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441-line television system

December 01, 2023

441-line is the number of scan lines in some early electronic monochrome analog television systems. Systems with this number of lines were used with 25 interlaced frames per second in France from 1937 to 1956,[1] Germany from 1939 to 1943,[2][3] Italy from 1939[1] to 1940, as well as by RCA in the United States with 30 interlaced frames per second from 1938 to 1941. Broadcasts were planned in Finland for 1940,[1] but eventually cancelled due to World War II. Some experiments with similar systems were carried out on the USSR in the 1930s[1] and Japan in 1939.[1]

Germany edit

After trials with a 375-line system during the Berlin Olympic Games of 1936, by 1937 Germany had introduced a 441-line with 50 interlaced fields per second television system that replaced the previous 180 lines network relayed by a special Reichspost (National Post Office) cable network in the country's main cities (Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Bayreuth, Nuremberg). The system's line frequency was 11.025 kHz and the broadcast frequencies were 46.0 MHz for vision and 43.2 MHz for sound, using a 4 MHz channel bandwidth.[2] Its image aspect ratio was close to 1.15:1.

A project began in 1938 involving the National Post and several companies including Bosch, Blaupunkt, Loewe,[4] Lorenz, TeKaDe [de][5] and Telefunken[6][7] that aimed to produce 10,000 receivers for the television system.

Telefunken marketed the FE V, announced in 1936, with a 26 x 21 cm screen and a tuning range of 38-60 MHz.[8] The next year, 1937, the Heimprojektions-FSE was introduced, with a larger 50 x 40 cm screen, along with the FE VI with a 26 x 21 cm screen.[8][7] In 1938, the Tischfernseher TF 1 was released, with a 20 x 17 cm screen and a tuning range of 40-55 MHz.[8]

In 1937, Loewe created the FE-D, with a 24x20 cm screen and a tuning range of 35-55 MHz.[4]

In 1938, TeKaDe created a single model, the FS38, with a 30 x 27 cm screen and a tuning range of 43-52 MHz.[5] Other brands like Fernseh AG also created models like the DE 6, also introduced in 1938, with a 32 x 27 cm screen and a tuning range of 40-53 MHz[9]

A single-channel TV receiver, the Einheitsempfänger E1 was created in 1939.[2] It had a 29 cm (diagonal) screen, and consumed 185 watts when receiving television signals and 60 watts when receiving audio only.[2] Only a few units were built before the outbreak of World War II.

Due to the onset of World War II, only about 50 devices were installed in military hospitals and various government departments. The transmitter's aerials in Berlin were destroyed during an Allied Forces' bombing in November 1943, but the station was also relayed by a special coaxial cable network to "wide screen" public "TV-rooms" (Fernsehstuben) so it carried on this way until 1944.

German 441-line TV system technical details:[10][2]
Field frequency Active picture Field blanking No. of broad pulses Broad pulse width Front porch Line sync Back porch Active line time Video/syncs ratio Channel bandwidth Visual bandwidth Sound offset Vision mod. Sound mod. Aspect ratio Line Frequency
50 Hz interlaced 383 lines 29 lines 8 per field 36.3 μs 1.0 μs 9.0 μs 6.3 μs 74.3 μs 70/30 4 MHz 2 MHz[7] 2.8 Pos. AM 1.15:1 11025 Hz
  • 441-line TV in Germany
  •  

    441-line Telefunken FE V television from 1936.

  •  

    441-line Telefunken FE VI television from 1937.

  •  

    Einheitsempfänger E1 441-line TV set from 1939.

  •  

    Einheitsempfänger E1 chassis, 1939.

  •  

    1942 photo of a TV in a Berlin military hospital, setup by the German Reichspost.

France edit

By 1941 the "Fernsehsender Paris" station transmitted from the Eiffel Tower in Paris using the German 441-line system and its main technical characteristics, while however keeping the previous French 455-line[1] broadcast frequencies 42 MHz - 46 MHz in use from 1938 to 1940, thus with a larger visual bandwidth than the station operating in Berlin.[11] Television programs were mainly for wounded soldiers of the Wehrmacht occupation troops who recovered in the Greater Paris Area hospitals, but they also included French-language shows. Broadcasts were monitored in the United Kingdom during the Second World War to gather intelligence information from occupied France.

The line frequency was 11.025 kHz with vision broadcast at 46.0 MHz and sound at 42.0 MHz. Aerials were independent for audio and vision at the top of the Eiffel tower, both vertically polarized. No gain being obtained from these pre-war basic aerials, the effective radiated power was only the transmitter's peak one, i.e. 30 kW which enabled a good reception in a radius of 100 km (62 miles) around Paris. As displayed in J.M. Frost's WRTH (World Radio TV Handbook) editions at that time, the transmitter's frequencies (42-46 MHz) were listed as channel "F1" or channel "S" (or "Special" channel) in the European Broadcasting Union's official documents.

After July 1952 the 441-line transmitter was no longer broadcasting separate programs, but simply picked up the national network's picture through an 819 - 441-line "optical converter" (a 441-line camera, slightly out of focus, pointed at an 819-lines monitor equipped with an oval spotlight cathode ray tube). Broadcasts were due to cease on January 1, 1958, as the 819 lines standard had been adopted in 1948 for the national network. However, after a long elections coverage night, most of the 441-line equipment was destroyed by fire on January 3, 1956. It was decided to indemnify the 3,000 owners of remaining 441-line sets and to entitle them to reduced rates for their new 819 lines receivers.

French 441-line TV technical details:[11][1][10][2]
Field frequency Active picture Field blanking No. of broad pulses Broad pulse width Front porch Line sync Back porch Active line time Video/syncs ratio Channel bandwidth Visual bandwidth Sound offset Vision mod. Vestigial sideband Sound mod. Aspect ratio Line Frequency
50 Hz interlaced 383 lines 29 lines 8 per field 36.3 μs 1.0 μs 9.0 μs 6.3 μs 74.3 μs 70/30 7 MHz 3 MHz 4 Pos. 3 AM 1.15:1 11025 Hz

Italy edit

Following pre-war tests in 375 lines done by a Turin engineer named Arturo Castellani,[12][13][14][15] broadcasts using the 441-line system began in Italy in 1939[1][16] with regular services from Rome using 2 kW power and Milan using 400W of power in the frequency band of 40-45 MHz.[11] As in France technical parameters – VHF frequencies excepted – were identical to those in use in Germany.

Broadcasts were discontinued on May 31, 1940.[17]

United States edit

In September 1938 the Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA) recommended the 441-line system[18] developed by RCA and Farnsworth Television.[19][20][21][22][23] Tests started a year before, in an attempt to perfect a 343-line system,[20] with RCA executives petitioning the FCC for approval of their new standard.[24] In early 1938 Philco's experimental transmitter W3XE in Philadelphia was already using the system.[18][25][26][23]

TV broadcasts were publicly launched in April 1939 by NBC, during the New York World's Fair, using the W2XBS station.[27] The first pre-built TV receivers were sold on a very limited basis, mostly in New York City. Manufacturers included RCA,[28] General Electric,[29] DuMont,[30] and Andrea Radio Corporation.[31][32]

By June 1939, regularly scheduled broadcasts were available in New York and Los Angeles. By October nineteen TV broadcast licenses had been issued, including stations in New York, Philadelphia (W3XE), Chicago, Washington, Fort Wayne, Cincinnati, Schenectady (W2XB), Los Angeles and San Francisco.[27]

By November General Electric's station in Schenectady started broadcasts. W2XBS in New York broadcast up to fifty-eight hours of programming per month until December 1939, to an estimate of 2,000 receiving sets. Reception area was a radius of 40-50 miles (80 km) from the Empire State Building.[33]

Following a decision of the NTSC (National Television System Committee), the 525-line standard replaced the 441-line standard on July 1, 1941.[34]

United States 441-line TV system technical details:[18]
Field Frequency Channel bandwidth Visual bandwidth Sound offset Vision mod. Sound mod. Aspect Ratio Line frequency
60 Hz interlaced 6 MHz 2.8 MHz 3.25 Neg. AM 4:3 13230 Hz
  • 441-line TV in the United States
  •  

    Ad for the beginning of experimental 441-line television broadcasting in New York City by RCA in 1939.

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    Federal Communications Commissioners inspect the latest in television, Washington, D.C., December 1, 1939.

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    General Electric HM-171 displaying image

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    General Electric television sets from 1939 General Electric HM-185, General Electric HM-226-7A, and General Electric Model 90.

Soviet Union edit

In the Soviet Union a specification for a 441-line system using 50 interlaced fields per second was proposed in 1940. Development of this system started in 193, derived from test broadcasts from Moscow, using a 343-line system based on RCA equipment.[35][36][37] Due to WWII the 441-line system never reached the broadcast stage.

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h "405 Alive - FAQ - 405-Line Television in History". www.bvws.org.uk.
  2. ^ a b c d e f "Einheits-Fernseh-Empfänger E l" (PDF). aobauer.home.xs4all.nl. pp. 320–321. (PDF) from the original on 28 March 2022.
  3. ^ TVTechnology (2005-03-20). "The Early Television Foundation to host convention". TVTechnology. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
  4. ^ a b "D. S. Loewe Prewar Sets". www.earlytelevision.org.
  5. ^ a b "Gerolf Poetschke's Site". www.earlytelevision.org.
  6. ^ "Telefunken FE-VI". www.earlytelevision.org.
  7. ^ a b c "FE VI Television Telefunken Deutschland TFK, Gesellschaft für, build". www.radiomuseum.org.
  8. ^ a b c "Telefunken Prewar Sets". www.earlytelevision.org.
  9. ^ "Gerolf Poetschke's Site". www.earlytelevision.org.
  10. ^ a b "R.T.Russell: Colour Test Card Generator". bbcbasic.uk.
  11. ^ a b c "Prewar European Stations". www.earlytelevision.org.
  12. ^ "History of Television | Undaradio". Retrieved 2023-01-08.
  13. ^ Arturo Castellani (1932). Televisione radiovisione. Ulrico Hoepli Editore.
  14. ^ "Safar Prewar Sets". www.earlytelevision.org. Retrieved 2023-01-08.
  15. ^ Reporter, Television (March 1937). "Italy's Progress in the Video Art" (PDF). Radio News: 575.
  16. ^ CASTELLANI, ARTURO (February 1940). "TELEVISION IN ITALY - SAFAR TELEVISION EQUIPMENT" (PDF). Electronics and Television & Short-Wave World: 63.
  17. ^ Simon, Danielle Andrea (2020-01-01). "From Radio to Radio-visione: Italian Radio's Television Experiments, 1939–1940". Representations. doi:10.1525/rep.2020.151.1.1. S2CID 225384571.
  18. ^ a b c Murray, Albert (1938). "RMA Completes Television Standards" (PDF). Electronics (July): 28.
  19. ^ Fink, Donald (1938). "A LABORATORY TELEVISION RECEIVER" (PDF). Electronics (July): 16.
  20. ^ a b "Recent Progress in Television Technique" (PDF). Proceedings of the Radio Club of America. 17, No.1 (February). 1940.
  21. ^ "RCA'S FIRST ICONOSCOPE CAMERAS & THE PROTOTYPE". Eyes Of A Generation…Television's Living History.
  22. ^ Edgerton, Gary Richard (June 21, 2007). The Columbia History of American Television. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231121651 – via Google Books.
  23. ^ a b Abramson, Albert (June 27, 1955). "Electronic Motion Pictures". University of California Press – via Google Books.
  24. ^ Alexander B. Magoun, Television: The Life Story of a Technology. Greenwood, p. 65. ISBN 978-0313331282.
  25. ^ "The Deseret News - Google News Archive Search". news.google.com.
  26. ^ "Network TV". www.aes-media.org.
  27. ^ a b Burns, R. W. (June 21, 1998). Television: An International History of the Formative Years. IET. ISBN 9780852969144 – via Google Books.
  28. ^ "Early Electronic Television - RCA". Early Television Museum.
  29. ^ "Early Electronic Television - General Electric". Early Television Museum.
  30. ^ "Early Electronic Television - DuMont". Early Television Museum.
  31. ^ "Early Electronic Television - Andrea Radio Corp". Early Television Museum.
  32. ^ Pine, Arthur (1950). "Frank Andrea - Radio and Television Pioneer" (PDF). Radio and Television News (May): 40.
  33. ^ Lohr (1940)
  34. ^ "The following are random notes about". www.tech-notes.tv.
  35. ^ . Archived from the original on 2016-11-03. Retrieved 2022-06-27.
  36. ^ "RCA's Russian Television Connection". www.earlytelevision.org. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
  37. ^ Sharygina, Ludmila (2010). RUSSIAN ELECTRONICS CHRONOLOGY. TUCSR. p. 47.

Bibliography edit

  • Lohr, Lenox (1940). Television Broadcasting. New York: McGraw Hill.

External links edit

  • (in German) Rolf Wigand: Technische Beschreibung des E 1 (Zeitgenössischer Artikel in „Radio-Mentor", pdf 295 kB)
  • (in German) Eckhard Etzold: Ausführliche Webseite mit vielen Fotos sowie Schaltbild des E 1
  • http://www.compulink.co.uk/~rrussell/tccgen/manual/tcgen0.html
  • American Early Television Museum : pre-WWII TV-stations in Europe

December 01, 2023
line, television, system, line, number, scan, lines, some, early, electronic, monochrome, analog, television, systems, systems, with, this, number, lines, were, used, with, interlaced, frames, second, france, from, 1937, 1956, germany, from, 1939, 1943, italy,. 441 line is the number of scan lines in some early electronic monochrome analog television systems Systems with this number of lines were used with 25 interlaced frames per second in France from 1937 to 1956 1 Germany from 1939 to 1943 2 3 Italy from 1939 1 to 1940 as well as by RCA in the United States with 30 interlaced frames per second from 1938 to 1941 Broadcasts were planned in Finland for 1940 1 but eventually cancelled due to World War II Some experiments with similar systems were carried out on the USSR in the 1930s 1 and Japan in 1939 1 Contents 1 Germany 2 France 3 Italy 4 United States 5 Soviet Union 6 References 6 1 Bibliography 7 External linksGermany editAfter trials with a 375 line system during the Berlin Olympic Games of 1936 by 1937 Germany had introduced a 441 line with 50 interlaced fields per second television system that replaced the previous 180 lines network relayed by a special Reichspost National Post Office cable network in the country s main cities Berlin Hamburg Munich Bayreuth Nuremberg The system s line frequency was 11 025 kHz and the broadcast frequencies were 46 0 MHz for vision and 43 2 MHz for sound using a 4 MHz channel bandwidth 2 Its image aspect ratio was close to 1 15 1 A project began in 1938 involving the National Post and several companies including Bosch Blaupunkt Loewe 4 Lorenz TeKaDe de 5 and Telefunken 6 7 that aimed to produce 10 000 receivers for the television system Telefunken marketed the FE V announced in 1936 with a 26 x 21 cm screen and a tuning range of 38 60 MHz 8 The next year 1937 the Heimprojektions FSE was introduced with a larger 50 x 40 cm screen along with the FE VI with a 26 x 21 cm screen 8 7 In 1938 the Tischfernseher TF 1 was released with a 20 x 17 cm screen and a tuning range of 40 55 MHz 8 In 1937 Loewe created the FE D with a 24x20 cm screen and a tuning range of 35 55 MHz 4 In 1938 TeKaDe created a single model the FS38 with a 30 x 27 cm screen and a tuning range of 43 52 MHz 5 Other brands like Fernseh AG also created models like the DE 6 also introduced in 1938 with a 32 x 27 cm screen and a tuning range of 40 53 MHz 9 A single channel TV receiver the Einheitsempfanger E1 was created in 1939 2 It had a 29 cm diagonal screen and consumed 185 watts when receiving television signals and 60 watts when receiving audio only 2 Only a few units were built before the outbreak of World War II Due to the onset of World War II only about 50 devices were installed in military hospitals and various government departments The transmitter s aerials in Berlin were destroyed during an Allied Forces bombing in November 1943 but the station was also relayed by a special coaxial cable network to wide screen public TV rooms Fernsehstuben so it carried on this way until 1944 German 441 line TV system technical details 10 2 Field frequency Active picture Field blanking No of broad pulses Broad pulse width Front porch Line sync Back porch Active line time Video syncs ratio Channel bandwidth Visual bandwidth Sound offset Vision mod Sound mod Aspect ratio Line Frequency50 Hz interlaced 383 lines 29 lines 8 per field 36 3 ms 1 0 ms 9 0 ms 6 3 ms 74 3 ms 70 30 4 MHz 2 MHz 7 2 8 Pos AM 1 15 1 11025 Hz441 line TV in Germany nbsp 441 line Telefunken FE V television from 1936 nbsp 441 line Telefunken FE VI television from 1937 nbsp Einheitsempfanger E1 441 line TV set from 1939 nbsp Einheitsempfanger E1 chassis 1939 nbsp 1942 photo of a TV in a Berlin military hospital setup by the German Reichspost France editBy 1941 the Fernsehsender Paris station transmitted from the Eiffel Tower in Paris using the German 441 line system and its main technical characteristics while however keeping the previous French 455 line 1 broadcast frequencies 42 MHz 46 MHz in use from 1938 to 1940 thus with a larger visual bandwidth than the station operating in Berlin 11 Television programs were mainly for wounded soldiers of the Wehrmacht occupation troops who recovered in the Greater Paris Area hospitals but they also included French language shows Broadcasts were monitored in the United Kingdom during the Second World War to gather intelligence information from occupied France The line frequency was 11 025 kHz with vision broadcast at 46 0 MHz and sound at 42 0 MHz Aerials were independent for audio and vision at the top of the Eiffel tower both vertically polarized No gain being obtained from these pre war basic aerials the effective radiated power was only the transmitter s peak one i e 30 kW which enabled a good reception in a radius of 100 km 62 miles around Paris As displayed in J M Frost s WRTH World Radio TV Handbook editions at that time the transmitter s frequencies 42 46 MHz were listed as channel F1 or channel S or Special channel in the European Broadcasting Union s official documents After July 1952 the 441 line transmitter was no longer broadcasting separate programs but simply picked up the national network s picture through an 819 441 line optical converter a 441 line camera slightly out of focus pointed at an 819 lines monitor equipped with an oval spotlight cathode ray tube Broadcasts were due to cease on January 1 1958 as the 819 lines standard had been adopted in 1948 for the national network However after a long elections coverage night most of the 441 line equipment was destroyed by fire on January 3 1956 It was decided to indemnify the 3 000 owners of remaining 441 line sets and to entitle them to reduced rates for their new 819 lines receivers French 441 line TV technical details 11 1 10 2 Field frequency Active picture Field blanking No of broad pulses Broad pulse width Front porch Line sync Back porch Active line time Video syncs ratio Channel bandwidth Visual bandwidth Sound offset Vision mod Vestigial sideband Sound mod Aspect ratio Line Frequency50 Hz interlaced 383 lines 29 lines 8 per field 36 3 ms 1 0 ms 9 0 ms 6 3 ms 74 3 ms 70 30 7 MHz 3 MHz 4 Pos 3 AM 1 15 1 11025 HzItaly editFollowing pre war tests in 375 lines done by a Turin engineer named Arturo Castellani 12 13 14 15 broadcasts using the 441 line system began in Italy in 1939 1 16 with regular services from Rome using 2 kW power and Milan using 400W of power in the frequency band of 40 45 MHz 11 As in France technical parameters VHF frequencies excepted were identical to those in use in Germany Broadcasts were discontinued on May 31 1940 17 United States editIn September 1938 the Radio Manufacturers Association RMA recommended the 441 line system 18 developed by RCA and Farnsworth Television 19 20 21 22 23 Tests started a year before in an attempt to perfect a 343 line system 20 with RCA executives petitioning the FCC for approval of their new standard 24 In early 1938 Philco s experimental transmitter W3XE in Philadelphia was already using the system 18 25 26 23 TV broadcasts were publicly launched in April 1939 by NBC during the New York World s Fair using the W2XBS station 27 The first pre built TV receivers were sold on a very limited basis mostly in New York City Manufacturers included RCA 28 General Electric 29 DuMont 30 and Andrea Radio Corporation 31 32 By June 1939 regularly scheduled broadcasts were available in New York and Los Angeles By October nineteen TV broadcast licenses had been issued including stations in New York Philadelphia W3XE Chicago Washington Fort Wayne Cincinnati Schenectady W2XB Los Angeles and San Francisco 27 By November General Electric s station in Schenectady started broadcasts W2XBS in New York broadcast up to fifty eight hours of programming per month until December 1939 to an estimate of 2 000 receiving sets Reception area was a radius of 40 50 miles 80 km from the Empire State Building 33 Following a decision of the NTSC National Television System Committee the 525 line standard replaced the 441 line standard on July 1 1941 34 United States 441 line TV system technical details 18 Field Frequency Channel bandwidth Visual bandwidth Sound offset Vision mod Sound mod Aspect Ratio Line frequency60 Hz interlaced 6 MHz 2 8 MHz 3 25 Neg AM 4 3 13230 Hz441 line TV in the United States nbsp Ad for the beginning of experimental 441 line television broadcasting in New York City by RCA in 1939 nbsp Federal Communications Commissioners inspect the latest in television Washington D C December 1 1939 nbsp General Electric HM 171 displaying image nbsp General Electric television sets from 1939 General Electric HM 185 General Electric HM 226 7A and General Electric Model 90 Soviet Union editIn the Soviet Union a specification for a 441 line system using 50 interlaced fields per second was proposed in 1940 Development of this system started in 193 derived from test broadcasts from Moscow using a 343 line system based on RCA equipment 35 36 37 Due to WWII the 441 line system never reached the broadcast stage References edit a b c d e f g h 405 Alive FAQ 405 Line Television in History www bvws org uk a b c d e f Einheits Fernseh Empfanger E l PDF aobauer home xs4all nl pp 320 321 Archived PDF from the original on 28 March 2022 TVTechnology 2005 03 20 The Early Television Foundation to host convention TVTechnology Retrieved 2023 01 11 a b D S Loewe Prewar Sets www earlytelevision org a b Gerolf Poetschke s Site www earlytelevision org Telefunken FE VI www earlytelevision org a b c FE VI Television Telefunken Deutschland TFK Gesellschaft fur build www radiomuseum org a b c Telefunken Prewar Sets www earlytelevision org Gerolf Poetschke s Site www earlytelevision org a b R T Russell Colour Test Card Generator bbcbasic uk a b c Prewar European Stations www earlytelevision org History of Television Undaradio Retrieved 2023 01 08 Arturo Castellani 1932 Televisione radiovisione Ulrico Hoepli Editore Safar Prewar Sets www earlytelevision org Retrieved 2023 01 08 Reporter Television March 1937 Italy s Progress in the Video Art PDF Radio News 575 CASTELLANI ARTURO February 1940 TELEVISION IN ITALY SAFAR TELEVISION EQUIPMENT PDF Electronics and Television amp Short Wave World 63 Simon Danielle Andrea 2020 01 01 From Radio to Radio visione Italian Radio s Television Experiments 1939 1940 Representations doi 10 1525 rep 2020 151 1 1 S2CID 225384571 a b c Murray Albert 1938 RMA Completes Television Standards PDF Electronics July 28 Fink Donald 1938 A LABORATORY TELEVISION RECEIVER PDF Electronics July 16 a b Recent Progress in Television Technique PDF Proceedings of the Radio Club of America 17 No 1 February 1940 RCA S FIRST ICONOSCOPE CAMERAS amp THE PROTOTYPE Eyes Of A Generation Television s Living History Edgerton Gary Richard June 21 2007 The Columbia History of American Television Columbia University Press ISBN 9780231121651 via Google Books a b Abramson Albert June 27 1955 Electronic Motion Pictures University of California Press via Google Books Alexander B Magoun Television The Life Story of a Technology Greenwood p 65 ISBN 978 0313331282 The Deseret News Google News Archive Search news google com Network TV www aes media org a b Burns R W June 21 1998 Television An International History of the Formative Years IET ISBN 9780852969144 via Google Books Early Electronic Television RCA Early Television Museum Early Electronic Television General Electric Early Television Museum Early Electronic Television DuMont Early Television Museum Early Electronic Television Andrea Radio Corp Early Television Museum Pine Arthur 1950 Frank Andrea Radio and Television Pioneer PDF Radio and Television News May 40 Lohr 1940 The following are random notes about www tech notes tv Participation of A Raspletin in developing and realization of black and white television standards Archived from the original on 2016 11 03 Retrieved 2022 06 27 RCA s Russian Television Connection www earlytelevision org Retrieved 2023 01 11 Sharygina Ludmila 2010 RUSSIAN ELECTRONICS CHRONOLOGY TUCSR p 47 Bibliography edit Lohr Lenox 1940 Television Broadcasting New York McGraw Hill External links edit in German Rolf Wigand Technische Beschreibung des E 1 Zeitgenossischer Artikel in Radio Mentor pdf 295 kB in German Eckhard Etzold Ausfuhrliche Webseite mit vielen Fotos sowie Schaltbild des E 1 http www compulink co uk rrussell tccgen manual tcgen0 html American Early Television Museum pre WWII TV stations in Europe Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title 441 line television system amp oldid 1166558578, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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