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Amblyomma americanum

April 30, 2024

Amblyomma americanum, also known as the lone star tick, the northeastern water tick, or the turkey tick, is a type of tick indigenous to much of the eastern United States and Mexico, that bites painlessly and commonly goes unnoticed, remaining attached to its host for as long as seven days until it is fully engorged with blood. It is a member of the phylum Arthropoda, class Arachnida.[2] The adult lone star tick is sexually dimorphic, named for a silvery-white, star-shaped spot or "lone star" present near the center of the posterior portion of the adult female shield (scutum); adult males conversely have varied white streaks or spots around the margins of their shields.[3][4]

Northeastern water tick
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Ixodida
Family: Ixodidae
Genus: Amblyomma
Species:
A. americanum
Binomial name
Amblyomma americanum
Red indicates where the species is normally found; Blue indicates other locations where the species has been reported
Synonyms

Acarus americanus Linnaeus, 1758

A. americanum is also referred to as the turkey tick in some Midwestern U.S. states, where wild turkeys are a common host for immature ticks.[4] It is the primary vector of Ehrlichia chaffeensis, which causes human monocytic ehrlichiosis, and Ehrlichia ewingii, which causes human and canine granulocytic ehrlichiosis.[5] Other disease-causing bacterial agents isolated from lone star ticks include Francisella tularensis, Rickettsia amblyommii, and Coxiella burnetti.[6]

The distribution of the lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum) in the United States

Range and habitat edit

The lone star tick is widely distributed across the East, Southeast, and Midwest United States.[3][7] It lives in wooded areas, particularly in second-growth forests with thick underbrush, where white-tailed deer (the primary host of mature ticks) reside.[4][7][8] Lone star ticks can also be found in ecotonal areas (transition zones between different biomes) such as those between forest and grassland ecosystems.[7][8] The lone star tick uses thick underbrush or high grass to attach to its host by way of questing. Questing is an activity in which the tick climbs up a blade of grass or to the edges of leaves and stretches its front legs forward, in response to stimuli from biochemicals such as carbon dioxide or heat and vibration from movement, and mounts the passing host as it brushes against the tick's legs.[9] Once attached to its host, the tick is able to move around and select a preferred feeding site.[4]

The tick has also been reported outside of its range in Canada, in areas of Southern Ontario, including in London, Wellington County, and the Region of Waterloo.[10]

Development edit

 
Development of the lone star tick (A. americanum)

The tick follows the normal developmental stages of egg, larva, nymph, and adult. It is known as a three-host tick, meaning that it feeds from a different host during each of the larval, nymphal, and adult stages. The lone star tick attaches itself to a host by way of questing.[11] The eggs are laid on the ground, hatch, and the larvae wait for or actively seek a host (questing behavior). A larva feeds, detaches from its host, molts into a nymph when on the ground, and quests by crawling on the ground or waiting on vegetation. The nymph feeds and repeats the same process as the larva, but emerges having developed the anatomy of either an adult female or male. Adults quest similarly to nymphs. The female attaches only to a species of host for reproduction. The female engorges on much blood, expanding greatly, then detaches and converts the blood meal into eggs, which are laid on the ground. Females of large species of Amblyomma engorge to a weight of 5 g and lay 20,000 eggs. The female dies after this single egg-laying. The male takes repeated small meals of blood and attempts to mate repeatedly whilst on the same host. Feeding times for larvae last 4–7 days, nymphs for 5–10 days, and adults for 8 to 20 days. The time spent molting and questing off the host can occupy the remainder of 6 to 18 months for a single tick to complete its lifecycle. The lifecycle timing is often expanded by diapause (delayed or inactivated development or activity) in adaptation to seasonal variation of moisture and heat. Ticks are highly adapted for long-term survival off the host without feeding and can extract moisture directly from humid air. However, survival is greatly reduced by excess heat, dryness, and lack of suitable hosts to which to attach. Survival on the host is also greatly reduced by grooming and by hypersensitive immune reactions in the skin against the feeding of the ticks.[citation needed]

Hosts edit

The lone star tick is an aggressive, generalist feeder; it actively pursues blood meals and is not specific about the species of host upon which it feeds.[4] As already mentioned, A. americanum requires a separate animal or human host to complete each stage of its life cycle.[6] The lifecycle begins when the blood-engorged adult female tick drops from her host, depositing around 5,000 eggs a few days later, once she has reached a safe and suitable location, such as in mulch or leaf litter.[4] After an incubation period, larvae hatch from their eggs and undergo a quiescent (resting) period; this is followed by the pursuit of a host via questing.[4] After feeding for one to three days, the blood-engorged larva dislodges from its host to digest its blood meal and molt into a nymph. The nymph follows this same pattern, attaching to a new host via questing and dropping from the host after its blood meal to molt into an adult tick. The female adult tick dies shortly after depositing her eggs.[4]

Larval lone star ticks have been found attached to birds and small mammals, and nymphal ticks have been found on these two groups, as well as on small rodents.[4] Adult lone star ticks usually feed on medium and large mammals,[6] and are very frequently found on white-tailed deer.[2] Lone star ticks also feed on humans at any stage of development.[2]

Vector edit

Like all ticks, it can be a vector of diseases including human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis (Ehrlichia chaffeensis), canine and human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (Ehrlichia ewingii), tularemia (Francisella tularensis), and southern tick-associated rash illness (STARI, possibly caused by the spirochete Borrelia lonestari).[12] STARI exhibits a rash similar to that caused by Lyme disease, but is generally considered to be less severe.[citation needed]

Though the primary bacterium responsible for Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi, has occasionally been isolated from lone star ticks, numerous vector competency tests have demonstrated that this tick is extremely unlikely to be capable of transmitting Lyme disease. Some evidence indicates A. americanum saliva inactivates B. burgdorferi more quickly than the saliva of Ixodes scapularis.[13] Recently the bacteria Borrelia andersonii and Borrelia americana have been linked to A. americanum.[14][15]

In 2013, in response to two cases of severe febrile illness occurring in two farmers in northwestern Missouri, researchers determined the lone star tick can transmit the heartland virus.[16] Six more cases were identified in 2012–2013 in Missouri and Tennessee.[17]

Meat allergy edit

Main article: Alpha-gal allergy

The bite of the lone star tick can cause a person to develop alpha-gal meat allergy, a delayed response to nonprimate mammalian meat and meat products.[18][19] The allergy manifests as anaphylaxis—a life-threatening allergic reaction characterized by constriction of airways and a drop in blood pressure.[18] This response is triggered by an IgE antibody to the mammalian oligosaccharide galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal).[20] A study published in 2019 discovered alpha-gal in the saliva of the lone star tick.[21] As well as occurring in non-primate mammals, alpha-gal is also found in cat dander and in the drug cetuximab.[22][20] Allergic reactions to alpha-gal usually occur 3–6 hours after consuming red meat, unlike allergic reactions to other foods, whose onset following consumption is more or less immediate, making it more difficult to identify what caused the reaction.[18] Skin tests with standard meat test solutions are unreliable when testing for alpha-gal allergy, whereas skin tests with raw meat and/or pork kidney are more sensitive. Specific tests for determination of IgE to alpha-gal are available.[23]

See also edit

  • Ticks of domestic animals
  • Surendra RS; Shahid Karim (2021). "Tick Saliva and the Alpha-Gal Syndrome: Finding a Needle in a Haystack". Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 11. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2021.680264. PMC 8331069. PMID 34354960.
  • Surendra RS; Choudhary S; Vorobiov J; Commins SP J; Shahid Karim (2024). "Tick bite-induced alpha-gal syndrome and immunologic responses in an alpha-gal deficient murine model". Frontiers in Immunology. 14. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1336883. PMC 10882631.

References edit

  1. ^ "Amblyomma americanum" at the Encyclopedia of Life
  2. ^ a b c Fisher, Emily J.; Mo, Jun; Lucky, Anne W. (2006-04-01). "Multiple Pruritic Papules From Lone Star Tick Larvae Bites". Archives of Dermatology. 142 (4): 491–4. doi:10.1001/archderm.142.4.491. ISSN 0003-987X. PMID 16618870.
  3. ^ a b "Geographic distribution of ticks that bite humans". cdc.gov. enters for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Division of Vector-Borne Diseases (DVBD). June 1, 2015. Retrieved October 30, 2016.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i "lone star tick - Amblyomma americanum (Linnaeus)". entnemdept.ufl.edu. Retrieved 2016-12-12.
  5. ^ "Ehrlichiosis | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2018-09-25. Retrieved 2016-12-12.
  6. ^ a b c "Amblyomma americanum (Lone star tick)". Wisconsin Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. 2012-05-30. Retrieved 2016-12-12.
  7. ^ a b c "CVBD - Lone Star Tick - Amblyomma americanum". www.cvbd.org. Retrieved 2016-12-12.
  8. ^ a b Soneshine, Daniel E. (1992). Biology of Ticks Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195059106.
  9. ^ Resources, University of California Agriculture and Natural. "Tick Biology". entomology.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved 2016-12-12.
  10. ^ "3 tick that causes red meat allergy found in Waterloo region over last 3 years". CBC News. 2019-07-05.
  11. ^ Holderman, Christopher J., and Phillip E. Kaufman. Lone Star Tick Amblyomma Americanum (Linnaeus): (Acari: Ixodidae). Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Extension. The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS), Jan. 2014. Web.
  12. ^ Edwin J. Masters; Chelsea N. Grigery; Reid W. Masters (June 2008). "STARI, or Masters disease: lone star tick-vectored Lyme-like illness". Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 22 (2): 361–376, viii. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2007.12.010. PMID 18452807.
  13. ^ K. E. Ledin; N. S. Zeidner; J. M. C. Ribeiro; B. J. Biggerstaff; M. C. Dolan; G. Dietrich; L. VredEvoe; J. Piesman (March 2005). "Borreliacidal activity of saliva of the tick Amblyomma americanum". Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 19 (1): 90–95. doi:10.1111/j.0269-283X.2005.00546.x. PMID 15752182. S2CID 270178.
  14. ^ Kerry L. Clark; Brian Leydet; Shirley Hartman (2013). "Lyme Borreliosis in Human Patients in Florida and Georgia, USA". Int J Med Sci. 10 (7): 915–931. doi:10.7150/ijms.6273. ISSN 1449-1907. PMC 3675506. PMID 23781138.
  15. ^ Piesman J, Sinsky RJ., Ability of Ixodes scapularis, Dermacentor variabilis, and Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae) to acquire, maintain, and transmit Lyme disease spirochetes (Borrelia burgdorferi) ; J Med Entomol. 1988 September; 25(5):336-9.
  16. ^ Harry M. Savage; Marvin S. Godsey Jr.; Amy Lambert; Nickolas A. Panella; Kristen L. Burkhalter; Jessica R. Harmon; R. Ryan Lash; David C. Ashley; William L. Nicholson (22 July 2013). "First Detection of Heartland Virus (Bunyaviridae: Phlebovirus) from Field Collected Arthropods". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 89 (3): 445–452. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.13-0209. PMC 3771279. PMID 23878186.
  17. ^ "CDC Reports More Cases of Heartland Virus Disease". CDC. January 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
  18. ^ a b c "NIAID scientists link cases of unexplained anaphylaxis to red meat allergy". National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2017-11-28. Retrieved 2018-05-09.
  19. ^ Commins, Scott P.; James, Hayley R.; Kelly, Libby A.; Pochan, Shawna L.; Workman, Lisa J.; Perzanowski, Matthew S.; Kocan, Katherine M.; Fahy, John V.; Nganga, Lucy W.; Ronmark, Eva; Cooper, Philip J.; Platts-Mills, Thomas A.E. (May 2011). "The relevance of tick bites to the production of IgE antibodies to the mammalian oligosaccharide galactose-α-1,3-galactose". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 127 (5): 1286–1293. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2011.02.019. PMC 3085643. PMID 21453959. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
  20. ^ a b Steinke, John W; Platts-Mills, Thomas AE; Commins, Scott P (2015). "The alpha gal story: Lessons learned from connecting the dots". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 135 (3): 589–597. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2014.12.1947. ISSN 0091-6749. PMC 4600073. PMID 25747720.
  21. ^ Crispell, Gary; Commins, Scott P.; Archer-Hartman, Stephanie A.; Choudhary, Shailesh; Dharmarajan, Guha; Azadi, Parastoo; Karim, Shahid (17 May 2019). "Discovery of Alpha-Gal-Containing Antigens in North American Tick Species Believed to Induce Red Meat Allergy". Frontiers in Immunology. 10: 1056. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01056. PMC 6533943. PMID 31156631.
  22. ^ Gonzalez-Quintela, A.; Dam Laursen, A. S.; Vidal, C.; Skaaby, T.; Gude, F.; Linneberg, A. (August 2014). "IgE antibodies to alpha-gal in the general adult population: relationship with tick bites, atopy, and cat ownership". Clinical & Experimental Allergy. 44 (8): 1061–1068. doi:10.1111/cea.12326. ISSN 1365-2222. PMID 24750173. S2CID 388053.
  23. ^ Bircher, Andreas J.; Hofmeier, Kathrin Scherer; Link, Susanne; Heijnen, Ingmar (2017-02-01). "Food allergy to the carbohydrate galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal): four case reports and a review". European Journal of Dermatology. 27 (1): 3–9. doi:10.1684/ejd.2016.2908. ISSN 1952-4013. PMID 27873733. S2CID 2400078.

External links edit

  •   Data related to Amblyomma americanum at Wikispecies
  •   Media related to Amblyomma americanum at Wikimedia Commons
  • Kansas State University - Animal Parasitology - Hypostomes (and dentition) of three tick species

April 30, 2024
amblyomma, americanum, also, known, lone, star, tick, northeastern, water, tick, turkey, tick, type, tick, indigenous, much, eastern, united, states, mexico, that, bites, painlessly, commonly, goes, unnoticed, remaining, attached, host, long, seven, days, unti. Amblyomma americanum also known as the lone star tick the northeastern water tick or the turkey tick is a type of tick indigenous to much of the eastern United States and Mexico that bites painlessly and commonly goes unnoticed remaining attached to its host for as long as seven days until it is fully engorged with blood It is a member of the phylum Arthropoda class Arachnida 2 The adult lone star tick is sexually dimorphic named for a silvery white star shaped spot or lone star present near the center of the posterior portion of the adult female shield scutum adult males conversely have varied white streaks or spots around the margins of their shields 3 4 Northeastern water tick Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Arthropoda Subphylum Chelicerata Class Arachnida Order Ixodida Family Ixodidae Genus Amblyomma Species A americanum Binomial name Amblyomma americanum Linnaeus 1758 1 Red indicates where the species is normally found Blue indicates other locations where the species has been reported Synonyms Acarus americanus Linnaeus 1758 A americanum is also referred to as the turkey tick in some Midwestern U S states where wild turkeys are a common host for immature ticks 4 It is the primary vector of Ehrlichia chaffeensis which causes human monocytic ehrlichiosis and Ehrlichia ewingii which causes human and canine granulocytic ehrlichiosis 5 Other disease causing bacterial agents isolated from lone star ticks include Francisella tularensis Rickettsia amblyommii and Coxiella burnetti 6 The distribution of the lone star tick Amblyomma americanum in the United States Contents 1 Range and habitat 2 Development 3 Hosts 4 Vector 5 Meat allergy 6 See also 7 References 8 External linksRange and habitat editThe lone star tick is widely distributed across the East Southeast and Midwest United States 3 7 It lives in wooded areas particularly in second growth forests with thick underbrush where white tailed deer the primary host of mature ticks reside 4 7 8 Lone star ticks can also be found in ecotonal areas transition zones between different biomes such as those between forest and grassland ecosystems 7 8 The lone star tick uses thick underbrush or high grass to attach to its host by way of questing Questing is an activity in which the tick climbs up a blade of grass or to the edges of leaves and stretches its front legs forward in response to stimuli from biochemicals such as carbon dioxide or heat and vibration from movement and mounts the passing host as it brushes against the tick s legs 9 Once attached to its host the tick is able to move around and select a preferred feeding site 4 The tick has also been reported outside of its range in Canada in areas of Southern Ontario including in London Wellington County and the Region of Waterloo 10 Development edit nbsp Development of the lone star tick A americanum The tick follows the normal developmental stages of egg larva nymph and adult It is known as a three host tick meaning that it feeds from a different host during each of the larval nymphal and adult stages The lone star tick attaches itself to a host by way of questing 11 The eggs are laid on the ground hatch and the larvae wait for or actively seek a host questing behavior A larva feeds detaches from its host molts into a nymph when on the ground and quests by crawling on the ground or waiting on vegetation The nymph feeds and repeats the same process as the larva but emerges having developed the anatomy of either an adult female or male Adults quest similarly to nymphs The female attaches only to a species of host for reproduction The female engorges on much blood expanding greatly then detaches and converts the blood meal into eggs which are laid on the ground Females of large species of Amblyomma engorge to a weight of 5 g and lay 20 000 eggs The female dies after this single egg laying The male takes repeated small meals of blood and attempts to mate repeatedly whilst on the same host Feeding times for larvae last 4 7 days nymphs for 5 10 days and adults for 8 to 20 days The time spent molting and questing off the host can occupy the remainder of 6 to 18 months for a single tick to complete its lifecycle The lifecycle timing is often expanded by diapause delayed or inactivated development or activity in adaptation to seasonal variation of moisture and heat Ticks are highly adapted for long term survival off the host without feeding and can extract moisture directly from humid air However survival is greatly reduced by excess heat dryness and lack of suitable hosts to which to attach Survival on the host is also greatly reduced by grooming and by hypersensitive immune reactions in the skin against the feeding of the ticks citation needed Hosts editThe lone star tick is an aggressive generalist feeder it actively pursues blood meals and is not specific about the species of host upon which it feeds 4 As already mentioned A americanum requires a separate animal or human host to complete each stage of its life cycle 6 The lifecycle begins when the blood engorged adult female tick drops from her host depositing around 5 000 eggs a few days later once she has reached a safe and suitable location such as in mulch or leaf litter 4 After an incubation period larvae hatch from their eggs and undergo a quiescent resting period this is followed by the pursuit of a host via questing 4 After feeding for one to three days the blood engorged larva dislodges from its host to digest its blood meal and molt into a nymph The nymph follows this same pattern attaching to a new host via questing and dropping from the host after its blood meal to molt into an adult tick The female adult tick dies shortly after depositing her eggs 4 Larval lone star ticks have been found attached to birds and small mammals and nymphal ticks have been found on these two groups as well as on small rodents 4 Adult lone star ticks usually feed on medium and large mammals 6 and are very frequently found on white tailed deer 2 Lone star ticks also feed on humans at any stage of development 2 Vector editLike all ticks it can be a vector of diseases including human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis Ehrlichia chaffeensis canine and human granulocytic ehrlichiosis Ehrlichia ewingii tularemia Francisella tularensis and southern tick associated rash illness STARI possibly caused by the spirochete Borrelia lonestari 12 STARI exhibits a rash similar to that caused by Lyme disease but is generally considered to be less severe citation needed Though the primary bacterium responsible for Lyme disease Borrelia burgdorferi has occasionally been isolated from lone star ticks numerous vector competency tests have demonstrated that this tick is extremely unlikely to be capable of transmitting Lyme disease Some evidence indicates A americanum saliva inactivates B burgdorferi more quickly than the saliva of Ixodes scapularis 13 Recently the bacteria Borrelia andersonii and Borrelia americana have been linked to A americanum 14 15 In 2013 in response to two cases of severe febrile illness occurring in two farmers in northwestern Missouri researchers determined the lone star tick can transmit the heartland virus 16 Six more cases were identified in 2012 2013 in Missouri and Tennessee 17 Meat allergy editMain article Alpha gal allergy The bite of the lone star tick can cause a person to develop alpha gal meat allergy a delayed response to nonprimate mammalian meat and meat products 18 19 The allergy manifests as anaphylaxis a life threatening allergic reaction characterized by constriction of airways and a drop in blood pressure 18 This response is triggered by an IgE antibody to the mammalian oligosaccharide galactose alpha 1 3 galactose alpha gal 20 A study published in 2019 discovered alpha gal in the saliva of the lone star tick 21 As well as occurring in non primate mammals alpha gal is also found in cat dander and in the drug cetuximab 22 20 Allergic reactions to alpha gal usually occur 3 6 hours after consuming red meat unlike allergic reactions to other foods whose onset following consumption is more or less immediate making it more difficult to identify what caused the reaction 18 Skin tests with standard meat test solutions are unreliable when testing for alpha gal allergy whereas skin tests with raw meat and or pork kidney are more sensitive Specific tests for determination of IgE to alpha gal are available 23 See also editTicks of domestic animals Surendra RS Shahid Karim 2021 Tick Saliva and the Alpha Gal Syndrome Finding a Needle in a Haystack Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 11 doi 10 3389 fcimb 2021 680264 PMC 8331069 PMID 34354960 Surendra RS Choudhary S Vorobiov J Commins SP J Shahid Karim 2024 Tick bite induced alpha gal syndrome and immunologic responses in an alpha gal deficient murine model Frontiers in Immunology 14 doi 10 3389 fimmu 2023 1336883 PMC 10882631 References edit Amblyomma americanum at the Encyclopedia of Life a b c Fisher Emily J Mo Jun Lucky Anne W 2006 04 01 Multiple Pruritic Papules From Lone Star Tick Larvae Bites Archives of Dermatology 142 4 491 4 doi 10 1001 archderm 142 4 491 ISSN 0003 987X PMID 16618870 a b Geographic distribution of ticks that bite humans cdc gov enters for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases NCEZID Division of Vector Borne Diseases DVBD June 1 2015 Retrieved October 30 2016 a b c d e f g h i lone star tick Amblyomma americanum Linnaeus entnemdept ufl edu Retrieved 2016 12 12 Ehrlichiosis CDC www cdc gov 2018 09 25 Retrieved 2016 12 12 a b c Amblyomma americanum Lone star tick Wisconsin Ticks and Tick borne Diseases 2012 05 30 Retrieved 2016 12 12 a b c CVBD Lone Star Tick Amblyomma americanum www cvbd org Retrieved 2016 12 12 a b Soneshine Daniel E 1992 Biology of Ticks Volume I Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195059106 Resources University of California Agriculture and Natural Tick Biology entomology ucdavis edu Retrieved 2016 12 12 3 tick that causes red meat allergy found in Waterloo region over last 3 years CBC News 2019 07 05 Holderman Christopher J and Phillip E Kaufman Lone Star Tick Amblyomma Americanum Linnaeus Acari Ixodidae Entomology and Nematology Department UF IFAS Extension The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences IFAS Jan 2014 Web Edwin J Masters Chelsea N Grigery Reid W Masters June 2008 STARI or Masters disease lone star tick vectored Lyme like illness Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 22 2 361 376 viii doi 10 1016 j idc 2007 12 010 PMID 18452807 K E Ledin N S Zeidner J M C Ribeiro B J Biggerstaff M C Dolan G Dietrich L VredEvoe J Piesman March 2005 Borreliacidal activity of saliva of the tick Amblyomma americanum Medical and Veterinary Entomology 19 1 90 95 doi 10 1111 j 0269 283X 2005 00546 x PMID 15752182 S2CID 270178 Kerry L Clark Brian Leydet Shirley Hartman 2013 Lyme Borreliosis in Human Patients in Florida and Georgia USA Int J Med Sci 10 7 915 931 doi 10 7150 ijms 6273 ISSN 1449 1907 PMC 3675506 PMID 23781138 Piesman J Sinsky RJ Ability of Ixodes scapularis Dermacentor variabilis and Amblyomma americanum Acari Ixodidae to acquire maintain and transmit Lyme disease spirochetes Borrelia burgdorferi J Med Entomol 1988 September 25 5 336 9 Harry M Savage Marvin S Godsey Jr Amy Lambert Nickolas A Panella Kristen L Burkhalter Jessica R Harmon R Ryan Lash David C Ashley William L Nicholson 22 July 2013 First Detection of Heartland Virus Bunyaviridae Phlebovirus from Field Collected Arthropods Am J Trop Med Hyg 89 3 445 452 doi 10 4269 ajtmh 13 0209 PMC 3771279 PMID 23878186 CDC Reports More Cases of Heartland Virus Disease CDC January 2016 Retrieved 25 May 2016 a b c NIAID scientists link cases of unexplained anaphylaxis to red meat allergy National Institutes of Health NIH 2017 11 28 Retrieved 2018 05 09 Commins Scott P James Hayley R Kelly Libby A Pochan Shawna L Workman Lisa J Perzanowski Matthew S Kocan Katherine M Fahy John V Nganga Lucy W Ronmark Eva Cooper Philip J Platts Mills Thomas A E May 2011 The relevance of tick bites to the production of IgE antibodies to the mammalian oligosaccharide galactose a 1 3 galactose The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 127 5 1286 1293 doi 10 1016 j jaci 2011 02 019 PMC 3085643 PMID 21453959 Retrieved 20 May 2014 a b Steinke John W Platts Mills Thomas AE Commins Scott P 2015 The alpha gal story Lessons learned from connecting the dots The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 135 3 589 597 doi 10 1016 j jaci 2014 12 1947 ISSN 0091 6749 PMC 4600073 PMID 25747720 Crispell Gary Commins Scott P Archer Hartman Stephanie A Choudhary Shailesh Dharmarajan Guha Azadi Parastoo Karim Shahid 17 May 2019 Discovery of Alpha Gal Containing Antigens in North American Tick Species Believed to Induce Red Meat Allergy Frontiers in Immunology 10 1056 doi 10 3389 fimmu 2019 01056 PMC 6533943 PMID 31156631 Gonzalez Quintela A Dam Laursen A S Vidal C Skaaby T Gude F Linneberg A August 2014 IgE antibodies to alpha gal in the general adult population relationship with tick bites atopy and cat ownership Clinical amp Experimental Allergy 44 8 1061 1068 doi 10 1111 cea 12326 ISSN 1365 2222 PMID 24750173 S2CID 388053 Bircher Andreas J Hofmeier Kathrin Scherer Link Susanne Heijnen Ingmar 2017 02 01 Food allergy to the carbohydrate galactose alpha 1 3 galactose alpha gal four case reports and a review European Journal of Dermatology 27 1 3 9 doi 10 1684 ejd 2016 2908 ISSN 1952 4013 PMID 27873733 S2CID 2400078 External links edit nbsp Data related to Amblyomma americanum at Wikispecies nbsp Media related to Amblyomma americanum at Wikimedia Commons Kansas State University Animal Parasitology Hypostomes and dentition of three tick species Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Amblyomma americanum amp oldid 1221243499, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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