Because the group operated in secret, much of the information on it is derived from interviews and limited documents, and is still subject to uncertainty and debate. According to most scholars, the group was founded by Yeom Dong-jin in November 1945. It was the successor to Daedongdan, which was also founded by Yeom in 1944. A number of prominent assassinations and assassination attempts have been attributed to the group, including an assassination attempt on Kim Il Sung in 1946, the killing of Lyuh Woon-hyung in 1947, and the killing of Kim Ku in 1949. But there is disagreement on whether the group was responsible for many of its attributed attacks.
In 2001, it was confirmed that the group cooperated with the United States Counterintelligence Corps after the assassination attempt on Kim Il Sung, due to declassified documents published by the US National Archives and Records Administration. According to multiple interviews from former members of the group, the group trained and sent spies to the North to both gather military information for the US and South Korea as well as stir local discontent.
Its activities slowed after the establishment of the First Republic of Korea in August 1948. Many of its members went on to join either the South Korean Army Headquarters [ko] or the Korea Liaison Office, the South Korean military's intelligence unit. Yeom disappeared and was likely killed in the early days of the Korean War.
From 1910 to the end of World War II, Korea was under Japanese rule.[3] Some Koreans went into exile, especially in China, where they fought against the Japanese.[4] The ideological gap between left and right-leaning Koreans intensified while they were abroad. Many of the right-leaning Koreans became associated with the Provisional Government of Korea (KPG), the self-proclaimed government-in-exile that aligned itself with the Kuomintang (KMT).[5][6]
Yeom Dong-jin, upon his 1935 graduation from the Military Academy. One of two known photos of him, as of 2021[update].[7]
Yeom Dong-jin was among the Koreans who went into exile in China and aligned themselves with the KPG and KMT. In 1934, he enrolled in a joint KPG–KMT course for Korean independence fighters at the Luoyang Military Academy, and trained as a guerrilla.[5][8] It is during this period when Yeom came into close contact with Kim Ku, one of the administrators of the course. After a scandal emerged in which Kim was accused of embezzling funds, Yeom became a prominent critic of Kim.[5]
All sources agree that, after graduating from the Academy, Yeom became associated with the Blue Shirts Society, a secret militant fascist group within the KMT. According to the later testimonies of former White Shirts Society agents,[a] after the 1937 outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, Yeom worked in the statistical survey department for the National Revolutionary Army. The group performed espionage and information-gathering activities for the KMT.[9]
The general consensus among Korean scholars is that Yeom was then captured by the military police of the Japanese Kwantung Army and tortured. Under duress from the torture, Yeom then agreed to become a spy on behalf of the Japanese.[9] However, according to US military intelligence, Yeom was captured and tortured by the Chinese Communist Party and not the Japanese. Despite this disagreement, all sources agree that the torture caused Yeom to lose his eyesight. Eventually, Yeom was somehow able to secure his release and return to his hometown of Pyongyang.[10]
Yongmyongsa, the Buddhist temple where Daedongdan was conceptualized (c. 1930s)
In Pyongyang in August 1944,[b] Yeom founded the anti-communist group Daedongdan,[c] which was the direct predecessor to the White Shirts Society.[5][12]
The group was first conceptualized at the Buddhist Yongmyong Temple,[d] which was then a hotbed for both left- and right-wing nationalist gatherings.[13][10] The monk Park Go-bong suggested that a right-leaning group be created to counter the left-leaning Korean Independence League [ko], which was created by Lyuh Woon-hyung in August 1944.[10][5][e]
Yeom and Park Go-bong led the group together.[13][f] Early members of the group included Paek Kwan-ok [ko] and Seonu Bong.[g] According to the scholar Ahn Gi-seok, Yeom recruited most of the other members, among whom were some middle school students. There is no evidence, including from later testimonies, that the group participated in any pro-Korean independence activities.[10]
On September 3, 1945,[h] the general consensus is that Daedongdan members Paek, Seonu, and Park Jin-yang assassinated Hyŏn Chun-hyŏk, the head of committee of the Communist Party of Korea for South Pyongan Province.[5][8][15][11][14] For the assassination, Paek was wearing the uniform of a left-wing militant group run by Hyŏn. Paek ran up to Hyŏn, shot him, and slipped away.[16]
The assassins were never caught and fled to the South. Yeom was briefly arrested in suspicion of being connected to the murder, but was soon released.[5] He then fled south along with other members.[17][14]
While it is now the general consensus that Daedongdan was behind the assassination, until the 1990s, it was widely believed that left-wing forces were behind the attack, particularly due to the confusion over the uniform. However, consensus shifted after the publication of Lee Yeong-shin's 1994 book Secret Organization White Shirts Society and the 2002 release of a 1986 audio recording of a Daedongdan member confessing to plotting the murder.[15][14]
In 2021, Jung theorized that the murder occurred primarily due to the factional conflicts in Pyongyang security shortly after the war. Paek's older brother was the head of a police faction that was in conflict with the organization led by Hyŏn. Jung thus speculated that the motive was two-fold: firstly it was an opportunity to portray Hyŏn's group in a negative light, and secondly it was an opportunity for Yeom and the group to eliminate a communist leader.[16]
Historyedit
Establishmentedit
The general consensus is that Yeom founded and became leader of the White Shirts Society (WSS) in either October or November 1945,[5][18] with most sources citing the November founding date.[19][20][10][i] The group was founded in Nagwon-dong, Seoul, and headquartered in a Gungjeong-dong house that the wealthy Oh Dong-jin purchased from a Japanese man for the group.[10][5]
Shortly after the WSS's establishment, on November 23, 1945, the Sinuiju Incident occurred. Over a hundred anti-communist students eventually defected to the South in the aftermath, and many joined either the militant Central Political Task Force[j] in the KPG and/or the WSS. Jung speculated that part of this was because they gravitated towards other North Korean escapees and respected Yeom's reputation.[23]
On February 19, 1946, the WSS appeared in a US military intelligence report. The head of the Gunsan police department claimed the WSS was headquartered in Jeonju, and had a presence in both North Jeolla Province and South Jeolla Province via three armed trucks. A politician from Jeonju also claimed on February 8 that the WSS was a right-wing terrorist group.[24]
1946 assassination attempts and Cho Man-sikedit
Kim Il Sung (second from left) in 1945, with Soviet military officers
Shortly after the establishment of the Soviet-backed Provisional People's Committee of North Korea, the WSS made a number of assassination attempts on North Korean politicians within a span of two weeks.[25] According to interviews with former members of the WSS, these assassination attempts were done in collaboration with the CPTF and KPG.[5][22][19][k]
All attempts failed. They attempted to assassinate Kim Il Sung on March 1, 1946, Choe Yong-gon on March 5 or March 7,[19]Kim Chaek on March 9, and Kang Ryang-uk on March 12.[19][17][25][l] Choe and Kang would later become key allies for Kim Il Sung.[25] However, the attacks made the WSS infamous and brought them to the attention of both the US and USSR. According to a March 22, 1946, Soviet report about the WSS:[24]
[The WSS] is under the direct leadership of Kim Ku. It includes Koreans who returned from China and members of some youth groups. Their goal is to kill members of the Communist Party of Korea, the People's Party of Korea, and the leaders of the [Provisional North Korean government].
In addition, Bae alleged that around this time, several WSS agents attempted to help Cho Man-sik escape his house arrest at the Koryo Hotel. But Cho reportedly refused to escape, and said "If I go south, who will our comrades in the North have to rely on for survival?"[24][m]
Espionage in North Koreaedit
According to a written statement by Yeom, from January to September 1946, the WSS collaborated with the United States Counterintelligence Corps (CIC) and the military intelligence of the United States Forces Korea (USFK) in training and sending spies to North Korea. About 20 men were dispatched each month.[19] Ahn also noted that in early May 1946, WSS agents infiltrated the North to gather intelligence on Northern troop deployments. Of particular interest was learning what equipment had been sent by the Soviets.[10]
These cross-border espionage activities stopped due to financial difficulties, training issues,[19] and tightened security at the North–South Korean border.[19][10][n] However, the CIC continued to collaborate with the WSS on other activities until the latter's dissolution.[19]
An alleged member of the group, Han Ji-geun [ko], assassinated Lyuh Woon-hyung on July 19, 1947. According to most sources, the WSS was behind the murder.[17][26][8] However, the scholar Ahn Gi-seok contradicted this narrative in 2005 by claiming Han was not a member of the WSS.[10]
In 2021, Jung Byung Joon noted that Park Gyeong-gu, the WSS's Deputy Commander, had said in an undated interview that Lyuh was assassinated by order of the WSS.[19]
Yeom was first introduced to the men who would assassinate Lyuh via an advisor of the group, Kim Yeong-cheol.[5][19] The assassins, including Shin Dong-un and Kim Heung-seong,[o] were given American-made .45 caliber pistols for the mission. Afterwards, Yeom worked with a pro-Japanese police officer Roh Deok-sul to cover up the case.[19][p]
Other activitiesedit
Between 1946 and 1948, the WSS created the "Manchuria Plan",[q] in which they would build a right-wing guerrilla army north of the China–North Korea border.[19] Yeom enlisted the help of Kim Ku, who in turn reached out to his long-time ally Chiang Kai-shek. However, this plan never came to pass due to Chiang's 1949 loss in the Chinese Civil War.[10]
On June 26, 1949, Ahn Doo-hee assassinated Kim Ku.[26][27] According to Cilley, Ahn had been an informant and then an agent of the CIC, and may have been ordered by Yeom to assassinate Kim.[28] Cilley also alleged that the Yeom and Kim had been plotting a military coup d'état against incumbent President Syngman Rhee before Kim's death.[27] However, Ahn Gi-seok casts doubt on whether Yeom ordered Kim's killing, citing the fact that Yeom's feelings towards Kim were mixed and that many WSS members highly respected Kim Ku.[10]
Decline and dissolutionedit
According to Ahn and Jung, after the establishment of the First Republic of South Korea in August 1948, the role of the WSS and other private militant organizations began to decrease.[10][19] While most agents had other jobs to return to, around 100 agents had no other place to go. A former WSS member who became an intelligence officer at the Republic of Korea Army Headquarters [ko] recruited many WSS members for his department.[10]
In February 1949, General Charles Willoughby, the chief of intelligence for General Douglas MacArthur, sent an envoy to Yeom and requested they work together to acquire information on the North. As a result of this interaction, on June 1, 1946, the Korea Liaison Office was established. The remaining WSS agents ended up working there.[10][17]
On June 25, 1950, the Korean War began with the First Battle of Seoul. Yeom did not evacuate the city and disappeared, with most scholars speculating that he was captured and killed.[10][19]
The White Shirts Society was named for the white clothes historically worn by Korean commoners
The group's name was inspired by the names of other fascist organizations, but especially by the name of the Blue Shirts Society.[17][5][29] The Blue Shirts were in turn inspired by other fascist groups with similar names, including the Italian Blackshirts, the Romanian Greenshirts, and the Spanish Blueshirts.[5] The name is also a reference to the Korean expression "white-clothed people",[t] which refers to everyday Korean people, as Korean commoners historically wore white clothing.[18][27]
Structureedit
For leadership, it is widely agreed that Yeom served as the commander-in-chief. According to several sources, Park Jin-goo was the Deputy Commander.[5][17][u]
In 2021, Jung Byung Joon described the leadership as follows:[19]
정병모; 鄭柄模. Second son of a post office manager in Pyongyang.
Cilley claimed the organization had a "Revolutionary Group" or "Special Attack Corps". The Corps' commandoes were divided into five groups, with each group containing four members. When an assassination order came through, commandoes would swear a blood oath to give their lives to the cause if needed. He claimed Kim Ku's assassin Ahn Doo-hee was a member of the first group of the Corps.[27]
Initiationedit
According to Ahn Gi-seok, the group had a secret initiation ritual. The initiation would be held in a secret room inside the headquarters that had two locks on the door. The initiate would meet Yeom first, kneel, and raise their right hand. They'd then make the following pledge:[10][30][aa]
As an initiate of the White Shirts Society, I pledge the following.
One, for the sake of the establishment of an independent government in the fatherland, I will risk my life to complete any mission given to me.
One [sic], I will obey the commands of the White Shirts Society even at the risk of death.
One, no matter the circumstance, I will never betray the fatherland or the White Shirts Society.
According to interviews with group members, the WSS and CIC collaborated on training and sending spies to the North.[19] According to Ahn, the training was held at a WSS stronghold in Jeongneung-dong.[ab] The selection criteria were strict; all selectees were required to be able to fluently speak in the local dialect of the region they were being sent to. For each province, two native-born agents would be selected. According to Ahn, Park Hyeon-yeong served as the administrator for the training.[10][ac]
According to a written statement by Yeom, the WSS worked with the CIC since January 1946.[19] The declassified Cilley report confirmed that Cilley had known Yeom since approximately October 1947.[13][ad] The report also confirmed WSS agents were used for in CIC initiatives between 1947 and 1948.[13]
According to Ahn, Yeom was first connected to the CIC via Sin Ik-hui, with whom he had been close during their exile in China. Sin invited Yeom to his house [ko] and introduced Yeom to the Korean-American CIC agent Lee Sun-yong [ko]. Lee conveyed a request to Sin from US General John R. Hodge, who wanted Sin to either disband his political organization or use it to spy on the North for the US. Furious, Sin stormed out of the room. However, Sin's aide Jo Jung-seo [ko] proposed that the WSS take up the espionage role instead. Yeom's main link to the CIC became Lee's superior officer Major Whitaker,[ae] the head of the Seoul branch of the CIC, who promised to protect the WSS as long as it provided the US information on the North.[10]
The group was also connected to another CIC agent Jang Seok-yun [ko].[5]
Korean Provisional Governmentedit
The Korean Provisional Government upon its founding in 1919
Many of the WSS leadership were either actively or previously associated with the KPG. The groups were particularly linked via the long-time friendship between Yeom and Sin Ik-hui.
The two groups were particularly linked via a group founded by Sin on December 6, 1945, called the Central Political Task Force (CPTF). The CPTF was a covert paramilitary organization that operated under the KPG's Ministry of Internal Affairs. Their objective was to influence politics, usually through means of intelligence or violence, to the favor of both the KPG and even Sin personally.[31] However, the two organizations were not explicitly linked; Sin reportedly even offered Yeom a position in the group, which Yeom declined in order to avoid explicitly associating the WSS with the KPG.[10] Lee Seong-ryeol, a WSS agent, said in an early 2000s interview:[5][af]
In terms of organizational management, it would not be an exaggeration to say that the WSS = the CPTF.
Northwest Youth League publicly demanding the withdrawal of Soviet troops (May 31, 1948)
The Northwest Youth League (NYL) is also considered to be closely tied to the WSS.[5] The NYL was an anti-communist youth group founded via a merger of several smaller groups on November 30, 1946. Their members were mostly if not entirely from North Korea, and were infamously violent. They had a number of high-profile clashes with both the left-wing and the police.[32]
Yu Chin-san, a likely cadre in the WSS, led one of the groups that merged into the NYL.[5]
Great Korean Independent Labor Leagueedit
The WSS has also been linked to the right-wing labor union Great Korean Independent Labor League [ko; ja] (GKILL). GKILL was founded in response to the left-wing General Federation of Trade Unions of Korea.[5]
Membersedit
Descriptionedit
Members shared the WSS's desire to eliminate all communist and anti-government politicians. Most were right-leaning defectors that came from North Korea, and a majority of them were followers of Kim Ku.[5][27][20]
Members came from many employment backgrounds. Yeom made a significant effort to have members become police officers or join the South Korean Ministry of National Defense.[10] Other agents worked as firefighters, merchants, industrialists, and farmers.[5][27][20] Yeom also recruited members of labor unions in the South.[10] Cilley speculated that the group operated not only within the Korean peninsula but also in Manchuria, although he noted there was uncertainty in both the scope and size of the group.[27][20]
They were sworn to secrecy in their activities, and constantly monitored to ensure they kept secrets and obeyed orders. Those accused of wrongdoing were examined via "comrade trials".[ag] If found guilty of a lesser crime, the member would be subjected to a "cripple's punishment":[ah] solitary confinement in a guarded cell within the headquarters for either ten days or a month. If found guilty of a greater crime, they would be subject to expulsion.[10][ai]
Yeom also made a point of hiding the identity of members from each other. Ahn Gi-seok notes that, because of this, there is a theory that there were over 30,000 members of the WSS by 1948, but that the theory is impossible to verify.[10]
Petty crimeedit
Members of the WSS were arrested for petty crime on several occasions. While they claimed their crimes were unrelated to the WSS, Jung speculated that they were intended to procure funds for the group.[24]
On May 2, 1946, Seonu Bong and member Kim Yung-gi were sentenced to 1 year and 6 months in prison and 3 years of probation for an attempted robbery.[aj] They were released on November 30, 1946. They attempted another robbery on January 5, 1947, that was thwarted, although they managed to escape. On February 12, 1947, they extorted over 100,000 won from a businessman in Donam-dong, which Jung speculated was to fund the WSS's espionage operations. On February 27, while attempting another robbery, they were caught and arrested in Jongno District. On June 1, 1947, they each received sentences to two years in prison.[24]
Other notable membersedit
Kim Du-han, the "political gangster", in 1955Kim Du-han – The infamous "political gangster" Kim Du-han has been considered functionally a member of the group. During his lifetime, he denied being a member, and called himself an "advisor" at best. However, according to Lee Yeong-shin's 1994 book, Yeom considered Kim a "lackey" (꼬봉) and issued him instructions and missions to forward the goals of the WSS.[5]
^Conflicting reports of dates over several decades, including 2, 3, 4, 18, and September 28, but Jung claims it is 3, based on a photo of Hyŏn's tombstone. See Hyon Chun-hyok#Date[14]
^According to Jung Byung Joon [ko], there are two other theories on how the group was established. A second theory is based on an August 1947 report that Yeom gave to US General Albert Wedemeyer. It stated that the WSS was founded on August 2, 1942, and had over 67,300 members, including 26,000 in North Korea and Manchuria and 41,300 in South Korea. Jung expressed skepticism about the claims of the group's size, although he did not doubt that it had a presence in both North Korea and Manchuria by 1947.[7] A third theory is based on the June 29, 1949, Cilley report, in which an American intelligence agent who interviewed Yeom claims that the core of the group was founded in 1935.[7]
^정치공작대; 政治工作隊. Translation from Park Myung-Lim [ko].[21] Also called "Department of Political Intelligence" by Andrei Lankov.[22]
^According to Weisser, a recent article by Ki Kwang-seo found that, other than for Kim Il Sung’s assassination attempt, the dates are hard to pin down with certainty.[25]
^Korean scholars and Cilley are in widespread agreement that these assassinations were done by the WSS, although Cilley notes there is no concrete evidence linking the WSS to them.
^『나는 백의사 단원으로 입단하면서 다음과 같이 서약한다. 하나, 나는 조국의 자주적인 정부수립을 위해 목숨을 걸고 맡은 바 임무를 완수한다. 하나, 나는 목숨을 걸고 백의사의 명령에 복종한다. 하나, 나는 어떠한 경우에도 조국과 백의사를 배반하지 않는다.』
^The house was an isolated mansion that used to be a villa for a wealthy Japanese man. After the Second Battle of Seoul, the house was used as the headquarters of the Intelligence Detachment of the South Korean Armed Forces as a secret training ground for operatives that would infiltrate the North [ko].[10]
^박현영; 朴玄英. He had been a member of Daedongdan before he joined the WSS.
^Cilley stated that he had known Yeom for around 20 months prior to writing the June 1949 document.[27]
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white, shirts, society, korean, 백의사, baeguisa, secret, fascist, terrorist, organization, that, operated, between, world, korean, mostly, composed, young, north, korean, defectors, south, korea, militantly, anti, communist, also, opposed, trusteeship, korea, es. The White Shirts Society Korean 백의사 RR Baeguisa was a secret fascist terrorist organization that operated between World War II and the Korean War 1 2 It was mostly composed of young North Korean defectors to South Korea It was militantly anti communist and also opposed the trusteeship of Korea ko especially by the Soviet Civil Administration in the North White Shirts SocietyAlso known asWhite Clothes Society White Shirt Society Baikyi saFounding leaderYeom Dong jinFoundationNovember 1945DissolvedAround 1950IdeologyFascism Anti communismNotable attacksAssassination attempt on Kim Il Sung Assassination of Kim KuAllies United States United States Army Military Government in Korea 1946 1948 Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea 1945 1948 South KoreaOpponents Soviet Union Soviet Civil Administration 1945 1948 People s Committee of North Korea 1946 1948 North KoreaKorean nameHangul백의사Hanja白衣社Revised RomanizationBaeguisaMcCune ReischauerPaegŭisaPreceded byDaedongdan 1943 Because the group operated in secret much of the information on it is derived from interviews and limited documents and is still subject to uncertainty and debate According to most scholars the group was founded by Yeom Dong jin in November 1945 It was the successor to Daedongdan which was also founded by Yeom in 1944 A number of prominent assassinations and assassination attempts have been attributed to the group including an assassination attempt on Kim Il Sung in 1946 the killing of Lyuh Woon hyung in 1947 and the killing of Kim Ku in 1949 But there is disagreement on whether the group was responsible for many of its attributed attacks In 2001 it was confirmed that the group cooperated with the United States Counterintelligence Corps after the assassination attempt on Kim Il Sung due to declassified documents published by the US National Archives and Records Administration According to multiple interviews from former members of the group the group trained and sent spies to the North to both gather military information for the US and South Korea as well as stir local discontent Its activities slowed after the establishment of the First Republic of Korea in August 1948 Many of its members went on to join either the South Korean Army Headquarters ko or the Korea Liaison Office the South Korean military s intelligence unit Yeom disappeared and was likely killed in the early days of the Korean War Contents 1 Background 1 1 Yeom Dong jin 2 Daedongdan 2 1 Assassination of Hyŏn Chun hyŏk 2 1 1 Identity of attackers and historiography 3 History 3 1 Establishment 3 2 1946 assassination attempts and Cho Man sik 3 3 Espionage in North Korea 3 4 Assassination of Lyuh Woon hyung 3 5 Other activities 3 6 Assassination of Kim Ku 3 7 Decline and dissolution 4 Description 4 1 Name 4 2 Structure 4 3 Initiation 4 4 Training spies 5 Relationship with other organizations 5 1 Counterintelligence Corps 5 2 Korean Provisional Government 5 3 Northwest Youth League 5 4 Great Korean Independent Labor League 6 Members 6 1 Description 6 2 Petty crime 6 3 Other notable members 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9 1 Sources 9 1 1 In English 9 1 2 In KoreanBackground editSee also Korean independence movement and Korea under Japanese rule From 1910 to the end of World War II Korea was under Japanese rule 3 Some Koreans went into exile especially in China where they fought against the Japanese 4 The ideological gap between left and right leaning Koreans intensified while they were abroad Many of the right leaning Koreans became associated with the Provisional Government of Korea KPG the self proclaimed government in exile that aligned itself with the Kuomintang KMT 5 6 Yeom Dong jin edit Main article Yeom Dong jin nbsp Yeom Dong jin upon his 1935 graduation from the Military Academy One of two known photos of him as of 2021 update 7 Yeom Dong jin was among the Koreans who went into exile in China and aligned themselves with the KPG and KMT In 1934 he enrolled in a joint KPG KMT course for Korean independence fighters at the Luoyang Military Academy and trained as a guerrilla 5 8 It is during this period when Yeom came into close contact with Kim Ku one of the administrators of the course After a scandal emerged in which Kim was accused of embezzling funds Yeom became a prominent critic of Kim 5 All sources agree that after graduating from the Academy Yeom became associated with the Blue Shirts Society a secret militant fascist group within the KMT According to the later testimonies of former White Shirts Society agents a after the 1937 outbreak of the Second Sino Japanese War Yeom worked in the statistical survey department for the National Revolutionary Army The group performed espionage and information gathering activities for the KMT 9 The general consensus among Korean scholars is that Yeom was then captured by the military police of the Japanese Kwantung Army and tortured Under duress from the torture Yeom then agreed to become a spy on behalf of the Japanese 9 However according to US military intelligence Yeom was captured and tortured by the Chinese Communist Party and not the Japanese Despite this disagreement all sources agree that the torture caused Yeom to lose his eyesight Eventually Yeom was somehow able to secure his release and return to his hometown of Pyongyang 10 Daedongdan editDaedongdanHangul대동단Hanja大同團Revised RomanizationDaedongdanMcCune ReischauerTaedongdan nbsp Yongmyongsa the Buddhist temple where Daedongdan was conceptualized c 1930s In Pyongyang in August 1944 b Yeom founded the anti communist group Daedongdan c which was the direct predecessor to the White Shirts Society 5 12 The group was first conceptualized at the Buddhist Yongmyong Temple d which was then a hotbed for both left and right wing nationalist gatherings 13 10 The monk Park Go bong suggested that a right leaning group be created to counter the left leaning Korean Independence League ko which was created by Lyuh Woon hyung in August 1944 10 5 e Yeom and Park Go bong led the group together 13 f Early members of the group included Paek Kwan ok ko and Seonu Bong g According to the scholar Ahn Gi seok Yeom recruited most of the other members among whom were some middle school students There is no evidence including from later testimonies that the group participated in any pro Korean independence activities 10 Assassination of Hyŏn Chun hyŏk edit See also Hyon Chun hyok Death nbsp Hyŏn in 1935On September 3 1945 h the general consensus is that Daedongdan members Paek Seonu and Park Jin yang assassinated Hyŏn Chun hyŏk the head of committee of the Communist Party of Korea for South Pyongan Province 5 8 15 11 14 For the assassination Paek was wearing the uniform of a left wing militant group run by Hyŏn Paek ran up to Hyŏn shot him and slipped away 16 The assassins were never caught and fled to the South Yeom was briefly arrested in suspicion of being connected to the murder but was soon released 5 He then fled south along with other members 17 14 Identity of attackers and historiography edit Main article Hyon Chun hyok Historiography of death While it is now the general consensus that Daedongdan was behind the assassination until the 1990s it was widely believed that left wing forces were behind the attack particularly due to the confusion over the uniform However consensus shifted after the publication of Lee Yeong shin s 1994 book Secret Organization White Shirts Society and the 2002 release of a 1986 audio recording of a Daedongdan member confessing to plotting the murder 15 14 In 2021 Jung theorized that the murder occurred primarily due to the factional conflicts in Pyongyang security shortly after the war Paek s older brother was the head of a police faction that was in conflict with the organization led by Hyŏn Jung thus speculated that the motive was two fold firstly it was an opportunity to portray Hyŏn s group in a negative light and secondly it was an opportunity for Yeom and the group to eliminate a communist leader 16 History editEstablishment edit The general consensus is that Yeom founded and became leader of the White Shirts Society WSS in either October or November 1945 5 18 with most sources citing the November founding date 19 20 10 i The group was founded in Nagwon dong Seoul and headquartered in a Gungjeong dong house that the wealthy Oh Dong jin purchased from a Japanese man for the group 10 5 Shortly after the WSS s establishment on November 23 1945 the Sinuiju Incident occurred Over a hundred anti communist students eventually defected to the South in the aftermath and many joined either the militant Central Political Task Force j in the KPG and or the WSS Jung speculated that part of this was because they gravitated towards other North Korean escapees and respected Yeom s reputation 23 On February 19 1946 the WSS appeared in a US military intelligence report The head of the Gunsan police department claimed the WSS was headquartered in Jeonju and had a presence in both North Jeolla Province and South Jeolla Province via three armed trucks A politician from Jeonju also claimed on February 8 that the WSS was a right wing terrorist group 24 1946 assassination attempts and Cho Man sik edit nbsp Kim Il Sung second from left in 1945 with Soviet military officersShortly after the establishment of the Soviet backed Provisional People s Committee of North Korea the WSS made a number of assassination attempts on North Korean politicians within a span of two weeks 25 According to interviews with former members of the WSS these assassination attempts were done in collaboration with the CPTF and KPG 5 22 19 k All attempts failed They attempted to assassinate Kim Il Sung on March 1 1946 Choe Yong gon on March 5 or March 7 19 Kim Chaek on March 9 and Kang Ryang uk on March 12 19 17 25 l Choe and Kang would later become key allies for Kim Il Sung 25 However the attacks made the WSS infamous and brought them to the attention of both the US and USSR According to a March 22 1946 Soviet report about the WSS 24 The WSS is under the direct leadership of Kim Ku It includes Koreans who returned from China and members of some youth groups Their goal is to kill members of the Communist Party of Korea the People s Party of Korea and the leaders of the Provisional North Korean government In addition Bae alleged that around this time several WSS agents attempted to help Cho Man sik escape his house arrest at the Koryo Hotel But Cho reportedly refused to escape and said If I go south who will our comrades in the North have to rely on for survival 24 m Espionage in North Korea edit According to a written statement by Yeom from January to September 1946 the WSS collaborated with the United States Counterintelligence Corps CIC and the military intelligence of the United States Forces Korea USFK in training and sending spies to North Korea About 20 men were dispatched each month 19 Ahn also noted that in early May 1946 WSS agents infiltrated the North to gather intelligence on Northern troop deployments Of particular interest was learning what equipment had been sent by the Soviets 10 These cross border espionage activities stopped due to financial difficulties training issues 19 and tightened security at the North South Korean border 19 10 n However the CIC continued to collaborate with the WSS on other activities until the latter s dissolution 19 Assassination of Lyuh Woon hyung edit See also Lyuh Woon hyung Death An alleged member of the group Han Ji geun ko assassinated Lyuh Woon hyung on July 19 1947 According to most sources the WSS was behind the murder 17 26 8 However the scholar Ahn Gi seok contradicted this narrative in 2005 by claiming Han was not a member of the WSS 10 In 2021 Jung Byung Joon noted that Park Gyeong gu the WSS s Deputy Commander had said in an undated interview that Lyuh was assassinated by order of the WSS 19 Yeom was first introduced to the men who would assassinate Lyuh via an advisor of the group Kim Yeong cheol 5 19 The assassins including Shin Dong un and Kim Heung seong o were given American made 45 caliber pistols for the mission Afterwards Yeom worked with a pro Japanese police officer Roh Deok sul to cover up the case 19 p Other activities edit Between 1946 and 1948 the WSS created the Manchuria Plan q in which they would build a right wing guerrilla army north of the China North Korea border 19 Yeom enlisted the help of Kim Ku who in turn reached out to his long time ally Chiang Kai shek However this plan never came to pass due to Chiang s 1949 loss in the Chinese Civil War 10 Most sources also believe the group assassinated Chang Deok soo on December 2 1947 17 26 8 r Assassination of Kim Ku edit See also Kim Ku Death and Ahn Doo hee nbsp Kim Ku in 1949On June 26 1949 Ahn Doo hee assassinated Kim Ku 26 27 According to Cilley Ahn had been an informant and then an agent of the CIC and may have been ordered by Yeom to assassinate Kim 28 Cilley also alleged that the Yeom and Kim had been plotting a military coup d etat against incumbent President Syngman Rhee before Kim s death 27 However Ahn Gi seok casts doubt on whether Yeom ordered Kim s killing citing the fact that Yeom s feelings towards Kim were mixed and that many WSS members highly respected Kim Ku 10 Decline and dissolution edit According to Ahn and Jung after the establishment of the First Republic of South Korea in August 1948 the role of the WSS and other private militant organizations began to decrease 10 19 While most agents had other jobs to return to around 100 agents had no other place to go A former WSS member who became an intelligence officer at the Republic of Korea Army Headquarters ko recruited many WSS members for his department 10 In February 1949 General Charles Willoughby the chief of intelligence for General Douglas MacArthur sent an envoy to Yeom and requested they work together to acquire information on the North As a result of this interaction on June 1 1946 the Korea Liaison Office was established The remaining WSS agents ended up working there 10 17 On June 25 1950 the Korean War began with the First Battle of Seoul Yeom did not evacuate the city and disappeared with most scholars speculating that he was captured and killed 10 19 After the war the group s headquarters passed into the ownership of the Attorney General Lee In ko s After the May 16 coup in 1961 the Korean Central Intelligence Agency took ownership of the property It later served as the exact site of the 1979 assassination of President Park Chung Hee 10 5 Description editName edit See also White clothing in Korea nbsp The White Shirts Society was named for the white clothes historically worn by Korean commonersThe group s name was inspired by the names of other fascist organizations but especially by the name of the Blue Shirts Society 17 5 29 The Blue Shirts were in turn inspired by other fascist groups with similar names including the Italian Blackshirts the Romanian Greenshirts and the Spanish Blueshirts 5 The name is also a reference to the Korean expression white clothed people t which refers to everyday Korean people as Korean commoners historically wore white clothing 18 27 Structure edit For leadership it is widely agreed that Yeom served as the commander in chief According to several sources Park Jin goo was the Deputy Commander 5 17 u In 2021 Jung Byung Joon described the leadership as follows 19 Position English Position Korean Holder s NotesCommander in chief 총사령 Yeom Dong jinDeputy Commander 부사령 Park Gyeong gu 박경구 朴經九 Born in South Hamgyong Province worked officially as Deputy Commander of the National Defense Corps v Advisors 고문 Yu Chin san Baek Chang seop Kim Yeong cheol All were former KPG Yu later became a representative for multiple terms in the South Korean National Assembly Baek 백창섭 白昌燮 was previously Director of Special Dispatch in the KPG w Kim 김영철 had been a member of the KPG s militant wing the Korean Patriotic Organization 5 Director of the Organization 조직국장 Ahn Byeong seok 안병석 安炳奭 Ahn was officially the head of a labor union x Director of Intelligence 정보국장 Kim Myeong uk 김명욱 金明煜 Later a Bureau Chief in the South Korean Ministry of National Defense y Executive Director 집행국장 Han Seung gyu 한승규 韓承奎 birth name 韓哲民 z Chief Secretary 비서실장 Paek Kwan ok ko Born in Pyongyang One of the Daedongdan assassins of Hyon Chun hyok 5 Director of Training 훈련국장 Seon U bong 선우봉 Born in North Pyongan Province Director of General Affairs 총무국장 Jeong Byeong mo 정병모 鄭柄模 Second son of a post office manager in Pyongyang Cilley claimed the organization had a Revolutionary Group or Special Attack Corps The Corps commandoes were divided into five groups with each group containing four members When an assassination order came through commandoes would swear a blood oath to give their lives to the cause if needed He claimed Kim Ku s assassin Ahn Doo hee was a member of the first group of the Corps 27 Initiation edit According to Ahn Gi seok the group had a secret initiation ritual The initiation would be held in a secret room inside the headquarters that had two locks on the door The initiate would meet Yeom first kneel and raise their right hand They d then make the following pledge 10 30 aa As an initiate of the White Shirts Society I pledge the following One for the sake of the establishment of an independent government in the fatherland I will risk my life to complete any mission given to me One sic I will obey the commands of the White Shirts Society even at the risk of death One no matter the circumstance I will never betray the fatherland or the White Shirts Society The initiate would then make a cut on their finger and sign a contract with blood 10 Training spies edit According to interviews with group members the WSS and CIC collaborated on training and sending spies to the North 19 According to Ahn the training was held at a WSS stronghold in Jeongneung dong ab The selection criteria were strict all selectees were required to be able to fluently speak in the local dialect of the region they were being sent to For each province two native born agents would be selected According to Ahn Park Hyeon yeong served as the administrator for the training 10 ac Relationship with other organizations editCounterintelligence Corps edit See also Yeom Dong jin Cilley report According to a written statement by Yeom the WSS worked with the CIC since January 1946 19 The declassified Cilley report confirmed that Cilley had known Yeom since approximately October 1947 13 ad The report also confirmed WSS agents were used for in CIC initiatives between 1947 and 1948 13 According to Ahn Yeom was first connected to the CIC via Sin Ik hui with whom he had been close during their exile in China Sin invited Yeom to his house ko and introduced Yeom to the Korean American CIC agent Lee Sun yong ko Lee conveyed a request to Sin from US General John R Hodge who wanted Sin to either disband his political organization or use it to spy on the North for the US Furious Sin stormed out of the room However Sin s aide Jo Jung seo ko proposed that the WSS take up the espionage role instead Yeom s main link to the CIC became Lee s superior officer Major Whitaker ae the head of the Seoul branch of the CIC who promised to protect the WSS as long as it provided the US information on the North 10 The group was also connected to another CIC agent Jang Seok yun ko 5 Korean Provisional Government edit nbsp The Korean Provisional Government upon its founding in 1919Many of the WSS leadership were either actively or previously associated with the KPG The groups were particularly linked via the long time friendship between Yeom and Sin Ik hui The two groups were particularly linked via a group founded by Sin on December 6 1945 called the Central Political Task Force CPTF The CPTF was a covert paramilitary organization that operated under the KPG s Ministry of Internal Affairs Their objective was to influence politics usually through means of intelligence or violence to the favor of both the KPG and even Sin personally 31 However the two organizations were not explicitly linked Sin reportedly even offered Yeom a position in the group which Yeom declined in order to avoid explicitly associating the WSS with the KPG 10 Lee Seong ryeol a WSS agent said in an early 2000s interview 5 af In terms of organizational management it would not be an exaggeration to say that the WSS the CPTF Northwest Youth League edit See also Northwest Youth League nbsp Northwest Youth League publicly demanding the withdrawal of Soviet troops May 31 1948 The Northwest Youth League NYL is also considered to be closely tied to the WSS 5 The NYL was an anti communist youth group founded via a merger of several smaller groups on November 30 1946 Their members were mostly if not entirely from North Korea and were infamously violent They had a number of high profile clashes with both the left wing and the police 32 Yu Chin san a likely cadre in the WSS led one of the groups that merged into the NYL 5 Great Korean Independent Labor League edit The WSS has also been linked to the right wing labor union Great Korean Independent Labor League ko ja GKILL GKILL was founded in response to the left wing General Federation of Trade Unions of Korea 5 Members editDescription edit Members shared the WSS s desire to eliminate all communist and anti government politicians Most were right leaning defectors that came from North Korea and a majority of them were followers of Kim Ku 5 27 20 Members came from many employment backgrounds Yeom made a significant effort to have members become police officers or join the South Korean Ministry of National Defense 10 Other agents worked as firefighters merchants industrialists and farmers 5 27 20 Yeom also recruited members of labor unions in the South 10 Cilley speculated that the group operated not only within the Korean peninsula but also in Manchuria although he noted there was uncertainty in both the scope and size of the group 27 20 They were sworn to secrecy in their activities and constantly monitored to ensure they kept secrets and obeyed orders Those accused of wrongdoing were examined via comrade trials ag If found guilty of a lesser crime the member would be subjected to a cripple s punishment ah solitary confinement in a guarded cell within the headquarters for either ten days or a month If found guilty of a greater crime they would be subject to expulsion 10 ai Yeom also made a point of hiding the identity of members from each other Ahn Gi seok notes that because of this there is a theory that there were over 30 000 members of the WSS by 1948 but that the theory is impossible to verify 10 Petty crime edit Members of the WSS were arrested for petty crime on several occasions While they claimed their crimes were unrelated to the WSS Jung speculated that they were intended to procure funds for the group 24 On May 2 1946 Seonu Bong and member Kim Yung gi were sentenced to 1 year and 6 months in prison and 3 years of probation for an attempted robbery aj They were released on November 30 1946 They attempted another robbery on January 5 1947 that was thwarted although they managed to escape On February 12 1947 they extorted over 100 000 won from a businessman in Donam dong which Jung speculated was to fund the WSS s espionage operations On February 27 while attempting another robbery they were caught and arrested in Jongno District On June 1 1947 they each received sentences to two years in prison 24 Other notable members edit nbsp Kim Du han the political gangster in 1955 Kim Du han The infamous political gangster Kim Du han has been considered functionally a member of the group During his lifetime he denied being a member and called himself an advisor at best However according to Lee Yeong shin s 1994 book Yeom considered Kim a lackey 꼬봉 and issued him instructions and missions to forward the goals of the WSS 5 See also editIlminism Korean National Youth Association Korean conflictNotes edit Testimonies from Paek Kwan ok 백관옥 Paek Kŭn ok 백근옥 Choe Ui ho 최의호 Jo Jae guk 조재국 and Seon woo Gil yeong 선우길영 among others 9 Lebedev gives the founding year as 1943 but the majority of Korean language sources give a 1944 starting date 11 대동단 大同團 Not to be confused with the 1919 group of the same name Daedongdan ko Yongmyongsa was later destroyed during the Korean War 10 Park Go bong 박고봉 박고봉 朴古峰 선우봉 Conflicting reports of dates over several decades including 2 3 4 18 and September 28 but Jung claims it is 3 based on a photo of Hyŏn s tombstone See Hyon Chun hyok Date 14 According to Jung Byung Joon ko there are two other theories on how the group was established A second theory is based on an August 1947 report that Yeom gave to US General Albert Wedemeyer It stated that the WSS was founded on August 2 1942 and had over 67 300 members including 26 000 in North Korea and Manchuria and 41 300 in South Korea Jung expressed skepticism about the claims of the group s size although he did not doubt that it had a presence in both North Korea and Manchuria by 1947 7 A third theory is based on the June 29 1949 Cilley report in which an American intelligence agent who interviewed Yeom claims that the core of the group was founded in 1935 7 정치공작대 政治工作隊 Translation from Park Myung Lim ko 21 Also called Department of Political Intelligence by Andrei Lankov 22 정치공작대 According to Weisser a recent article by Ki Kwang seo found that other than for Kim Il Sung s assassination attempt the dates are hard to pin down with certainty 25 내가 월남하면 북조선 동포들은 누굴 의지해서 산단 말인가 The border around the time of the WSS was the 38th parallel north the current Korean Demilitarized Zone DMZ was set only after the Korean War and based on the pre War 38th parallel border 신동운 and 김흥성 노덕술 만주계획 Korean scholars and Cilley are in widespread agreement that these assassinations were done by the WSS although Cilley notes there is no concrete evidence linking the WSS to them 이인 李仁 백의민족 白衣民族 박진구 Organization was later involved in the 1951 National Defense Corps incident 특파사무국 노총 조직부장 과장 Hangul for birth name not provided 나는 백의사 단원으로 입단하면서 다음과 같이 서약한다 하나 나는 조국의 자주적인 정부수립을 위해 목숨을 걸고 맡은 바 임무를 완수한다 하나 나는 목숨을 걸고 백의사의 명령에 복종한다 하나 나는 어떠한 경우에도 조국과 백의사를 배반하지 않는다 The house was an isolated mansion that used to be a villa for a wealthy Japanese man After the Second Battle of Seoul the house was used as the headquarters of the Intelligence Detachment of the South Korean Armed Forces as a secret training ground for operatives that would infiltrate the North ko 10 박현영 朴玄英 He had been a member of Daedongdan before he joined the WSS Cilley stated that he had known Yeom for around 20 months prior to writing the June 1949 document 27 위테커 English spelling uncertain 조직 운영에 있어서는 백의사 중앙정치공작대 라고 해도 과언이 아니었다 동지 재판 앉은뱅이 형벌 출당 김융기References edit Kang 2006 p 326 Young 2013 Robinson 2007 pp 32 35 Robinson 2007 pp 52 53 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Bae 2016 Robinson 2007 pp 52 55 a b c Jung 2021 pp 293 301 a b c d Jung 2005 pp 270 274 a b c Jung 1995 pp 486 488 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Ahn 2005 a b Lebedev 2021 pp 121 122 Encyclopedia Yeom a b c d Jung 2005 pp 257 259 a b c d Jung August 2021 pp 344 349 a b Lee 2019 a b Jung 2021 pp 360 366 a b c d e f g Encyclopedia Culture a b Doosan Encyclopedia a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Jung 2021 pp 290 293 a b c d Jung 2005 pp 267 270 Park 2001 p 335 a b Lankov 2002 pp 24 25 Jung August 2021 pp 367 369 a b c d e Jung August 2021 pp 369 373 a b c d Weiser 2022 a b c Park 2019 a b c d e f g h Cilley Translation 2005 Jung 2003 Elkins 1969 Lee 1993 pp 103 107 Jung 2021 pp 290 293 367 369 Bae 2017 Sources edit In English edit Elkins W F 1969 Fascism in China The Blue Shirts Society 1932 37 Science amp Society 33 4 426 433 ISSN 0036 8237 JSTOR 40401439 Jung Chang hyun January 5 2003 Assassin of Kim Gu Had Links Both to U S and to Terror Unit Korea JoongAng Daily retrieved May 21 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Kim Il Sung s life NK News retrieved May 15 2023 In Korean edit 백의사 White Shirts Society Doosan Encyclopedia in Korean 백의사 White Shirts Society Encyclopedia of Korean Culture in Korean 염응택 廉應澤 Yeom Eung taek Encyclopedia of Korean Culture in Korean retrieved May 21 2023 Ahn Gi seok January 11 2005 金日成 간담 서늘케 한 전설적 백색 테러리스트 The Legendary White Terrorists Who Gave Kim Il Sung Chills The Dong a Ilbo in Korean retrieved May 31 2023 Bae Jin yeong October 2016 치열하게 살다 안개처럼 사라져간 韓 中의 反共투사들 The Korean and Chinese anti communists who fought fiercely and disappeared like mist Monthly Chosun Magazine in Korean The Chosun Ilbo retrieved May 15 2023 Bae Jin yeong April 2017 화나면 좌익보다 더 무서운 것이 우익 해방 후 반공투쟁 앞장선 것도 우익청년단체들이었다 When Angry the Left is Scarier Than the Right Youth Groups Led the Anti communist Struggle After Liberation Monthly Chosun Ilbo in Korean The Chosun Ilbo retrieved June 12 2023 Cilley George E January 11 2005 김구 암살 관련 배경정보 전문번역 Full translation of Kim Koo Background Information Concerning Assassination in Korean Shin Dong a Jung Byung Joon 1995 몽양여운형평전 Biography of Mongyang Lyuh Woon hyung in Korean 한울 ISBN 978 89 460 2229 4 Jung Byung Joon 2005 백범 김구암살 배경과 백의사 The Background of Assassination of Kim Koo and White Shirts Society 한국사연구 The Journal of Korean History in Korean 한국사연구회 The Association For Korean Historical Studies vol 128 pp 257 296 ISSN 1226 296X retrieved May 22 2023 Jung Byung Joon May 2021 관동군 밀정 염동진과 독립투사 김혁 낙양군관학교 동기생의 엇갈린 운명과 백의사의 기원 Lyom Dongjin Spy of Kwantung Army Kempeitai vs Kim Hyuk Independence Fighter Cross Rancor of Alumni of Luoyang Military Academy and Origins of the White Shirts Society 역사비평 Critical Review of History in Korean 역사문제연구소 The Institute for Korean Historical Studies vol 135 pp 289 331 retrieved June 4 2023 Jung Byung Joon August 2021 현준혁 암살과 김일성 암살시도 평남 건준의 좌절된 해방황금시대 와 백의사 Assassination of Hyun Junhyuk and Assassination Attempt on Kim Ilsung The Frustrated Golden Days of Pyongnam Korean Committee for the Preparation of the Re establishment of the State and the Origin of White Shirts Society 역사비평 Critical Review of History in Korean no 136 pp 342 388 retrieved May 9 2023 Kang Jun man November 13 2006 한국 현대사 산책 1940년대편 1 8 15 해방에서 6 25 전야까지 개정판 A Walk Through Modern Korean History 1940s Vol 1 From the 15 August Liberation until the Eve of the Korean War Revised Edition in Korean retrieved May 15 2023 Lee Gye hong October 19 2019 혼돈의 시기 통합적 리더십은 정말 없는가 In Times of Chaos Does Consolidated Leadership Really Not Exist Pressian News in Korean 프레시안협동조합 Pressian Cooperative Association retrieved June 9 2023 Lee Yeong shin June 1 1993 비밀결사 백의사 중 Secret Society White Shirts Society Part 2 in Korean ISBN 9788985278010 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title White Shirts Society amp oldid 1186722809, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
