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Black woodpecker

February 09, 2023

The black woodpecker (Dryocopus martius) is a large woodpecker that lives in mature forests across the northern Palearctic. It is the sole representative of its genus in that region. Its range is expanding. The black woodpecker is easily the largest woodpecker species in Europe as well as in the portion of Asia where it lives and is one of the largest species worldwide. This non-migratory species tends to make its home in old-growth forest or large forest stands and excavates a large tree hole to reside in. In turn, several species rely on black woodpeckers to secondarily reside in the holes made in trees by them. This woodpeckers diet consists mostly of carpenter ants. This species is closely related to, and fills the same ecological niche in Europe as, the pileated woodpecker of North America and the lineated woodpecker of South America, also being similar to the white-bellied woodpecker which is distributed to the south somewhat of the black woodpecker in Asia.

Black woodpecker
Adult male with young
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Piciformes
Family: Picidae
Genus: Dryocopus
Species:
D. martius
Binomial name
Dryocopus martius
Black woodpecker range
Synonyms

Picus martius Linnaeus, 1758

Black woodpecker drumming

Taxonomy

The black woodpecker was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Picus martius.[2] Linnaeus gave the locality as Europe, but this is now taken to be Sweden.[3] The black woodpecker is now placed in the genus Dryocopus that was introduced by the German naturalist Friedrich Boie in 1826.[4][5]

Two subspecies are recognised:[5]

  • D. m. martius (Linnaeus, 1758) – western Europe to the Kamchatka Peninsula and Japan
  • D. m. khamensis (Buturlin, 1908 – Tibet and southwestern China

Description

 
Skull of a black woodpecker

The black woodpecker measures 45 to 55 cm (18 to 22 in) long with a 64 to 84 cm (25 to 33 in) wingspan.[6][7] Body weight is approximately 250 to 400 g (8.8 to 14.1 oz) on average.[7][8][9] Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 22.7 to 26 cm (8.9 to 10.2 in), the tail is 15.9 to 17.3 cm (6.3 to 6.8 in), the very long bill is 5 to 6.7 cm (2.0 to 2.6 in) and the tarsus is 3.6 to 4 cm (1.4 to 1.6 in).[7] It is easily the largest woodpecker in its range and is second in size only to the great slaty woodpecker amongst the woodpecker species certain to exist (with the likely extinction of the largest and second largest woodpeckers), although its average mass is similar to that of the Magellanic woodpecker of South America. The closely related pileated and white-bellied woodpeckers also broadly overlap in size with the black woodpecker, but both are somewhat smaller in average and maximal size and mass.[7] The plumage of this crow-sized woodpecker is entirely black apart from a red crown. In males, the entire crown is red, but in females only the top hindcrown is red, with the rest of the body all black.[6] The juvenile black woodpecker is similar but is less glossy, with a duller red crown and a paler grey throat and bill .[10] The piercing yellow eyes and manic, high-pitched calls of the black woodpecker have made it the villain of fairy tales throughout its range. Their voice is remarkable in that it has two different calls. One is a short single high-pitched note, a loud, whistling kree-kree-kree, done only twice in a row. The other is a screech-like shrill while in flight. Unlike other woodpecker species, the black woodpecker does not have a dipping, bounding flight, but instead flies with slow, unsteady-seeming wing beats with its head raised.[7][10]

Distribution and habitat

 
A black woodpecker taking anting bath in Hungary

The range of the black woodpecker spreads east from Spain across the whole of Europe, excluding Great Britain, Ireland, and northern Scandinavia. It is also native to parts of Asia, including Korea, Japan and China, and to the Middle East, including Iran and Kazakhstan. The southern limits of this woodpecker's range are in Spain and Italy, and it has also been recorded as a vagrant in Portugal. The species is generally more uncommon and more discontinuous in distribution in the Asian part of its range.[11]

The black woodpecker is mainly found in forested regions, with a preference for extensive, mature woodland, including coniferous, tropical, subtropical and boreal forests. It is very widespread throughout mountainous and lowland forests. It is more likely to occur in marginal woods near human habitations during the non-breeding season. This species has been observed at elevations between 100 and 2,400 m (330 and 7,870 ft).[11][7][10]

The black woodpecker is noticeably absent from the British Isles. Approximately 80 sightings of the species in the UK have been reported, but some of these are disputed, though the proximity of the British Isles to the species' range in Western Europe means that the species may cross over on a regular basis.[12]

Behaviour and ecology

 
Tree work by black woodpecker
 
Egg, Collection Museum Wiesbaden

The woodpecker feeds by using its bill to hammer on dead trees to dig out carpenter ants and wood-boring beetle grubs.[8] The selection of foods is relatively predictable, narrow and consistent in this species.[13] Like all woodpeckers, this species has a specially adapted neck containing very strong muscles, which allow it to endlessly hack away at tree bark. Due to the size of its bill and large size and great physical power of this bird, it can access prey fairly deep within a tree. In order to position itself correctly, it has short, stumpy legs, as well as long, sharp claws and very stiff tail feathers. The woodpecker will more than likely choose for its nest a tree with a fungal disease, such as heart rot, although some will utilise a living, healthy tree. Once a hole has been made, the black woodpecker chips downwards through the trunk of the tree, creating a nesting chamber, the only lining being the woodchips created throughout the process. The black woodpecker's excavations provide homes for many other species of bird and mammal, and is therefore considered to be a "keystone" species in many of its habitats throughout its range. It not only provides habitats for other species, but also controls populations of wood-boring insects, helping to protect the trees.[10][14]

When the nest is ready, the female lays a single clutch of two to eight eggs, the average being four to six. The nest hole is usually dug in a live poplar or pine tree.[8] The breeding pair take it in turns to incubate the eggs, also sharing duties of feeding and brooding the chicks once they have hatched. The nestlings may fight their way to the entrance of the nest in order to be fed first. After 18 to 35 days, the young black woodpeckers will leave the nest, staying with the adults for another week.[7][10]

Status

The black woodpecker is a fairly widely distributed woodland species and can successfully breed in most areas where extensive woodland is left. At one point, when much of Europe and Asia was deforested, this species declined and in some areas is still struggling today, including in the Pyrenees. They normally require mature trees and ample stands of dead trees to sustain a viable breeding population.[15] However, with the restoration of some forested areas, black woodpeckers have increased in some parts of Europe.[13] They are occasionally considered a nuisance species due to their damage to power lines, communication poles and houses, occasionally resulting in woodpecker mortality due to electrocution or being culled by humans.[16] The main cause of nesting failures appears to be predation.[17] Their main natural predator is the pine marten (Martes martes), which feeds on eggs, nestlings and brooding females and then often takes over the nest hole of the woodpeckers for its own.[18] Other than the marten, there are notably few known natural predators of black woodpeckers.[19] Western jackdaws (Corvus monedula) are notably regular usurpers of this species' nest holes and a potential predator of eggs and small nestlings.[20] A few of the larger birds of prey that can hunt in woodlands may prey on black woodpeckers. Among those recorded are Ural owls (Strix uralensis),[21] Eurasian eagle-owls (Bubo bubo),[22] northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis),[23] common buzzards (Buteo buteo)[24] and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos).

Cultural significance

 
The black woodpecker in the coat of arms of Pielisjärvi

The municipality of Nurmijärvi in Uusimaa, Finland has adopted the black woodpecker as the title bird of the municipality, because in addition to being the most common bird in the locality, it also appears in the literature of Aleksis Kivi, a Finnish national author, originally from the Nurmijärvi.[25] Nurmijärvi's local football club NJS has also adopted the black woodpecker as the club's logo.[26]

Dryocopus martius martius is thought to be the woodpecker referred to in the augural instructions on the early Italic Iguvine Tablets by the Umbrian word peiqu, a bird "very prominent in early Italic religion and mythology."[27]

See also

References

  1. ^ BirdLife International. (2016). Dryocopus martius. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22681382A87301348.en
  2. ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 112.
  3. ^ Peters, James Lee, ed. (1948). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 6. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 151.
  4. ^ Boie, Friedrich (1826). "Generalübersicht". Isis von Oken (in German). 19. Col 977.
  5. ^ a b Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (2020). "Woodpeckers". IOC World Bird List Version 10.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  6. ^ a b The Birds of the Western Palearctic [Abridged]. OUP. 1997. ISBN 0-19-854099-X.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g Woodpeckers: An Identification Guide to the Woodpeckers of the World by Hans Winkler, David A. Christie & David Nurney. Houghton Mifflin (1995), ISBN 978-0395720431
  8. ^ a b c Rolstad, Jorund; Rolstad, Erlend; Sæteren, Øyvind (2000). "Black woodpecker nest sites: characteristics, selection, and reproductive success". Journal of Wildlife Management. 64 (4): 1053–1066. doi:10.2307/3803216. JSTOR 3803216.
  9. ^ Brazil, M. (2009) Field Guide to the Birds of East Asia: Eastern China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan and Eastern Russia. A&C Black, London.
  10. ^ a b c d e Perrins, C.M., Attenborough, D. and Arlott, N. (1987). New Generation Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe. University of Texas Press, Texas.
  11. ^ a b Peterson, R.T., Mountfort, G. and Hollom, P.A.D. (1993) Collins Field Guide: Birds of Britain and Europe. HarperCollins Publishers, London.
  12. ^ "Range-expansion of the Black Woodpecker in Western Europe" (PDF). British Birds. 78: 4. April 1985.
  13. ^ a b Mikusiński, Grzegorz (1995). "Population trends in black woodpecker in relation to changes and characteristics of European forests". Ecography. 18 (4): 363–369. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.1995.tb00139.x.
  14. ^ Gorman, G. (2008) Central and Eastern European Wildlife. Bradt Travel Guides, Buckshire.
  15. ^ Garmendia, Alfonso; Cárcamo, Susana; Schwendtner, Oscar (2006). "Forest management considerations for conservation of black woodpecker Dryocopus martius and white-backed woodpecker Dendrocopos leucotos populations in Quinto Real (Spanish Western Pyrenees)". Biodiversity and Conservation. 15 (4): 1399–1415. doi:10.1007/s10531-005-5410-0. S2CID 8616002.
  16. ^ Turcek, F. J. (1960). "On the damage by birds to power and communication lines". Bird Study. 7 (4): 231–236. doi:10.1080/00063656009475975.
  17. ^ Martin, Thomas E. (1993). "Evolutionary determinants of clutch size in cavity-nesting birds: nest predation or limited breeding opportunities?". American Naturalist. 142 (6): 937–946. doi:10.1086/285582. JSTOR 2462692. PMID 19425942.
  18. ^ Nilsson, S.G.; Johnsson, K.; Tjernberg, M. (1991). "Is avoidance by black woodpeckers of old nest holes due to predators?". Animal Behaviour. 41 (3): 439–441. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80845-0. S2CID 53147765.
  19. ^ Paclík, Martin; Misík, Jan; Weidinger, Karel (2009). "Nest Predation and Nest Defence in European and North American Woodpeckers: A Review". Annales Zoologici Fennici. 46 (5): 361–379. doi:10.5735/086.046.0503. S2CID 86330780.
  20. ^ Johnsson, Kristina (1994). "Colonial breeding and nest predation in the Jackdaw Corvus monedula using old Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martius holes". Ibis. 136 (3): 313–317. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1994.tb01100.x.
  21. ^ Lundberg, Arne (1981). "Population ecology of the Ural owl Strix uralensis in central Sweden". Ornis Scandinavica. 12 (2): 111–119. doi:10.2307/3676035. JSTOR 3676035.
  22. ^ Wassink, G. (2010). "Het dieet van de Oehoe in Nederland en enkele aangrenzende gebieden in Duitsland". Limosa. 83: 97–108.
  23. ^ Opdam, P.; Thissen, J.; Verschuren, P.; Müskens, G. (1977). "Feeding ecology of a population of Goshawk Accipiter gentilis". Journal für Ornithologie. 118 (1): 35–51. doi:10.1007/BF01647356. S2CID 44631480.
  24. ^ Obuch, Ján; Šotnár, Karol (2009). "Feeding ecology of a nesting population of the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) in the Upper Nitra Region, Central Slovakia". Slovak Raptor Journal. 3: 13–20. doi:10.2478/v10262-012-0028-0. S2CID 84497619.
  25. ^ Vaakuna ja tunnukset – Nurmijärvi (in Finnish)
  26. ^ Nurmijärven Jalkapalloseura tähtää suomalaisen futiksen huipulle – Nurmijärven Uutiset (in Finnish)
  27. ^ Poultney, J.W. "Bronze Tables of Iguvium" 1959 p. 1 https://archive.org/details/bronzetablesofig00poul/page/n19/mode/2up

Bibliography

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dryocopus martius.
  • Gorman, Gerard (2004): Woodpeckers of Europe: A Study of the European Picidae. Bruce Coleman, UK. ISBN 1-872842-05-4.
  • Gorman, Gerard (2011): The Black Woodpecker: A monograph on Dryocopus martius . Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 978-84-96553-79-8.

February 09, 2023
black, woodpecker, black, woodpecker, dryocopus, martius, large, woodpecker, that, lives, mature, forests, across, northern, palearctic, sole, representative, genus, that, region, range, expanding, black, woodpecker, easily, largest, woodpecker, species, europ. The black woodpecker Dryocopus martius is a large woodpecker that lives in mature forests across the northern Palearctic It is the sole representative of its genus in that region Its range is expanding The black woodpecker is easily the largest woodpecker species in Europe as well as in the portion of Asia where it lives and is one of the largest species worldwide This non migratory species tends to make its home in old growth forest or large forest stands and excavates a large tree hole to reside in In turn several species rely on black woodpeckers to secondarily reside in the holes made in trees by them This woodpeckers diet consists mostly of carpenter ants This species is closely related to and fills the same ecological niche in Europe as the pileated woodpecker of North America and the lineated woodpecker of South America also being similar to the white bellied woodpecker which is distributed to the south somewhat of the black woodpecker in Asia Black woodpeckerAdult male with youngConservation statusLeast Concern IUCN 3 1 1 Scientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass AvesOrder PiciformesFamily PicidaeGenus DryocopusSpecies D martiusBinomial nameDryocopus martius Linnaeus 1758 Black woodpecker rangeSynonymsPicus martius Linnaeus 1758 source source Black woodpecker drumming Contents 1 Taxonomy 2 Description 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Behaviour and ecology 5 Status 6 Cultural significance 7 See also 8 References 9 BibliographyTaxonomy EditThe black woodpecker was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Picus martius 2 Linnaeus gave the locality as Europe but this is now taken to be Sweden 3 The black woodpecker is now placed in the genus Dryocopus that was introduced by the German naturalist Friedrich Boie in 1826 4 5 Two subspecies are recognised 5 D m martius Linnaeus 1758 western Europe to the Kamchatka Peninsula and Japan D m khamensis Buturlin 1908 Tibet and southwestern ChinaDescription Edit Skull of a black woodpecker The black woodpecker measures 45 to 55 cm 18 to 22 in long with a 64 to 84 cm 25 to 33 in wingspan 6 7 Body weight is approximately 250 to 400 g 8 8 to 14 1 oz on average 7 8 9 Among standard measurements the wing chord is 22 7 to 26 cm 8 9 to 10 2 in the tail is 15 9 to 17 3 cm 6 3 to 6 8 in the very long bill is 5 to 6 7 cm 2 0 to 2 6 in and the tarsus is 3 6 to 4 cm 1 4 to 1 6 in 7 It is easily the largest woodpecker in its range and is second in size only to the great slaty woodpecker amongst the woodpecker species certain to exist with the likely extinction of the largest and second largest woodpeckers although its average mass is similar to that of the Magellanic woodpecker of South America The closely related pileated and white bellied woodpeckers also broadly overlap in size with the black woodpecker but both are somewhat smaller in average and maximal size and mass 7 The plumage of this crow sized woodpecker is entirely black apart from a red crown In males the entire crown is red but in females only the top hindcrown is red with the rest of the body all black 6 The juvenile black woodpecker is similar but is less glossy with a duller red crown and a paler grey throat and bill 10 The piercing yellow eyes and manic high pitched calls of the black woodpecker have made it the villain of fairy tales throughout its range Their voice is remarkable in that it has two different calls One is a short single high pitched note a loud whistling kree kree kree done only twice in a row The other is a screech like shrill while in flight Unlike other woodpecker species the black woodpecker does not have a dipping bounding flight but instead flies with slow unsteady seeming wing beats with its head raised 7 10 Distribution and habitat Edit A black woodpecker taking anting bath in Hungary The range of the black woodpecker spreads east from Spain across the whole of Europe excluding Great Britain Ireland and northern Scandinavia It is also native to parts of Asia including Korea Japan and China and to the Middle East including Iran and Kazakhstan The southern limits of this woodpecker s range are in Spain and Italy and it has also been recorded as a vagrant in Portugal The species is generally more uncommon and more discontinuous in distribution in the Asian part of its range 11 The black woodpecker is mainly found in forested regions with a preference for extensive mature woodland including coniferous tropical subtropical and boreal forests It is very widespread throughout mountainous and lowland forests It is more likely to occur in marginal woods near human habitations during the non breeding season This species has been observed at elevations between 100 and 2 400 m 330 and 7 870 ft 11 7 10 The black woodpecker is noticeably absent from the British Isles Approximately 80 sightings of the species in the UK have been reported but some of these are disputed though the proximity of the British Isles to the species range in Western Europe means that the species may cross over on a regular basis 12 Behaviour and ecology Edit Tree work by black woodpecker Egg Collection Museum Wiesbaden The woodpecker feeds by using its bill to hammer on dead trees to dig out carpenter ants and wood boring beetle grubs 8 The selection of foods is relatively predictable narrow and consistent in this species 13 Like all woodpeckers this species has a specially adapted neck containing very strong muscles which allow it to endlessly hack away at tree bark Due to the size of its bill and large size and great physical power of this bird it can access prey fairly deep within a tree In order to position itself correctly it has short stumpy legs as well as long sharp claws and very stiff tail feathers The woodpecker will more than likely choose for its nest a tree with a fungal disease such as heart rot although some will utilise a living healthy tree Once a hole has been made the black woodpecker chips downwards through the trunk of the tree creating a nesting chamber the only lining being the woodchips created throughout the process The black woodpecker s excavations provide homes for many other species of bird and mammal and is therefore considered to be a keystone species in many of its habitats throughout its range It not only provides habitats for other species but also controls populations of wood boring insects helping to protect the trees 10 14 When the nest is ready the female lays a single clutch of two to eight eggs the average being four to six The nest hole is usually dug in a live poplar or pine tree 8 The breeding pair take it in turns to incubate the eggs also sharing duties of feeding and brooding the chicks once they have hatched The nestlings may fight their way to the entrance of the nest in order to be fed first After 18 to 35 days the young black woodpeckers will leave the nest staying with the adults for another week 7 10 Status EditThe black woodpecker is a fairly widely distributed woodland species and can successfully breed in most areas where extensive woodland is left At one point when much of Europe and Asia was deforested this species declined and in some areas is still struggling today including in the Pyrenees They normally require mature trees and ample stands of dead trees to sustain a viable breeding population 15 However with the restoration of some forested areas black woodpeckers have increased in some parts of Europe 13 They are occasionally considered a nuisance species due to their damage to power lines communication poles and houses occasionally resulting in woodpecker mortality due to electrocution or being culled by humans 16 The main cause of nesting failures appears to be predation 17 Their main natural predator is the pine marten Martes martes which feeds on eggs nestlings and brooding females and then often takes over the nest hole of the woodpeckers for its own 18 Other than the marten there are notably few known natural predators of black woodpeckers 19 Western jackdaws Corvus monedula are notably regular usurpers of this species nest holes and a potential predator of eggs and small nestlings 20 A few of the larger birds of prey that can hunt in woodlands may prey on black woodpeckers Among those recorded are Ural owls Strix uralensis 21 Eurasian eagle owls Bubo bubo 22 northern goshawks Accipiter gentilis 23 common buzzards Buteo buteo 24 and golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos Cultural significance Edit The black woodpecker in the coat of arms of Pielisjarvi The municipality of Nurmijarvi in Uusimaa Finland has adopted the black woodpecker as the title bird of the municipality because in addition to being the most common bird in the locality it also appears in the literature of Aleksis Kivi a Finnish national author originally from the Nurmijarvi 25 Nurmijarvi s local football club NJS has also adopted the black woodpecker as the club s logo 26 Dryocopus martius martius is thought to be the woodpecker referred to in the augural instructions on the early Italic Iguvine Tablets by the Umbrian word peiqu a bird very prominent in early Italic religion and mythology 27 See also EditBlack bodied woodpecker Pileated woodpeckerReferences Edit BirdLife International 2016 Dryocopus martius The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2016 3 RLTS T22681382A87301348 en Linnaeus Carl 1758 Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordines genera species cum characteribus differentiis synonymis locis in Latin Vol 1 10th ed Holmiae Stockholm Laurentii Salvii p 112 Peters James Lee ed 1948 Check List of Birds of the World Vol 6 Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press p 151 Boie Friedrich 1826 Generalubersicht Isis von Oken in German 19 Col 977 a b Gill Frank Donsker David Rasmussen Pamela eds 2020 Woodpeckers IOC World Bird List Version 10 1 International Ornithologists Union Retrieved 26 May 2020 a b The Birds of the Western Palearctic Abridged OUP 1997 ISBN 0 19 854099 X a b c d e f g Woodpeckers An Identification Guide to the Woodpeckers of the World by Hans Winkler David A Christie amp David Nurney Houghton Mifflin 1995 ISBN 978 0395720431 a b c Rolstad Jorund Rolstad Erlend Saeteren Oyvind 2000 Black woodpecker nest sites characteristics selection and reproductive success Journal of Wildlife Management 64 4 1053 1066 doi 10 2307 3803216 JSTOR 3803216 Brazil M 2009 Field Guide to the Birds of East Asia Eastern China Taiwan Korea Japan and Eastern Russia A amp C Black London a b c d e Perrins C M Attenborough D and Arlott N 1987 New Generation Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe University of Texas Press Texas a b Peterson R T Mountfort G and Hollom P A D 1993 Collins Field Guide Birds of Britain and Europe HarperCollins Publishers London Range expansion of the Black Woodpecker in Western Europe PDF British Birds 78 4 April 1985 a b Mikusinski Grzegorz 1995 Population trends in black woodpecker in relation to changes and characteristics of European forests Ecography 18 4 363 369 doi 10 1111 j 1600 0587 1995 tb00139 x Gorman G 2008 Central and Eastern European Wildlife Bradt Travel Guides Buckshire Garmendia Alfonso Carcamo Susana Schwendtner Oscar 2006 Forest management considerations for conservation of black woodpecker Dryocopus martius and white backed woodpecker Dendrocopos leucotos populations in Quinto Real Spanish Western Pyrenees Biodiversity and Conservation 15 4 1399 1415 doi 10 1007 s10531 005 5410 0 S2CID 8616002 Turcek F J 1960 On the damage by birds to power and communication lines Bird Study 7 4 231 236 doi 10 1080 00063656009475975 Martin Thomas E 1993 Evolutionary determinants of clutch size in cavity nesting birds nest predation or limited breeding opportunities American Naturalist 142 6 937 946 doi 10 1086 285582 JSTOR 2462692 PMID 19425942 Nilsson S G Johnsson K Tjernberg M 1991 Is avoidance by black woodpeckers of old nest holes due to predators Animal Behaviour 41 3 439 441 doi 10 1016 S0003 3472 05 80845 0 S2CID 53147765 Paclik Martin Misik Jan Weidinger Karel 2009 Nest Predation and Nest Defence in European and North American Woodpeckers A Review Annales Zoologici Fennici 46 5 361 379 doi 10 5735 086 046 0503 S2CID 86330780 Johnsson Kristina 1994 Colonial breeding and nest predation in the Jackdaw Corvus monedula using old Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martius holes Ibis 136 3 313 317 doi 10 1111 j 1474 919X 1994 tb01100 x Lundberg Arne 1981 Population ecology of the Ural owl Strix uralensis in central Sweden Ornis Scandinavica 12 2 111 119 doi 10 2307 3676035 JSTOR 3676035 Wassink G 2010 Het dieet van de Oehoe in Nederland en enkele aangrenzende gebieden in Duitsland Limosa 83 97 108 Opdam P Thissen J Verschuren P Muskens G 1977 Feeding ecology of a population of Goshawk Accipiter gentilis Journal fur Ornithologie 118 1 35 51 doi 10 1007 BF01647356 S2CID 44631480 Obuch Jan Sotnar Karol 2009 Feeding ecology of a nesting population of the Common Buzzard Buteo buteo in the Upper Nitra Region Central Slovakia Slovak Raptor Journal 3 13 20 doi 10 2478 v10262 012 0028 0 S2CID 84497619 Vaakuna ja tunnukset Nurmijarvi in Finnish Nurmijarven Jalkapalloseura tahtaa suomalaisen futiksen huipulle Nurmijarven Uutiset in Finnish Poultney J W Bronze Tables of Iguvium 1959 p 1 https archive org details bronzetablesofig00poul page n19 mode 2upBibliography Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dryocopus martius Gorman Gerard 2004 Woodpeckers of Europe A Study of the European Picidae Bruce Coleman UK ISBN 1 872842 05 4 Gorman Gerard 2011 The Black Woodpecker A monograph onDryocopus martius Lynx Edicions Barcelona ISBN 978 84 96553 79 8 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Black woodpecker amp oldid 1136290323, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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