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Battle of Ain Jalut

The Battle of Ain Jalut (Arabic: معركة عين جالوت, romanizedMa'rakat ‘Ayn Jālūt), also spelled Ayn Jalut, was fought between the Bahri Mamluks of Egypt and the Mongol Empire on 3 September 1260 (25 Ramadan 658 AH) near the spring of Ain Jalut in southeastern Galilee in the Jezreel Valley.

Battle of Ain Jalut
Part of the Mongol invasions of the Levant

Map showing movements of both forces, meeting eventually at Ain Jalut
Date3 September 1260 (26 Ramadan 658 H)
Location
Result

Mamluk victory

Territorial
changes
Territories captured by the Mongols are returned to the Mamluks.
Belligerents
Mamluk Sultanate
Ayyubid emirs of Kerak and Hamah
Ilkhanate
Commanders and leaders
Kitbuqa 
Units involved
Light cavalry and horse archers, heavy cavalry, infantry Mongol lancers and horse archers,
Strength
15,000–20,000[2][3][4] 10,000–20,000[5][6][7][8]
Casualties and losses
Unknown High[9]

Continuing the westward expansion of the Mongol Empire, the armies of Hulagu Khan captured and sacked Baghdad in 1258, along with the Ayyubid capital of Damascus sometime later.[10] Hulagu sent envoys to Cairo demanding Qutuz surrender Egypt, to which Qutuz responded by killing the envoys and displaying their heads on the Bab Zuweila gate of Cairo.[10] Shortly after this, Möngke Khan was slain in battle against the Southern Song. Hulagu returned to Mongolia with the bulk of his army to attend the kurultai in accordance with Mongol customs, leaving approximately 10,000 troops west of the Euphrates under the command of Kitbuqa.

Learning of these developments, Qutuz quickly advanced his army from Cairo towards Palestine.[11] Kitbuqa sacked Sidon, before turning his army south towards the Spring of Harod to meet Qutuz' forces. Using hit-and-run tactics and a feigned retreat by Mamluk general Baibars, combined with a final flanking maneuver by Qutuz, the Mongol army was forced to retreat toward Bisan, after which the Mamluks led a final counterattack, which resulted in the deaths of many Mongols, including Kitbuqa himself.

The battle has been cited as the first time the Mongols were permanently prevented from expanding their influence;[12] It also marked the first of two defeats the Mongols would face in their attempts to invade Egypt and the Levant, the other being the Battle of Marj al-Saffar in 1303. The earliest known use of the hand cannon in any military conflict is also documented to have taken place in this battle by the Mamluks, who used it to frighten the Mongol armies, according to Arabic military treatises of the 13th and 14th centuries.

Background Edit

When Möngke Khan became Great Khan in 1251, he immediately set out to implement his grandfather Genghis Khan's plan for a world empire. To lead the task of subduing the nations in the West, he selected his brother, another of Genghis Khan's grandsons, Hulagu Khan.[10] Assembling the army took five years, and it was not until 1256 that Hulagu was prepared to begin the invasions. Operating from the Mongol base in Persia, Hulagu proceeded south. Möngke had ordered good treatment for those who yielded without resistance and destruction for the rest. In that way, Hulagu and his army had conquered some of the most powerful and longstanding dynasties of the time.

Other countries in the Mongols' path submitted to Mongol authority and contributed forces to the Mongol army. When the Mongols had reached Baghdad, their army included Cilician Armenians and even some Frankish forces from the Principality of Antioch. The Assassins in Persia fell, the 500-year-old Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad was destroyed (see Battle of Baghdad) and the Ayyubid dynasty in Damascus fell as well. Hulagu's plan was then to proceed southwards through the Kingdom of Jerusalem towards the Mamluk Sultanate, to confront the major Islamic power.[10]

During the Mongol attack on the Mamluks in the Middle East, most of the Mamluks were Kipchaks, and the Golden Horde's supply of Kipchaks replenished the Mamluk armies and helped them fight off the Mongols.[13]

In 1260, Hulagu sent envoys to Qutuz in Cairo with a letter demanding his surrender. Qutuz responded, however, by killing the envoys and displaying their heads on Bab Zuweila, one of the gates of Cairo.[10] Hulagu withdrew from the Levant with the bulk of his army, leaving his forces west of the Euphrates with only one tumen (nominally 10,000 men, but usually fewer),[2] and a handful of vassal troops under the Naiman Nestorian Christian general Kitbuqa.[14] Contemporary Mamluk chronicler al-Yunini's Dhayl Mirat Al-Zaman states that the Mongol army under Kitbuqa, including vassals, numbered 100,000 men in total, but this was likely an exaggeration.[15]

Until the late 20th century, historians believed that Hulagu's sudden retreat had been caused by the power dynamic having been changed by the death of the Great Khan Möngke on an expedition to the Song dynasty's China, which made Hulagu and other senior Mongols return home to decide his successor. However, contemporary documentation discovered in the 1980s reveals that to be untrue, as Hulagu himself claimed that he withdrew most of his forces because he could not sustain such a large army logistically, that the fodder in the region had been mostly used up and that a Mongol custom was to withdraw to cooler lands for the summer.[16]

Upon receiving news of Hulagu's departure, Mamluk Sultan Qutuz quickly assembled a large army at Cairo and invaded Palestine.[11] In late August, Kitbuqa's forces proceeded south from their base at Baalbek, passing to the east of Lake Tiberias into Lower Galilee. Qutuz was then allied with a fellow Mamluk, Baibars, who chose to ally himself with Qutuz in the face of a greater enemy after the Mongols had captured Damascus and most of Bilad ash-Sham.[12]

Mongol invasion of the crusader states Edit

The Mongols attempted to form a Franco-Mongol alliance or at least to demand the submission of the remnant of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, now centered on Acre; but Pope Alexander IV had forbidden it. Tensions between the Franks and the Mongols had also increased when Julian of Sidon caused an incident which resulted in the death of one of Kitbuqa's grandsons. Angered, Kitbuqa sacked Sidon. The Barons of Acre and the remainder of the Crusader outposts, contacted by the Mongols, had also been approached by the Mamluks and sought military assistance against the Mongols.[12]

Though the Mamluks were the traditional enemies of the Franks, the Barons of Acre recognised the Mongols as the more immediate menace and so the Crusaders opted for a position of cautious neutrality between the two forces.[17] In an unusual move, they agreed that the Egyptian Mamluks could march north through the Crusader states unmolested and even camp to resupply near Acre. When news arrived that the Mongols had crossed the Jordan River, Sultan Qutuz and his forces proceeded southeast, toward the spring called Ain Jalut, also known as Harod's spring in Hebrew, in the Jezreel Valley.[18]

Battle Edit

 
A portrait of the battle of Ain Jalut

The first to advance were the Mongols, whose force also included troops from the Kingdom of Georgia and about 500 troops from the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, both of which had submitted to Mongol authority. The Mamluks had the advantage of knowing the terrain, and Qutuz capitalized on that by hiding the bulk of his force in the highlands and hoping to bait the Mongols with a smaller force, under Baibars.

Both armies fought for many hours, with Baibars usually implementing hit-and-run tactics to provoke the Mongol troops and to preserve the bulk of his troops intact. When the Mongols carried out another heavy assault, Baibars, who it is said had laid out the overall strategy of the battle since he had spent much time in that region earlier in his life as a fugitive, and his men feigned a final retreat to draw the Mongols into the highlands to be ambushed by the rest of the Mamluk forces concealed among the trees. The Mongol leader, Kitbuqa, already provoked by the constant fleeing of Baibars and his troops, committed a grave mistake. Instead of suspecting a trick, Kitbuqa decided to march forward with all of his troops on the trail of the fleeing Mamluks. When the Mongols reached the highlands, Mamluk forces emerged from hiding and began to fire arrows and attack with their cavalry. The Mongols then found themselves surrounded on all sides. Additionally, Timothy May hypothesizes that a key moment in the battle was the defection of the Mongol Syrian allies.[19]

The Mongol army fought very fiercely and very aggressively to break out. Some distance away, Qutuz watched with his private legion. When Qutuz saw the left wing of the Mamluk army almost destroyed by the desperate Mongols seeking an escape route, he threw away his combat helmet, so that his warriors could recognize him and cried loudly three times "O Islam! O Allah grant your servant Qutuz a victory against these Mongols". He was seen the next moment rushing fiercely towards the battlefield yelling wa islamah! ("Oh my Islam"), urging his army to keep firm and advancing towards the weakened side, followed by his own unit. The Mongols were pushed back and fled to a vicinity of Beisan, followed by Qutuz's forces, but they managed to reorganize and to return to the battlefield, making a successful counterattack. However, the battle shifted toward the Mamluks, who now had both the geographic and psychological advantage, and some of the Mongols were eventually forced to retreat. Kitbuqa, with almost the rest of the Mongol army that had remained in the region, perished.

Aftermath Edit

Hulagu Khan ordered the execution of the last Ayyubid emir of Aleppo and Damascus, An-Nasir Yusuf, and his brother, who were in captivity, after he heard the news of the defeat of the Mongol army at Ain Jalut.[20] However, the Mamluks captured Damascus five days later after Ain Jalut, followed by Aleppo within a month.

On the way back to Cairo after the victory at Ain Jalut, Qutuz was assassinated by several emirs in a conspiracy led by Baibars.[21] Baibars became the new Sultan. Local Ayyubid emirs sworn to the Mamluk sultanate subsequently defeated another Mongol force of 6,000 at Homs, which ended the first Mongol expedition into Syria. Baibars and his successors would go on to capture the last of the crusader states in the Holy Land by 1291.

Internecine conflict prevented Hulagu Khan from being able to bring his full power against the Mamluks to avenge the pivotal defeat at Ain Jalut. Berke Khan, the Khan of the Golden Horde to the north of Ilkhanate, had converted to Islam and watched with horror as his cousin destroyed the Abbasid Caliph, the spiritual and administrative center of Islam. The Muslim historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani quoted Berke as sending the following message to Mongke Khan, protesting the attack on Baghdad since he did not know that Mongke had died in China: "He (Hulagu) has sacked all the cities of the Muslims, and has brought about the death of the Caliph. With the help of God I will call him to account for so much innocent blood."[22] The Mamluks, learning through spies that Berke was a Muslim and was not fond of his cousin, were careful to nourish their ties to him and his Khanate.

Later on, Hulagu was able to send only a small army of two tumens in his sole attempt to attack the Mamluks in Aleppo in December 1260. They were able to massacre a large number of Muslims in retaliation for the death of Kitbuqa, but after a fortnight could make no other progress and had to retreat.[23]

After the Mongol succession was finally settled, with Kublai as the last Great Khan, Hulagu returned to his lands by 1262 and massed his armies to attack the Mamluks and avenge Ain Jalut. However, Berke Khan initiated a series of raids in force that lured Hulagu north, away from the Levant, to meet him. Hulagu suffered a severe defeat in an attempted invasion north of the Caucasus in 1263. That was the first open war among the Mongols and signaled the end of the unified empire. Hulagu Khan died in 1265 and was succeeded by his son Abaqa.

The Muslim Mamluks defeated the Mongols in all battles except one. Beside a victory to the Mamluks in Ain Jalut, the Mongols were defeated in the second Battle of Homs, Elbistan and Marj al-Saffar. After five battles with the Mamluks, the Mongols only won at the Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar.[24] They never returned to Syria again.

Legacy Edit

Medieval Edit

The large number of sources in vastly-different languages caused Mongol historians to have generally focused on one limited aspect of the empire. From that standpoint, the Battle of Ain Jalut has been represented by numerous academic and popular historians as an epochal battle. One that saw, for the first time, a Mongol advance that experienced their first major defeat and a permanent halt to forward movements.[12][25][page needed]

According to Arabic military treatises of the 14th centuries, hand cannon was used by the Mamluk side in the Battle of Ain Jalut to frighten the Mongol armies, making it the earliest known battle for hand cannon being used. The compositions of the gunpowder used in the cannon were also given in those manuals.[26][27][28][29][30][31] However, such claim contradicts other historians who claim hand cannons did not appear in the Middle East until the 14th century.[32][33]

A recent study claims that the Mongol defeat was in part caused by a short term climate anomaly following the eruption of Samalas volcano a few years earlier, stating that "a return to warmer and dryer conditions in the summer of 1260 CE, [...] likely reduced the regional carrying capacity and may therefore have forced a mass withdrawal of the Mongols from the region that contributed to the Mamluks’ victory."[34]32°33′02″N 35°21′25″E / 32.5506°N 35.3569°E / 32.5506; 35.3569

Modern Edit

One of the three original brigades of the Palestine Liberation Army was named "Ain Jalut", after the battle.[35] In July 1970, Yasser Arafat referred to the modern area in the context of the historical battle:[36]

This will not be the first time that our people has vanquished its enemies. The Mongols came and swept away the Abbasid caliphate, then they came to Ain Jalut in our land – in the same region where we are today fighting the Zionists – and they were defeated at Ain Jalut.

Notes Edit

  1. ^ "Battle of Ayn Jalut | Summary | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 27 August 2023.
  2. ^ a b John, Simon (2014). Crusading and warfare in the Middle Ages : realities and representations. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Limited. ISBN 9781472407412.
  3. ^ D. Nicolle, The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hülägü, Tamerlane. Plates by R. Hook, Firebird books: Pole 1990, p. 116.
  4. ^ Waterson, p. 75
  5. ^ Fisher, William Bayne; Boyle, J. A.; Boyle, John Andrew; Frye, Richard Nelson (1968). — Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968. — Vol. 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods. — P. 351. — 778 p. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521069366. Retrieved October 17, 2020.
  6. ^ Cowley, p.44, states that both sides were evenly matched at 20,000 men. Cline says that "In short, the . . . armies that were to meet at 'Ayn Jalut were probably of approximately the same size, with between ten thousand and twenty thousand men in each.", p. 145. Fage & Oliver, however, state that "the Mongol force at Ayn Jalut was nothing but a detachment, which was vastly outnumbered by the Mamluk army", p. 43.
  7. ^ Smith Jr, J. M. (1984). Ayn Jālūt: Mamlūk Success or Mongol Failure?. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, p.310.
  8. ^ John Masson Smith, Jr. (1984) Mongol Armies And Indian Campaigns, University of California, Berkeley.
  9. ^ Amitai-Preiss, p. 43
  10. ^ a b c d e Man, John (2006). Kublai Khan: From Xanadu to Superpower. London: Bantam. pp. 74–87. ISBN 978-0-553-81718-8.
  11. ^ a b p. 424, 'The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History' (4th edition, 1993), Dupuy & Dupuy,
  12. ^ a b c d Tschanz, David W. "Saudi Aramco World : History's Hinge: 'Ain Jalut".[permanent dead link]
  13. ^ Halperin, Charles J. 2000. "The Kipchak Connection: The Ilkhans, the Mamluks and Ayn Jalut". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 63 (2). Cambridge University Press: 229–45. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1559539.
  14. ^ René Grousset (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. Rutgers University Press. pp. 361, 363. ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1.
  15. ^ Yunini, "Dhayl," Vol. 4, p. 93.
  16. ^ Paul Meyvaert, “An Unknown Letter of Hulagu, Il-khan of Persia, to King Louis IX of France,” Viator 11 (1980): 258; 249: "Since it is our custom to prefer the cooler places of the snowy mountains in the heat of summer, we decided to return for a while to the mountains of Greater Armenia, especially as the greater part of the food and fodder had been consumed after the devastation of Aleppo and Damacsus ... it is nevertheless our intention shortly to complete our plan..."
  17. ^ Morgan, p. 137.
  18. ^ Bartlett, p. 253
  19. ^ Timothy May, the Mongol Art of War (2016).
  20. ^ Irwin 1999, p. 616
  21. ^ Although medieval historians give conflicting accounts, modern historians assign responsibility for Qutuz's assassination to Baibars, as Baibars had been promised Syria as a reward for his efforts in Ain Jalut, but when it was time to claim his prize, Qutuz commanded him to be patient. See Perry (p. 150), Amitai-Preiss (p. 47, "a conspiracy of amirs, which included Baybars and was probably under his leadership"), Holt et al. (Baibars "came to power with [the] regicide [of Qutuz] on his conscience"), and Tschanz. For further discussion, see article on "Qutuz".
  22. ^ The Mongol Warlords quotes Rashid al Din's record of Berke Khan's pronouncement; the quote is also found in Amitai-Preiss's The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War.
  23. ^ Runciman 1987, p. 314.
  24. ^ Amitai-Preiss, Reuven (1995) Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-46226-6 PAGE 1
  25. ^ Weatherford, Jack (2005). Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. Crown. ISBN 9780307237811. OL 24268772M.
  26. ^ Ahmad Yousef al-Hassan (2005). . Archived from the original on November 20, 2016. Retrieved February 14, 2017.
  27. ^ Ancient Discoveries, Episode 12: Machines of the East. History Channel. 2007. (Part 4 and Part 5)
  28. ^ Al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. (2008). "Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries". History Of Science And Technology In Islam. Retrieved November 20, 2016.
  29. ^ Al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. (2003). "Gunpower Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries". ICON. International Committee for the History of Technology. 9: 1–30. ISSN 1361-8113. JSTOR 23790667.
  30. ^ Broughton, George; Burris, David (2010). "War and Medicine: A Brief History of the Military's Contribution to Wound Care Through World War I". Advances in Wound Care: Volume 1. Mary Ann Liebert. pp. 3–7. doi:10.1089/9781934854013.3 (inactive 1 August 2023). ISBN 9781934854013. The first hand cannon appeared during the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut between the Egyptians and Mongols in the Middle East.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2023 (link)
  31. ^ Books, Amber; Dickie, Iain; Jestice, Phyllis; Jorgensen, Christer; Rice, Rob S.; Dougherty, Martin J. (2009). Fighting Techniques of Naval Warfare: Strategy, Weapons, Commanders, and Ships: 1190 BC - Present. St. Martin's Press. p. 63. ISBN 9780312554538. Known to the Arabs as midfa, was the ancestor of all subsequent forms of cannon. Materials evolved from bamboo to wood to iron quickly enough for the Egyptian Mamelukes to employ the weapon against the Mongols at the battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, which ended the Mongol advance into the Mediterranean world.
  32. ^ Hammer, Paul E. J. "Warfare in Early Modern Europe 1450–1660" Routledge, 2017, p. 505.
  33. ^ Iqtidar, Alam "Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India Journal of Asian History" Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 3.
  34. ^ Nicola Di Cosmo, Sebastian Wagner, Ulf Büntgen, Climate and environmental context of the Mongol invasion of Syria and defeat at ‘Ayn Jālūt (1258–1260 CE).2021 Erdkunde, 75, 2, doi=10.3112/erdkunde.2021.02.02 |url=https://www.erdkunde.uni-bonn.de/archive/2021/climate-and-environmental-context-of-the-mongol-invasion-of-syria-and-defeat-at-2018ayn-jalut-125820131260-ce
  35. ^ Gabriel Ben-Dor; Universiṭat Ḥefah. Makhon le-ḥeḳer ṿe-limud ha-Mizraḥ ha-tikhon (1978). The Palestinians and the Middle East conflict: an international conference held at the Institute of Middle Eastern Studies, University of Haifa, April 1976. Turtledove Pub. pp. 179, 187. ISBN 978-965-200-001-9.
  36. ^ International Documents on Palestine. Institute for Palestine Studies. 1973. p. 877, quoting "Radio Interview Statements by Central Committee Chairman Arafat of the PLO on the Efforts Being Made to Reach a Peaceful Settlement," 25 July 1970. Also in Paul T. Chamberlin, Preparing for Dawn: The United States and the Global Politics of Palestinian Resistance 1967-1975, Ohio State University, 2009

References Edit

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  • Amitai-Preiss, Reuven (1995). Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-46226-6.
  • Robert Cowley; Geoffrey Parker (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History. Houghton Mifflin. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-618-12742-9. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
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  • Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann; Lewis, Bernard (1977) The Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A: The Central Islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the First World War, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4.
  • Irwin, Robert (1999). "The rise of the Mamluks". In Abulafia, David (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 5, c.1198–c.1300. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 607–621. ISBN 978-1-13905573-4.
  • Morgan, David (1990) The Mongols. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-17563-6
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  • Reagan, Geoffry, (1992). The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles . Canopy Books, NY.
  • Runciman, Steven (1987). A History of the Crusades: Volume 3, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521347723.
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  • Soucek, Svatopluk (2000) A History of Inner Asia, Cambridge University Press.
  • Tschanz, David W. (July–August 2007). . Saudi Aramco World. Archived from the original on 2007-09-12. Retrieved 2007-09-24.4
  • John Masson Smith Jr. (1984) Mongol Armies and Indian Campaigns, University of California, Berkeley
  • Smith, John Masson. “Ayn Jālūt: Mamlūk Success or Mongol Failure?” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 44, no. 2, 1984, pp. 307–345. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2719035
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battle, jalut, arabic, معركة, عين, جالوت, romanized, rakat, jālūt, also, spelled, jalut, fought, between, bahri, mamluks, egypt, mongol, empire, september, 1260, ramadan, near, spring, jalut, southeastern, galilee, jezreel, valley, part, mongol, invasions, lev. The Battle of Ain Jalut Arabic معركة عين جالوت romanized Ma rakat Ayn Jalut also spelled Ayn Jalut was fought between the Bahri Mamluks of Egypt and the Mongol Empire on 3 September 1260 25 Ramadan 658 AH near the spring of Ain Jalut in southeastern Galilee in the Jezreel Valley Battle of Ain JalutPart of the Mongol invasions of the LevantMap showing movements of both forces meeting eventually at Ain JalutDate3 September 1260 26 Ramadan 658 H LocationNear Ayn Jalut Galilee Palestine 1 ResultMamluk victory Mongol invasion of Mamluk Sultanate halted Defeat of the Mongol ForcesTerritorialchangesTerritories captured by the Mongols are returned to the Mamluks BelligerentsMamluk Sultanate Ayyubid emirs of Kerak and HamahIlkhanateCommanders and leadersQutuz Baybars Al Mansur of HamahKitbuqa Units involvedLight cavalry and horse archers heavy cavalry infantryMongol lancers and horse archers Strength15 000 20 000 2 3 4 10 000 20 000 5 6 7 8 Casualties and lossesUnknownHigh 9 Continuing the westward expansion of the Mongol Empire the armies of Hulagu Khan captured and sacked Baghdad in 1258 along with the Ayyubid capital of Damascus sometime later 10 Hulagu sent envoys to Cairo demanding Qutuz surrender Egypt to which Qutuz responded by killing the envoys and displaying their heads on the Bab Zuweila gate of Cairo 10 Shortly after this Mongke Khan was slain in battle against the Southern Song Hulagu returned to Mongolia with the bulk of his army to attend the kurultai in accordance with Mongol customs leaving approximately 10 000 troops west of the Euphrates under the command of Kitbuqa Learning of these developments Qutuz quickly advanced his army from Cairo towards Palestine 11 Kitbuqa sacked Sidon before turning his army south towards the Spring of Harod to meet Qutuz forces Using hit and run tactics and a feigned retreat by Mamluk general Baibars combined with a final flanking maneuver by Qutuz the Mongol army was forced to retreat toward Bisan after which the Mamluks led a final counterattack which resulted in the deaths of many Mongols including Kitbuqa himself The battle has been cited as the first time the Mongols were permanently prevented from expanding their influence 12 It also marked the first of two defeats the Mongols would face in their attempts to invade Egypt and the Levant the other being the Battle of Marj al Saffar in 1303 The earliest known use of the hand cannon in any military conflict is also documented to have taken place in this battle by the Mamluks who used it to frighten the Mongol armies according to Arabic military treatises of the 13th and 14th centuries Contents 1 Background 1 1 Mongol invasion of the crusader states 2 Battle 3 Aftermath 4 Legacy 4 1 Medieval 4 2 Modern 5 Notes 6 ReferencesBackground EditWhen Mongke Khan became Great Khan in 1251 he immediately set out to implement his grandfather Genghis Khan s plan for a world empire To lead the task of subduing the nations in the West he selected his brother another of Genghis Khan s grandsons Hulagu Khan 10 Assembling the army took five years and it was not until 1256 that Hulagu was prepared to begin the invasions Operating from the Mongol base in Persia Hulagu proceeded south Mongke had ordered good treatment for those who yielded without resistance and destruction for the rest In that way Hulagu and his army had conquered some of the most powerful and longstanding dynasties of the time Other countries in the Mongols path submitted to Mongol authority and contributed forces to the Mongol army When the Mongols had reached Baghdad their army included Cilician Armenians and even some Frankish forces from the Principality of Antioch The Assassins in Persia fell the 500 year old Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad was destroyed see Battle of Baghdad and the Ayyubid dynasty in Damascus fell as well Hulagu s plan was then to proceed southwards through the Kingdom of Jerusalem towards the Mamluk Sultanate to confront the major Islamic power 10 During the Mongol attack on the Mamluks in the Middle East most of the Mamluks were Kipchaks and the Golden Horde s supply of Kipchaks replenished the Mamluk armies and helped them fight off the Mongols 13 In 1260 Hulagu sent envoys to Qutuz in Cairo with a letter demanding his surrender Qutuz responded however by killing the envoys and displaying their heads on Bab Zuweila one of the gates of Cairo 10 Hulagu withdrew from the Levant with the bulk of his army leaving his forces west of the Euphrates with only one tumen nominally 10 000 men but usually fewer 2 and a handful of vassal troops under the Naiman Nestorian Christian general Kitbuqa 14 Contemporary Mamluk chronicler al Yunini s Dhayl Mirat Al Zaman states that the Mongol army under Kitbuqa including vassals numbered 100 000 men in total but this was likely an exaggeration 15 Until the late 20th century historians believed that Hulagu s sudden retreat had been caused by the power dynamic having been changed by the death of the Great Khan Mongke on an expedition to the Song dynasty s China which made Hulagu and other senior Mongols return home to decide his successor However contemporary documentation discovered in the 1980s reveals that to be untrue as Hulagu himself claimed that he withdrew most of his forces because he could not sustain such a large army logistically that the fodder in the region had been mostly used up and that a Mongol custom was to withdraw to cooler lands for the summer 16 Upon receiving news of Hulagu s departure Mamluk Sultan Qutuz quickly assembled a large army at Cairo and invaded Palestine 11 In late August Kitbuqa s forces proceeded south from their base at Baalbek passing to the east of Lake Tiberias into Lower Galilee Qutuz was then allied with a fellow Mamluk Baibars who chose to ally himself with Qutuz in the face of a greater enemy after the Mongols had captured Damascus and most of Bilad ash Sham 12 Mongol invasion of the crusader states Edit The Mongols attempted to form a Franco Mongol alliance or at least to demand the submission of the remnant of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem now centered on Acre but Pope Alexander IV had forbidden it Tensions between the Franks and the Mongols had also increased when Julian of Sidon caused an incident which resulted in the death of one of Kitbuqa s grandsons Angered Kitbuqa sacked Sidon The Barons of Acre and the remainder of the Crusader outposts contacted by the Mongols had also been approached by the Mamluks and sought military assistance against the Mongols 12 Though the Mamluks were the traditional enemies of the Franks the Barons of Acre recognised the Mongols as the more immediate menace and so the Crusaders opted for a position of cautious neutrality between the two forces 17 In an unusual move they agreed that the Egyptian Mamluks could march north through the Crusader states unmolested and even camp to resupply near Acre When news arrived that the Mongols had crossed the Jordan River Sultan Qutuz and his forces proceeded southeast toward the spring called Ain Jalut also known as Harod s spring in Hebrew in the Jezreel Valley 18 Battle EditThis section relies largely or entirely on a single source Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources Find sources Battle of Ain Jalut news newspapers books scholar JSTOR September 2013 nbsp A portrait of the battle of Ain JalutThe first to advance were the Mongols whose force also included troops from the Kingdom of Georgia and about 500 troops from the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia both of which had submitted to Mongol authority The Mamluks had the advantage of knowing the terrain and Qutuz capitalized on that by hiding the bulk of his force in the highlands and hoping to bait the Mongols with a smaller force under Baibars Both armies fought for many hours with Baibars usually implementing hit and run tactics to provoke the Mongol troops and to preserve the bulk of his troops intact When the Mongols carried out another heavy assault Baibars who it is said had laid out the overall strategy of the battle since he had spent much time in that region earlier in his life as a fugitive and his men feigned a final retreat to draw the Mongols into the highlands to be ambushed by the rest of the Mamluk forces concealed among the trees The Mongol leader Kitbuqa already provoked by the constant fleeing of Baibars and his troops committed a grave mistake Instead of suspecting a trick Kitbuqa decided to march forward with all of his troops on the trail of the fleeing Mamluks When the Mongols reached the highlands Mamluk forces emerged from hiding and began to fire arrows and attack with their cavalry The Mongols then found themselves surrounded on all sides Additionally Timothy May hypothesizes that a key moment in the battle was the defection of the Mongol Syrian allies 19 The Mongol army fought very fiercely and very aggressively to break out Some distance away Qutuz watched with his private legion When Qutuz saw the left wing of the Mamluk army almost destroyed by the desperate Mongols seeking an escape route he threw away his combat helmet so that his warriors could recognize him and cried loudly three times O Islam O Allah grant your servant Qutuz a victory against these Mongols He was seen the next moment rushing fiercely towards the battlefield yelling wa islamah Oh my Islam urging his army to keep firm and advancing towards the weakened side followed by his own unit The Mongols were pushed back and fled to a vicinity of Beisan followed by Qutuz s forces but they managed to reorganize and to return to the battlefield making a successful counterattack However the battle shifted toward the Mamluks who now had both the geographic and psychological advantage and some of the Mongols were eventually forced to retreat Kitbuqa with almost the rest of the Mongol army that had remained in the region perished Aftermath EditHulagu Khan ordered the execution of the last Ayyubid emir of Aleppo and Damascus An Nasir Yusuf and his brother who were in captivity after he heard the news of the defeat of the Mongol army at Ain Jalut 20 However the Mamluks captured Damascus five days later after Ain Jalut followed by Aleppo within a month On the way back to Cairo after the victory at Ain Jalut Qutuz was assassinated by several emirs in a conspiracy led by Baibars 21 Baibars became the new Sultan Local Ayyubid emirs sworn to the Mamluk sultanate subsequently defeated another Mongol force of 6 000 at Homs which ended the first Mongol expedition into Syria Baibars and his successors would go on to capture the last of the crusader states in the Holy Land by 1291 Internecine conflict prevented Hulagu Khan from being able to bring his full power against the Mamluks to avenge the pivotal defeat at Ain Jalut Berke Khan the Khan of the Golden Horde to the north of Ilkhanate had converted to Islam and watched with horror as his cousin destroyed the Abbasid Caliph the spiritual and administrative center of Islam The Muslim historian Rashid al Din Hamadani quoted Berke as sending the following message to Mongke Khan protesting the attack on Baghdad since he did not know that Mongke had died in China He Hulagu has sacked all the cities of the Muslims and has brought about the death of the Caliph With the help of God I will call him to account for so much innocent blood 22 The Mamluks learning through spies that Berke was a Muslim and was not fond of his cousin were careful to nourish their ties to him and his Khanate Later on Hulagu was able to send only a small army of two tumens in his sole attempt to attack the Mamluks in Aleppo in December 1260 They were able to massacre a large number of Muslims in retaliation for the death of Kitbuqa but after a fortnight could make no other progress and had to retreat 23 After the Mongol succession was finally settled with Kublai as the last Great Khan Hulagu returned to his lands by 1262 and massed his armies to attack the Mamluks and avenge Ain Jalut However Berke Khan initiated a series of raids in force that lured Hulagu north away from the Levant to meet him Hulagu suffered a severe defeat in an attempted invasion north of the Caucasus in 1263 That was the first open war among the Mongols and signaled the end of the unified empire Hulagu Khan died in 1265 and was succeeded by his son Abaqa The Muslim Mamluks defeated the Mongols in all battles except one Beside a victory to the Mamluks in Ain Jalut the Mongols were defeated in the second Battle of Homs Elbistan and Marj al Saffar After five battles with the Mamluks the Mongols only won at the Battle of Wadi al Khaznadar 24 They never returned to Syria again Legacy EditMedieval Edit The large number of sources in vastly different languages caused Mongol historians to have generally focused on one limited aspect of the empire From that standpoint the Battle of Ain Jalut has been represented by numerous academic and popular historians as an epochal battle One that saw for the first time a Mongol advance that experienced their first major defeat and a permanent halt to forward movements 12 25 page needed According to Arabic military treatises of the 14th centuries hand cannon was used by the Mamluk side in the Battle of Ain Jalut to frighten the Mongol armies making it the earliest known battle for hand cannon being used The compositions of the gunpowder used in the cannon were also given in those manuals 26 27 28 29 30 31 However such claim contradicts other historians who claim hand cannons did not appear in the Middle East until the 14th century 32 33 A recent study claims that the Mongol defeat was in part caused by a short term climate anomaly following the eruption of Samalas volcano a few years earlier stating that a return to warmer and dryer conditions in the summer of 1260 CE likely reduced the regional carrying capacity and may therefore have forced a mass withdrawal of the Mongols from the region that contributed to the Mamluks victory 34 32 33 02 N 35 21 25 E 32 5506 N 35 3569 E 32 5506 35 3569 Modern Edit One of the three original brigades of the Palestine Liberation Army was named Ain Jalut after the battle 35 In July 1970 Yasser Arafat referred to the modern area in the context of the historical battle 36 This will not be the first time that our people has vanquished its enemies The Mongols came and swept away the Abbasid caliphate then they came to Ain Jalut in our land in the same region where we are today fighting the Zionists and they were defeated at Ain Jalut Notes Edit Battle of Ayn Jalut Summary Britannica www britannica com 27 August 2023 a b John Simon 2014 Crusading and warfare in the Middle Ages realities and representations Burlington VT Ashgate Publishing Limited ISBN 9781472407412 D Nicolle The Mongol Warlords Genghis Khan Kublai Khan Hulagu Tamerlane Plates by R Hook Firebird books Pole 1990 p 116 Waterson p 75 Fisher William Bayne Boyle J A Boyle John Andrew Frye Richard Nelson 1968 Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1968 Vol 5 The Saljuq and Mongol Periods P 351 778 p Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521069366 Retrieved October 17 2020 Cowley p 44 states that both sides were evenly matched at 20 000 men Cline says that In short the armies that were to meet at Ayn Jalut were probably of approximately the same size with between ten thousand and twenty thousand men in each p 145 Fage amp Oliver however state that the Mongol force at Ayn Jalut was nothing but a detachment which was vastly outnumbered by the Mamluk army p 43 Smith Jr J M 1984 Ayn Jalut Mamluk Success or Mongol Failure Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies p 310 John Masson Smith Jr 1984 Mongol Armies And Indian Campaigns University of California Berkeley Amitai Preiss p 43 a b c d e Man John 2006 Kublai Khan From Xanadu to Superpower London Bantam pp 74 87 ISBN 978 0 553 81718 8 a b p 424 The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History 4th edition 1993 Dupuy amp Dupuy a b c d Tschanz David W Saudi Aramco World History s Hinge Ain Jalut permanent dead link Halperin Charles J 2000 The Kipchak Connection The Ilkhans the Mamluks and Ayn Jalut Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies University of London 63 2 Cambridge University Press 229 45 https www jstor org stable 1559539 Rene Grousset 1970 The Empire of the Steppes A History of Central Asia Rutgers University Press pp 361 363 ISBN 978 0 8135 1304 1 Yunini Dhayl Vol 4 p 93 Paul Meyvaert An Unknown Letter of Hulagu Il khan of Persia to King Louis IX of France Viator 11 1980 258 249 Since it is our custom to prefer the cooler places of the snowy mountains in the heat of summer we decided to return for a while to the mountains of Greater Armenia especially as the greater part of the food and fodder had been consumed after the devastation of Aleppo and Damacsus it is nevertheless our intention shortly to complete our plan Morgan p 137 Bartlett p 253 Timothy May the Mongol Art of War 2016 Irwin 1999 p 616 Although medieval historians give conflicting accounts modern historians assign responsibility for Qutuz s assassination to Baibars as Baibars had been promised Syria as a reward for his efforts in Ain Jalut but when it was time to claim his prize Qutuz commanded him to be patient See Perry p 150 Amitai Preiss p 47 a conspiracy of amirs which included Baybars and was probably under his leadership Holt et al Baibars came to power with the regicide of Qutuz on his conscience and Tschanz For further discussion see article on Qutuz The Mongol Warlords quotes Rashid al Din s record of Berke Khan s pronouncement the quote is also found in Amitai Preiss s The Mamluk Ilkhanid War Runciman 1987 p 314 Amitai Preiss Reuven 1995 Mongols and Mamluks The Mamluk Ilkhanid War 1260 1281 Cambridge University Press Cambridge ISBN 978 0 521 46226 6 PAGE 1 Weatherford Jack 2005 Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World Crown ISBN 9780307237811 OL 24268772M Ahmad Yousef al Hassan 2005 Transfer of Islamic Technology to the West Part III Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries Transmission of Practical Chemistry Archived from the original on November 20 2016 Retrieved February 14 2017 Ancient Discoveries Episode 12 Machines of the East History Channel 2007 Part 4 and Part 5 Al Hassan Ahmad Y 2008 Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries History Of Science And Technology In Islam Retrieved November 20 2016 Al Hassan Ahmad Y 2003 Gunpower Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries ICON International Committee for the History of Technology 9 1 30 ISSN 1361 8113 JSTOR 23790667 Broughton George Burris David 2010 War and Medicine A Brief History of the Military s Contribution to Wound Care Through World War I Advances in Wound Care Volume 1 Mary Ann Liebert pp 3 7 doi 10 1089 9781934854013 3 inactive 1 August 2023 ISBN 9781934854013 The first hand cannon appeared during the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut between the Egyptians and Mongols in the Middle East a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of August 2023 link Books Amber Dickie Iain Jestice Phyllis Jorgensen Christer Rice Rob S Dougherty Martin J 2009 Fighting Techniques of Naval Warfare Strategy Weapons Commanders and Ships 1190 BC Present St Martin s Press p 63 ISBN 9780312554538 Known to the Arabs as midfa was the ancestor of all subsequent forms of cannon Materials evolved from bamboo to wood to iron quickly enough for the Egyptian Mamelukes to employ the weapon against the Mongols at the battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 which ended the Mongol advance into the Mediterranean world Hammer Paul E J Warfare in Early Modern Europe 1450 1660 Routledge 2017 p 505 Iqtidar Alam Gunpowder and Firearms Warfare in Medieval India Journal of Asian History Oxford University Press 2004 p 3 Nicola Di Cosmo Sebastian Wagner Ulf Buntgen Climate and environmental context of the Mongol invasion of Syria and defeat at Ayn Jalut 1258 1260 CE 2021 Erdkunde 75 2 doi 10 3112 erdkunde 2021 02 02 url https www erdkunde uni bonn de archive 2021 climate and environmental context of the mongol invasion of syria and defeat at 2018ayn jalut 125820131260 ce Gabriel Ben Dor Universiṭat Ḥefah Makhon le ḥeḳer ṿe limud ha Mizraḥ ha tikhon 1978 The Palestinians and the Middle East conflict an international conference held at the Institute of Middle Eastern Studies University of Haifa April 1976 Turtledove Pub pp 179 187 ISBN 978 965 200 001 9 International Documents on Palestine Institute for Palestine Studies 1973 p 877 quoting Radio Interview Statements by Central Committee Chairman Arafat of the PLO on the Efforts Being Made to Reach a Peaceful Settlement 25 July 1970 Also in Paul T Chamberlin Preparing for Dawn The United States and the Global Politics of Palestinian Resistance 1967 1975 Ohio State University 2009References EditAl Maqrizi Al Selouk Leme refatt Dewall al Melouk Dar al kotob 1997 Bohn Henry G 1848 The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings Chronicles of the Crusades AMS Press New York 1969 ed a translation of Chronicles of the Crusades being contemporary narratives of the crusade of Richard Coeur de Lion by Richard of Devizes and Geoffrey de Vinsauf and of the crusade of St Louis by Lord John de Joinville Amitai Preiss Reuven 1995 Mongols and Mamluks The Mamluk Ilkhanid War 1260 1281 Cambridge University Press Cambridge ISBN 978 0 521 46226 6 Robert Cowley Geoffrey Parker 2001 The Reader s Companion to Military History Houghton Mifflin p 44 ISBN 978 0 618 12742 9 Retrieved 2008 03 26 Grousset Rene 1991 Histoire des Croisades III Editions Perrin ISBN 2 262 02569 X Hildinger Erik 1997 Warriors of the Steppe Sarpedon Publishing ISBN 0 306 81065 4 Holt P M Lambton Ann Lewis Bernard 1977 The Cambridge History of Islam Vol 1A The Central Islamic Lands from Pre Islamic Times to the First World War Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 29135 4 Irwin Robert 1999 The rise of the Mamluks In Abulafia David ed The New Cambridge Medieval History Volume 5 c 1198 c 1300 Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 607 621 ISBN 978 1 13905573 4 Morgan David 1990 The Mongols Oxford Blackwell ISBN 0 631 17563 6 Nicolle David 1998 The Mongol Warlords Brockhampton Press Perry Glenn E 2004 The History of Egypt Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 313 32264 8 Reagan Geoffry 1992 The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles Canopy Books NY Runciman Steven 1987 A History of the Crusades Volume 3 The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521347723 Saunders J J 1971 The History of the Mongol Conquests Routledge amp Kegan Paul Ltd ISBN 0 8122 1766 7 Sicker Martin 2000 The Islamic World in Ascendancy From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna Praeger Publishers Soucek Svatopluk 2000 A History of Inner Asia Cambridge University Press Tschanz David W July August 2007 History s Hinge Ain Jalut Saudi Aramco World Archived from the original on 2007 09 12 Retrieved 2007 09 24 4 John Masson Smith Jr 1984 Mongol Armies and Indian Campaigns University of California Berkeley Smith John Masson Ayn Jalut Mamluk Success or Mongol Failure Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies vol 44 no 2 1984 pp 307 345 JSTOR www jstor org stable 2719035 Waterson James 2007 The Knights of Islam The Wars of the Mamluks Greenhill Books London ISBN 978 1 85367 734 2 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Battle of Ain Jalut amp oldid 1178666641, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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