic act William Gibson s 1984 Neuromancer set in the near future Sprawl depicts a computer terminal which is used to permit two artificial intelligences to merge into a superconciousness as a gem encrusted platinum head voiced by a beautiful arrangement of gears and miniature organ pipes a perverse thing because synth voice chips cost next to nothing 29 Norman Rush s 1991 Mating set in Botswana in 1980 features a character who nicknames US president Ronald Reagan The Brazen Head through a garbled comparison with Babylonian idols supposedly equipped with speaking tubes leading down into the bowels of the temple whence the priests would make the idol speak Tom Deitz s Soulsmith trilogy 1991 1993 features a protagonist who constructs a brazen head as his masterwork Gregory Frost s Shadowbridge novels 2008 and seq includes a lion faced brass pendant which advises the protagonist Matthew J Kirby s 2010 The Clockwork Three set in the 19th century includes a clockwork head attributed to Albertus Magnus that constantly repeats Cur Latin for Why until it is activated afterwards it speaks normally but fails to understand any statement with the word why in it Television edit In Da Vinci s Demons Leonardo discovers a brazen head in the Andes which functions as an ornate phonograph Video games edit In The Savage Empire the first Worlds of Ultima game a brass head can be found and eventually reunited with its bejeweled body creating a golem like automaton that joins the player s party A metal head referred to as the Hidden Knowledge appears in Atlantis The Lost Tales described as being able to answer all questions This head however appears to be made of steel or silver rather than brass Role playing games edit The Sample Dungeon written by J Eric Holmes for the 1977 Dungeons amp Dragons Basic Set rulebook contains a room in which set into the stone of the west wall is a bronze mask about the size of a manhole cover The eyes and mouth are shut A riddle is inscribed which if solved will cause the mask to open its eyes and speak answering one question per day 30 The scenario The Auction for the Call of Cthulhu role playing game centers around the theft and recovery of a brazen head that is reputed to give answers to any question related to the Mythos 31 Namesakes editThe Brazen Head pub in Dublin established in 1198 and over 800 years old is the second oldest pub in Ireland There is also a Brazen Head pub in Limerick Additionally there are bars named The Brazen Head in Brooklyn New York in Toronto Ontario Canada and pubs in Omaha Nebraska in Marylebone in London in Glasgow in Bloemfontein South Africa and in Napier New Zealand There is a Brazen Head Inn in Mingo in West Virginia and San Francisco See also editList of fictional robots and androids Zoltar fortune teller robot TeraphimNotes edit Other speaking severed heads include the Celtic Bran the Blessed and the Greek Orpheus Malmesbury even notes that probably some may regard all this as a fiction because the vulgar are used to undermine the fame of scholars saying that the man who excels in any admirable science holds converse with the devil 8 but professes himself willing to believe the stories about Sylvester because of the spurious accounts he had of the pope s shameful end 9 In fact Sylvester s reputation as a sorcerer arose from the slanderous Against Gregory VII and Urban II Latin Contra Gregorium VII et Urbanum II written c 1085 by an imperial partisan either St Benno of Osnabruck or Cardinal Benno of San Martino anxious to discredit the independent papacy amid the Investiture Controversy 10 A project to construct a brass wall around Carmarthen had earlier been attributed to Merlin by the Welsh bards 17 a story which reappeared in Spenser 18 References editCitations edit a b Browne Pseudo Epid Bk VII Ch xvii 7 a b c d Borlik 2011 p 130 Shah Idries 1977 1964 The Sufis London UK Octagon Press p 225 227 ISBN 0 86304 020 9 a b c d Warton 1778 p 263 265 Clegg 2003 p 111 a b Malmesbury Chron Bk II Ch x p 181 Truitt 2015 p 71 ff Malmesbury Chron Bk II Ch x p 174 Malmesbury Chron Bk II Ch x p 175 Truitt 2015 p 72 73 a b Gower s c 1390 Conf Amant Vol II Bk IV ll 234 243 The grete clerc Grossteste Truitt 2015 p 69 a b Butler E M The Myth of the Magus Cambridge University Press 1948 a b c d e f Worthies 1828 p 48 Delrio s 1599 Disquis Magic Vol I Ch iv p 31 in Latin a b c d Clegg 2003 p 110 Gerald Itin Cambr Bk I Ch vi Spenser The Faerie Queene III 3 9 amp ff McCorduck Pamela 2004 Machines Who Think 2nd ed Natick MA A K Peters Ltd ISBN 1 56881 205 1 p 12 Breeze 1988 de Larra Mariano Jose El doncel de Don Enrique el Doliente chapter 30 from Obras Completas Barcelona Montaner y Simon 1886 Val amp Ors Ch xxviii Abbott David Phelps 1908 The Marvelous Creations of Joseffy Open Court Publishing Cervantes Don Quixote Ch lxii Cervantes Miguel Don Quixote de la Mancha Rudolph Schevill and Adolfo Bonilla editors c 1941 p 282 line 26 Anders Charlie Jane 18 May 2009 Walt Whitman s Best Friend Wrote the First Robot Revolution Story io9 O Conner The Brazen Android audiobook hosted at Internet Archive Baldwin James 1905 Friar Bacon and the Brazen Head Thirty More Famous Stories Retold Cincinnati American Book Co Gibson William 1 July 1984 Neuromancer Ace Books ISBN 0 441 56956 0 OCLC 10980207 Holmes J Eric 1977 Dungeons amp Dragons Basic Set 1st ed TSR Inc p 43 McCall Randy 1983 Chapter 1 The Auction In Petersen Sandy ed The Asylum and Other Tales Chaosium pp 8 21 Bibliography edit Borlik Todd Andrew 2011 More than Art Clockwork Automata the Extemporizing Actor and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature Literary and Scientific Studies of Early Modernity Farnham TJ Int l for Ashgate Publishing pp 129 ff ISBN 978 0 7546 6865 7 Breeze Andrew 1988 Roger Bacon s Head of Brass Trivium vol 23 pp 35 50 Clegg Brian 2003 Roger Bacon The First Scientist Constable ISBN 978 147211 212 5 Truitt E R 2015 Talking Heads Astral Science Divination and Legends of Medieval Philosophers Medieval Robots Mechanism Magic Nature and Art Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press pp 69 96 ISBN 978 0 8122 4697 1 Warton Thomas 1778 The History of English Poetry from the Eleventh to the Seventeenth Century reprinted by Ward Lock amp Co in 1875 Roger Bacon The Worthies of the United Kingdom or Biographical Accounts of the Lives of the Most Illustrious Men in Arts Arms Literature and Science connected with Great Britain London D Sidney for Knight amp Lacey 1828 pp 39 48 External links editListen to this article 15 minutes source source nbsp This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 18 May 2019 2019 05 18 and does not reflect subsequent edits Audio help More spoken articles Oracular Head at TV Tropes Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Brazen head amp oldid 1222260778, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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