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25 kV AC railway electrification

January 22, 2023

Railway electrification systems using alternating current (AC) at 25 kilovolts (kV) are used worldwide, especially for high-speed rail. It is usually supplied at the standard utility frequency (typically 50 or 60 Hz), which simplifies traction substations. The development of 25 kV AC electrification is closely connected with that of successfully using utility frequency.

Railway electrification systems in Europe:
  Non-electrified
  750 V DC
  1.5 kV DC
  3 kV DC
  15 kV AC
  25 kV AC
High-speed lines in France, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Turkey operate under 25 kV, as do high power lines in the former Soviet Union.
A CSR EMU on the Roca Line in Buenos Aires, using 25 kV AC.

This electrification is ideal for railways that cover long distances or carry heavy traffic. After some experimentation before World War II in Hungary and in the Black Forest in Germany, it came into widespread use in the 1950s.

One of the reasons why it was not introduced earlier was the lack of suitable small and lightweight control and rectification equipment before the development of solid-state rectifiers and related technology. Another reason was the increased clearance distances required where it ran under bridges and in tunnels, which would have required major civil engineering in order to provide the increased clearance to live parts.

Railways using older, lower-capacity direct current systems have introduced or are introducing 25 kV AC instead of 3 kV DC/1.5 kV DC for their new high-speed lines.

History

The first successful operational and regular use of a utility frequency system dates back to 1931, tests having run since 1922. It was developed by Kálmán Kandó in Hungary, who used 16 kV AC at 50 Hz, asynchronous traction, and an adjustable number of (motor) poles. The first electrified line for testing was Budapest–Dunakeszi–Alag. The first fully electrified line was Budapest–Győr–Hegyeshalom (part of the Budapest–Vienna line).[1] Although Kandó's solution showed a way for the future, railway operators outside of Hungary showed a lack of interest in the design.

The first railway to use this system was completed in 1936 by the Deutsche Reichsbahn who electrified part of the Höllentalbahn between Freiburg and Neustadt installing a 20 kV 50 Hz AC system. This part of Germany was in the French zone of occupation after 1945. As a result of examining the German system in 1951 the SNCF electrified the line between Aix-les-Bains and La Roche-sur-Foron in southern France, initially at the same 20 kV but converted to 25 kV in 1953. The 25 kV system was then adopted as standard in France, but since substantial amounts of mileage south of Paris had already been electrified at 1.5 kV DC, SNCF also continued some major new DC electrification projects, until dual-voltage locomotives were developed in the 1960s.[2][3]

The main reason why electrification using utility frequency had not been widely adopted before was the lack of reliability of mercury-arc-type rectifiers that could fit on the train. This in turn related to the requirement to use DC series motors, which required the current to be converted from AC to DC and for that a rectifier is needed. Until the early 1950s, mercury-arc rectifiers were difficult to operate even in ideal conditions and were therefore unsuitable for use in railway locomotives.

It was possible to use AC motors (and some railways did, with varying success), but they have had less than ideal characteristics for traction purposes. This is because control of speed is difficult without varying the frequency and reliance on voltage to control speed gives a torque at any given speed that is not ideal. This is why DC series motors were the most common choice for traction purposes until the 1990s, as they can be controlled by voltage, and have an almost ideal torque vs speed characteristic.

In the 1990s, high-speed trains began to use lighter, lower-maintenance three-phase AC induction motors. The N700 Shinkansen uses a three-level converter to convert 25 kV single-phase AC to 1,520 V AC (via transformer) to 3 kV DC (via phase-controlled rectifier with thyristor) to a maximum 2,300 V three-phase AC (via a variable voltage, variable frequency inverter using IGBTs with pulse-width modulation) to run the motors. The system works in reverse for regenerative braking.

The choice of 25 kV was related to the efficiency of power transmission as a function of voltage and cost, not based on a neat and tidy ratio of the supply voltage. For a given power level, a higher voltage allows for a lower current and usually better efficiency at the greater cost for high-voltage equipment. It was found that 25 kV was an optimal point, where a higher voltage would still improve efficiency but not by a significant amount in relation to the higher costs incurred by the need for larger insulators and greater clearance from structures.

To avoid short circuits, the high voltage must be protected from moisture. Weather events, such as "the wrong type of snow", have caused failures in the past. An example of atmospheric causes occurred in December 2009, when four Eurostar trains broke down inside the Channel Tunnel.

Distribution

Electric power for 25 kV AC electrification is usually taken directly from the three-phase transmission system. At the transmission substation, a step-down transformer is connected across two of the three phases of the high-voltage supply and lowers the voltage to 25 kV. This is then fed, sometimes several kilometres away, to a railway feeder station located beside the tracks. Since only two phases of the high-voltage supply are used, phase imbalance is corrected by connecting each feeder station to a different combination of phases. To avoid the train pantograph bridging together two feeder stations which may be out-of-phase with each other, neutral sections are provided between sections fed from different feeder stations. SVCs are used for load balancing and voltage control.[4]

In some cases dedicated single-phase AC power lines were built to substations with single phase AC transformers. Such lines were built to supply the French TGV.[5]

Standardisation

Railway electrification using 25 kV, 50 Hz AC has become an international standard. There are two main standards that define the voltages of the system:

  • EN 50163:2004+A1:2007 - "Railway applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"[6]
  • IEC 60850 - "Railway Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"[7]

The permissible range of voltages allowed are as stated in the above standards and take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation.

Electrification
system 		Voltage
Min.
non-permanent 		Min.
permanent 		Nominal Max.
permanent 		Max.
non-permanent
25 kV 50 Hz 17.5 kV 19 kV 25 kV 27.5 kV 29 kV

This system is now part of the European Union's Trans-European railway interoperability standards (1996/48/EC "Interoperability of the Trans-European high-speed rail system" and 2001/16/EC "Interoperability of the Trans-European Conventional rail system").

Variations

Systems based on this standard but with some variations have been used.

25 kV AC at 60 Hz

See also: List of railway electrification systems: 25 kV AC, 60 Hz

In countries where 60 Hz is the normal grid power frequency, 25 kV at 60 Hz is used for the railway electrification.

20 kV AC at 50 or 60 Hz

In Japan, this is used on existing railway lines in Tohoku Region, Hokuriku Region, Hokkaido and Kyushu, of which Hokuriku and Kyushu are at 60 Hz.

12.5 kV AC at 60 Hz

Some lines in the United States have been electrified at 12.5 kV 60 Hz or converted from 11 kV 25 Hz to 12.5 kV 60 Hz. Use of 60 Hz allows direct supply from the 60 Hz utility grid yet does not require the larger wire clearance for 25 kV 60 Hz or require dual-voltage capability for trains also operating on 11 kV 25 Hz lines. Examples are:

12 kV at 25 Hz

6.25 kV AC

Early 50 Hz AC railway electrification in the United Kingdom was planned to use sections at 6.25 kV AC where there was limited clearance under bridges and in tunnels. Rolling stock was dual-voltage with automatic switching between 25 kV and 6.25 kV. The 6.25 kV sections were converted to 25 kV AC as a result of research work that demonstrated that the distance between live and earthed equipment could be reduced from that originally thought to be necessary.

The research was done using a steam engine beneath a bridge at Crewe. A section of 25 kV overhead line was gradually brought closer to the earthed metalwork of the bridge whilst being subjected to steam from the locomotive's chimney. The distance at which a flashover occurred was measured and this was used as a basis from which new clearances between overhead equipment and structures were derived.[citation needed]

50 kV AC

Occasionally 25 kV is doubled to 50 kV to obtain greater power and increase the distance between substations. Such lines are usually isolated from other lines to avoid complications from interrunning. Examples are:

2 × 25 kV autotransformer system

 
1. Supply transformer
2. Power supply
3. Overhead line
4. Running rail
5. Feeder line
6. Pantograph
7. Locomotive transformer
8. Overhead line
9. Autotransformer
10. Running rail
 
2 × 25 kV overhead line system in France between Paris and Caen

The 2 × 25 kV autotransformer system is a split-phase electric power system which supplies 25 kV power to the trains, but transmits power at 50 kV to reduce energy losses. It should not be confused with the 50 kV system. In this system, the current is mainly carried between the overhead line and a feeder transmission line instead of the rail. The overhead line (3) and feeder (5) are on opposite phases so the voltage between them is 50 kV, while the voltage between the overhead line (3) and the running rails (4) remains at 25 kV. Periodic autotransformers (9) divert the return current from the neutral rail, step it up, and send it along the feeder line. This system is used by Indian Railways, Russian Railways, Italian High Speed Railways, UK High Speed 1, most of the West Coast Main Line and Crossrail, with some parts of older lines being gradually converted,[citation needed] French lines (LGV lines and some other lines[10]), most Spanish high-speed rail lines,[11] Amtrak and some of the Finnish and Hungarian lines.

Boosted voltage

For TGV world speed record runs in France the voltage was temporarily boosted, to 29.5 kV[12] and 31 kV at different times.[13]

25 kV on broad gauge lines

25 kV on narrow gauge lines

Other voltages on 50 Hz electrification

Multi-system locomotives and trains

Main article: Multi-system (rail)

Trains that can operate on more than one voltage, say 3 kV/25 kV, are established technologies. Some locomotives in Europe are capable of using four different voltage standards.[14]

See also

References

  1. ^ Hollingsworth, J. B.; Cook, Arthur F. (1998). The great book of trains : featuring 310 locomotives shown in more than 160 full-colour illustrations and 500 photographs. London: Salamander Books. pp. 254–255. ISBN 0-86101-919-9. OCLC 60209873.
  2. ^ Haydock, David (1991). SNCF. "Modern Railways" special. London: Ian Allan. ISBN 978-0-7110-1980-5
  3. ^ Cuynet, Jean (2005). La traction électrique en France 1900-2005. Paris: La Vie du Rail. ISBN 2-915034-38-9
  4. ^ SVCs for load balancing and trackside voltage control, ABB Power Technologies. [1] 2007-02-06 at the Wayback Machine
  5. ^ TGV power May 4, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  6. ^ British Standards Institution (January 2005). BS EN 50163:2004+A1:2007 Railway Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems. doi:10.3403/30103554.
  7. ^ IEC 60850 - "Railway Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"
  8. ^ "Railroad Coordination Manual Of Instruction, Section 2.1.5 Deseret Power Railway" (PDF). Utah Department of Transportation. May 2015. p. 102. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
  9. ^ . West Coast Railway Association, BC. May 2004. Archived from the original on February 18, 2009. Retrieved 2011-01-09.
  10. ^ The remainder of the French lines use 1 × 25 kV booster-transformer system.
  11. ^ Comparative Study of the Electrification Systems 1×25 kV and 2×25 kV (PDF) (Report). Madrid: Ineco. June 2011. Retrieved 2017-03-30.
  12. ^ "The Test Tracks: an Overview".
  13. ^ "French Train Hits 357 MPH Breaking World Speed Record". 4 April 2007.
  14. ^ "Traxx locomotive family meets European needs". Railway Gazette International. 2008-01-07. Retrieved 2019-09-27. Traxx MS (multi-system) for operation on both AC (15 and 25 kV) and DC (1·5 and 3 kV) networks

Further reading

  • Keenor, Garry. Overhead line electrification for railways.
  • Boocock, Colin (1991). East Coast Electrification. Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-1979-7.
  • Gillham, J.C. (1988). The Age of the Electric Train - Electric Trains in Britain since 1883. Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-1392-6.
  • Glover, John (2003). Eastern Electric. Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-2934-2.
  • Machefert-Tassin, Yves; Nouvion, Fernand; Woimant, Jean (1980). Histoire de la Traction Electrique, vol.1. La Vie du Rail. ISBN 2-902808-05-4.
  • Nock, O.S. (1965). Britain's new railway: Electrification of the London-Midland main lines from Euston to Birmingham, Stoke-on-Trent, Crewe, Liverpool and Manchester. London: Ian Allan. OCLC 59003738.
  • Nock, O.S. (1974). Electric Euston to Glasgow. Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-0530-3.
  • Proceedings of the British Railways Electrification Conference, London 1960 - Railway Electrification at Industrial Frequency. London: British Railways Board. 1960.
  • Semmens, Peter (1991). Electrifying the East Coast Route. Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 0-85059-929-6.

January 22, 2023
railway, electrification, this, article, multiple, issues, please, help, improve, discuss, these, issues, talk, page, learn, when, remove, these, template, messages, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, articl. This article has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources 25 kV AC railway electrification news newspapers books scholar JSTOR July 2009 Learn how and when to remove this template message This article may lack focus or may be about more than one topic Please help improve this article possibly by splitting the article and or by introducing a disambiguation page or discuss this issue on the talk page September 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Railway electrification systems using alternating current AC at 25 kilovolts kV are used worldwide especially for high speed rail It is usually supplied at the standard utility frequency typically 50 or 60 Hz which simplifies traction substations The development of 25 kV AC electrification is closely connected with that of successfully using utility frequency Railway electrification systems in Europe Non electrified 750 V DC 1 5 kV DC 3 kV DC 15 kV AC 25 kV AC High speed lines in France Spain Italy the Netherlands Belgium and Turkey operate under 25 kV as do high power lines in the former Soviet Union A CSR EMU on the Roca Line in Buenos Aires using 25 kV AC This electrification is ideal for railways that cover long distances or carry heavy traffic After some experimentation before World War II in Hungary and in the Black Forest in Germany it came into widespread use in the 1950s One of the reasons why it was not introduced earlier was the lack of suitable small and lightweight control and rectification equipment before the development of solid state rectifiers and related technology Another reason was the increased clearance distances required where it ran under bridges and in tunnels which would have required major civil engineering in order to provide the increased clearance to live parts Railways using older lower capacity direct current systems have introduced or are introducing 25 kV AC instead of 3 kV DC 1 5 kV DC for their new high speed lines Contents 1 History 2 Distribution 3 Standardisation 4 Variations 4 1 25 kV AC at 60 Hz 4 2 20 kV AC at 50 or 60 Hz 4 3 12 5 kV AC at 60 Hz 4 4 12 kV at 25 Hz 4 5 6 25 kV AC 4 6 50 kV AC 4 7 2 25 kV autotransformer system 4 8 Boosted voltage 4 9 25 kV on broad gauge lines 4 10 25 kV on narrow gauge lines 4 11 Other voltages on 50 Hz electrification 5 Multi system locomotives and trains 6 See also 7 References 8 Further readingHistory EditThe first successful operational and regular use of a utility frequency system dates back to 1931 tests having run since 1922 It was developed by Kalman Kando in Hungary who used 16 kV AC at 50 Hz asynchronous traction and an adjustable number of motor poles The first electrified line for testing was Budapest Dunakeszi Alag The first fully electrified line was Budapest Gyor Hegyeshalom part of the Budapest Vienna line 1 Although Kando s solution showed a way for the future railway operators outside of Hungary showed a lack of interest in the design The first railway to use this system was completed in 1936 by the Deutsche Reichsbahn who electrified part of the Hollentalbahn between Freiburg and Neustadt installing a 20 kV 50 Hz AC system This part of Germany was in the French zone of occupation after 1945 As a result of examining the German system in 1951 the SNCF electrified the line between Aix les Bains and La Roche sur Foron in southern France initially at the same 20 kV but converted to 25 kV in 1953 The 25 kV system was then adopted as standard in France but since substantial amounts of mileage south of Paris had already been electrified at 1 5 kV DC SNCF also continued some major new DC electrification projects until dual voltage locomotives were developed in the 1960s 2 3 The main reason why electrification using utility frequency had not been widely adopted before was the lack of reliability of mercury arc type rectifiers that could fit on the train This in turn related to the requirement to use DC series motors which required the current to be converted from AC to DC and for that a rectifier is needed Until the early 1950s mercury arc rectifiers were difficult to operate even in ideal conditions and were therefore unsuitable for use in railway locomotives It was possible to use AC motors and some railways did with varying success but they have had less than ideal characteristics for traction purposes This is because control of speed is difficult without varying the frequency and reliance on voltage to control speed gives a torque at any given speed that is not ideal This is why DC series motors were the most common choice for traction purposes until the 1990s as they can be controlled by voltage and have an almost ideal torque vs speed characteristic In the 1990s high speed trains began to use lighter lower maintenance three phase AC induction motors The N700 Shinkansen uses a three level converter to convert 25 kV single phase AC to 1 520 V AC via transformer to 3 kV DC via phase controlled rectifier with thyristor to a maximum 2 300 V three phase AC via a variable voltage variable frequency inverter using IGBTs with pulse width modulation to run the motors The system works in reverse for regenerative braking The choice of 25 kV was related to the efficiency of power transmission as a function of voltage and cost not based on a neat and tidy ratio of the supply voltage For a given power level a higher voltage allows for a lower current and usually better efficiency at the greater cost for high voltage equipment It was found that 25 kV was an optimal point where a higher voltage would still improve efficiency but not by a significant amount in relation to the higher costs incurred by the need for larger insulators and greater clearance from structures To avoid short circuits the high voltage must be protected from moisture Weather events such as the wrong type of snow have caused failures in the past An example of atmospheric causes occurred in December 2009 when four Eurostar trains broke down inside the Channel Tunnel Distribution EditElectric power for 25 kV AC electrification is usually taken directly from the three phase transmission system At the transmission substation a step down transformer is connected across two of the three phases of the high voltage supply and lowers the voltage to 25 kV This is then fed sometimes several kilometres away to a railway feeder station located beside the tracks Since only two phases of the high voltage supply are used phase imbalance is corrected by connecting each feeder station to a different combination of phases To avoid the train pantograph bridging together two feeder stations which may be out of phase with each other neutral sections are provided between sections fed from different feeder stations SVCs are used for load balancing and voltage control 4 In some cases dedicated single phase AC power lines were built to substations with single phase AC transformers Such lines were built to supply the French TGV 5 Standardisation EditRailway electrification using 25 kV 50 Hz AC has become an international standard There are two main standards that define the voltages of the system EN 50163 2004 A1 2007 Railway applications Supply voltages of traction systems 6 IEC 60850 Railway Applications Supply voltages of traction systems 7 The permissible range of voltages allowed are as stated in the above standards and take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation Electrificationsystem VoltageMin non permanent Min permanent Nominal Max permanent Max non permanent25 kV 50 Hz 17 5 kV 19 kV 25 kV 27 5 kV 29 kVThis system is now part of the European Union s Trans European railway interoperability standards 1996 48 EC Interoperability of the Trans European high speed rail system and 2001 16 EC Interoperability of the Trans European Conventional rail system Variations EditSystems based on this standard but with some variations have been used 25 kV AC at 60 Hz Edit See also List of railway electrification systems 25 kV AC 60 Hz In countries where 60 Hz is the normal grid power frequency 25 kV at 60 Hz is used for the railway electrification In Canada on the Deux Montagnes line of the Montreal Metropolitan transportation Agency In Japan on the Tokaido Sanyo and Kyushu Shinkansen lines using 1 435 mm or 4 ft 8 1 2 in gauge In South Korea on the Korail network In Taiwan on the Taiwan High Speed Rail line using 1 435 mm or 4 ft 8 1 2 in gauge and on Taiwan Railway Administration s electrified lines using 1 067 mm or 3 ft 6 in gauge In the United States on newer electrified portions of the Northeast Corridor i e the New Haven Boston segment intercity passenger lines New Jersey Transit commuter lines Denver RTD Commuter Rail and select isolated short lines In the San Francisco Bay Area Caltrain is currently undergoing an electrification project to be completed in the mid 2020s 20 kV AC at 50 or 60 Hz Edit In Japan this is used on existing railway lines in Tohoku Region Hokuriku Region Hokkaido and Kyushu of which Hokuriku and Kyushu are at 60 Hz 12 5 kV AC at 60 Hz Edit Some lines in the United States have been electrified at 12 5 kV 60 Hz or converted from 11 kV 25 Hz to 12 5 kV 60 Hz Use of 60 Hz allows direct supply from the 60 Hz utility grid yet does not require the larger wire clearance for 25 kV 60 Hz or require dual voltage capability for trains also operating on 11 kV 25 Hz lines Examples are Metro North Railroad s New Haven Line from Pelham NY to New Haven CT Since 1985 previously 11 kV 25 Hz 12 kV at 25 Hz Edit New Jersey Transit s North Jersey Coast Line from Matawan NJ to Long Branch NJ 1988 2002 changed to 25 kV 60 Hz Amtrak SEPTA Both ex Reading Rail and ex Pennsylvania Rail sides 6 25 kV AC Edit Early 50 Hz AC railway electrification in the United Kingdom was planned to use sections at 6 25 kV AC where there was limited clearance under bridges and in tunnels Rolling stock was dual voltage with automatic switching between 25 kV and 6 25 kV The 6 25 kV sections were converted to 25 kV AC as a result of research work that demonstrated that the distance between live and earthed equipment could be reduced from that originally thought to be necessary The research was done using a steam engine beneath a bridge at Crewe A section of 25 kV overhead line was gradually brought closer to the earthed metalwork of the bridge whilst being subjected to steam from the locomotive s chimney The distance at which a flashover occurred was measured and this was used as a basis from which new clearances between overhead equipment and structures were derived citation needed 50 kV AC Edit Occasionally 25 kV is doubled to 50 kV to obtain greater power and increase the distance between substations Such lines are usually isolated from other lines to avoid complications from interrunning Examples are The Sishen Saldanha iron ore railway 50 Hz The Deseret Power Railway which was an isolated coal railway 60 Hz 8 The now closed Black Mesa and Lake Powell Railroad which was also an isolated coal railway 60 Hz The now closed Tumbler Ridge Subdivision of BC Rail 60 Hz 9 2 25 kV autotransformer system Edit 1 Supply transformer 2 Power supply 3 Overhead line 4 Running rail 5 Feeder line 6 Pantograph 7 Locomotive transformer 8 Overhead line 9 Autotransformer 10 Running rail 2 25 kV overhead line system in France between Paris and Caen The 2 25 kV autotransformer system is a split phase electric power system which supplies 25 kV power to the trains but transmits power at 50 kV to reduce energy losses It should not be confused with the 50 kV system In this system the current is mainly carried between the overhead line and a feeder transmission line instead of the rail The overhead line 3 and feeder 5 are on opposite phases so the voltage between them is 50 kV while the voltage between the overhead line 3 and the running rails 4 remains at 25 kV Periodic autotransformers 9 divert the return current from the neutral rail step it up and send it along the feeder line This system is used by Indian Railways Russian Railways Italian High Speed Railways UK High Speed 1 most of the West Coast Main Line and Crossrail with some parts of older lines being gradually converted citation needed French lines LGV lines and some other lines 10 most Spanish high speed rail lines 11 Amtrak and some of the Finnish and Hungarian lines Boosted voltage Edit For TGV world speed record runs in France the voltage was temporarily boosted to 29 5 kV 12 and 31 kV at different times 13 25 kV on broad gauge lines Edit In Argentina on the Roca Line using 1 676 mm or 5 ft 6 in gauge In Australia Adelaide part of the suburban network 50 Hz Commonwealth of Independent States parts of the network 50 Hz Finland see rail transport in Finland 50 Hz India see rail transport in India and Central Organisation for Railway Electrification 50 Hz Portugal see list of railway lines in Portugal 50 Hz 25 kV on narrow gauge lines Edit In Australia Perth entire suburban network see Transperth Train Operations 50 Hz Queensland see rail electrification in Queensland 50 Hz In Malaysia see rail transport in Malaysia 50 Hz In New Zealand see North Island Main Trunk and Auckland railway electrification 50 Hz In South Africa see rail transport in South Africa 25 and 50 kV 50 Hz In Taiwan see rail transport in Taiwan 60 Hz In Tunisia 50 Hz see rail transport in Tunisia 50 Hz Other voltages on 50 Hz electrification Edit In France Mont Blanc Tramway and Chemin de fer du Montenvers 11 kV In Germany Hambachbahn and Nord Sud Bahn 6 6 kVMulti system locomotives and trains EditMain article Multi system rail Trains that can operate on more than one voltage say 3 kV 25 kV are established technologies Some locomotives in Europe are capable of using four different voltage standards 14 See also Edit15 kV AC railway electrification List of railway electrification systems Rotary phase converterReferences Edit Hollingsworth J B Cook Arthur F 1998 The great book of trains featuring 310 locomotives shown in more than 160 full colour illustrations and 500 photographs London Salamander Books pp 254 255 ISBN 0 86101 919 9 OCLC 60209873 Haydock David 1991 SNCF Modern Railways special London Ian Allan ISBN 978 0 7110 1980 5 Cuynet Jean 2005 La traction electrique en France 1900 2005 Paris La Vie du Rail ISBN 2 915034 38 9 SVCs for load balancing and trackside voltage control ABB Power Technologies 1 Archived 2007 02 06 at the Wayback Machine TGV power Archived May 4 2009 at the Wayback Machine British Standards Institution January 2005 BS EN 50163 2004 A1 2007 Railway Applications Supply voltages of traction systems doi 10 3403 30103554 IEC 60850 Railway Applications Supply voltages of traction systems Railroad Coordination Manual Of Instruction Section 2 1 5 Deseret Power Railway PDF Utah Department of Transportation May 2015 p 102 Retrieved 8 November 2016 GF6C 6001 PRESERVED West Coast Railway Association BC May 2004 Archived from the original on February 18 2009 Retrieved 2011 01 09 The remainder of the French lines use 1 25 kV booster transformer system Comparative Study of the Electrification Systems 1 25 kV and 2 25 kV PDF Report Madrid Ineco June 2011 Retrieved 2017 03 30 The Test Tracks an Overview French Train Hits 357 MPH Breaking World Speed Record 4 April 2007 Traxx locomotive family meets European needs Railway Gazette International 2008 01 07 Retrieved 2019 09 27 Traxx MS multi system for operation on both AC 15 and 25 kV and DC 1 5 and 3 kV networksFurther reading EditKeenor Garry Overhead line electrification for railways Boocock Colin 1991 East Coast Electrification Ian Allan ISBN 0 7110 1979 7 Gillham J C 1988 The Age of the Electric Train Electric Trains in Britain since 1883 Ian Allan ISBN 0 7110 1392 6 Glover John 2003 Eastern Electric Ian Allan ISBN 0 7110 2934 2 Machefert Tassin Yves Nouvion Fernand Woimant Jean 1980 Histoire de la Traction Electrique vol 1 La Vie du Rail ISBN 2 902808 05 4 Nock O S 1965 Britain s new railway Electrification of the London Midland main lines from Euston to Birmingham Stoke on Trent Crewe Liverpool and Manchester London Ian Allan OCLC 59003738 Nock O S 1974 Electric Euston to Glasgow Ian Allan ISBN 0 7110 0530 3 Proceedings of the British Railways Electrification Conference London 1960 Railway Electrification at Industrial Frequency London British Railways Board 1960 Semmens Peter 1991 Electrifying the East Coast Route Patrick Stephens Ltd ISBN 0 85059 929 6 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title 25 kV AC railway electrification amp oldid 1132317712, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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