Standard illuminant

A standard illuminant is a theoretical source of visible light with a spectral power distribution that is published. Standard illuminants provide a basis for comparing images or colors recorded under different lighting.

Relative spectral power distributions (SPDs) of CIE illuminants A, B, and C from 380 nm to 780 nm.

CIE illuminants

The International Commission on Illumination (usually abbreviated CIE for its French name) is the body responsible for publishing all of the well-known standard illuminants. Each of these is known by a letter or by a letter-number combination.

Illuminants A, B, and C were introduced in 1931, with the intention of respectively representing average incandescent light, direct sunlight, and average daylight. Illuminants D (1967) represent variations of daylight, illuminant E is the equal-energy illuminant, while illuminants F (2004) represent fluorescent lamps of various composition.

There are instructions on how to experimentally produce light sources ("standard sources") corresponding to the older illuminants. For the relatively newer ones (such as series D), experimenters are left to measure to profiles of their sources and compare them to the published spectra:^[1]

At present no artificial source is recommended to realize CIE standard illuminant D65 or any other illuminant D of different CCT. It is hoped that new developments in light sources and filters will eventually offer sufficient basis for a CIE recommendation.

— CIE, Technical Report (2004) Colorimetry, 3rd ed., Publication 15:2004, CIE Central Bureau, Vienna

Nevertheless, they do provide a measure, called the metamerism index, to assess the quality of daylight simulators.^[2][3] The Metamerism Index tests how well five sets of metameric samples match under the test and reference illuminant. In a manner similar to the color rendering index, the average difference between the metamers is calculated.^[4]

Illuminant A

The CIE defines illuminant A in these terms:

CIE standard illuminant A is intended to represent typical, domestic, tungsten-filament lighting. Its relative spectral power distribution is that of a Planckian radiator at a temperature of approximately 2856 K. CIE standard illuminant A should be used in all applications of colorimetry involving the use of incandescent lighting, unless there are specific reasons for using a different illuminant.

— CIE,

The spectral radiant exitance of a black body follows Planck's law:

${\displaystyle M_{e,\lambda }(\lambda ,T)={\frac {c_{1}\lambda ^{-5}}{\exp \left({\frac {c_{2}}{\lambda T}}\right)-1}}.}$ 

At the time of standardizing illuminant A, both ${\displaystyle c_{1}=2\pi \cdot h\cdot c^{2}}$  (which does not affect the relative SPD) and ${\displaystyle c_{2}=h\cdot c/k}$  were different. In 1968, the estimate of c₂ was revised from 0.01438 m·K to 0.014388 m·K (and before that, it was 0.01435 m·K when illuminant A was standardized). This difference shifted the Planckian locus, changing the color temperature of the illuminant from its nominal 2848 K to 2856 K:

${\displaystyle T_{new}=T_{old}\times {\frac {1.4388}{1.435}}=2848\ {\text{K}}\times 1.002648=2855.54\ {\text{K}}.}$ 

In order to avoid further possible changes in the color temperature, the CIE now specifies the SPD directly, based on the original (1931) value of c₂:^[1]

${\displaystyle S_{A}(\lambda )=100\left({\frac {560}{\lambda }}\right)^{5}{\frac {\exp {\frac {1.435\times 10^{7}}{2848\times 560}}-1}{\exp {\frac {1.435\times 10^{7}}{2848\lambda }}-1}}.}$ 

The coefficients have been selected to achieve a normalized SPD of 100 at 560 nm. The tristimulus values are (X, Y, Z) = (109.85, 100.00, 35.58), and the chromaticity coordinates using the standard observer are (x, y) = (0.44758, 0.40745).

Illuminants B and C

Illuminants B and C are easily achieved daylight simulations. They modify illuminant A by using liquid filters. B served as a representative of noon sunlight, with a correlated color temperature (CCT) of 4874 K, while C represented average day light with a CCT of 6774 K. Unfortunately, they are poor approximations of any phase of natural daylight, particularly in the short-wave visible and in the ultraviolet spectral ranges. Once more realistic simulations were achievable, illuminants B and C were deprecated in favor of the D series.^[1]

Illuminant C does not have the status of CIE standard illuminants but its relative spectral power distribution, tristimulus values and chromaticity coordinates are given in Table T.1 and Table T.3, as many practical measurement instruments and calculations still use this illuminant.

— CIE, Publication 15:2004^[5]

Illuminant B was not so honored in 2004.

The liquid filters, designed by Raymond Davis, Jr. and Kasson S. Gibson in 1931,^[6] have a relatively high absorbance at the red end of the spectrum, effectively increasing the CCT of the incandescent lamp to daylight levels. This is similar in function to a CTB color gel that photographers and cinematographers use today, albeit much less convenient.

Each filter uses a pair of solutions, comprising specific amounts of distilled water, copper sulfate, mannite, pyridine, sulfuric acid, cobalt, and ammonium sulfate. The solutions are separated by a sheet of uncolored glass. The amounts of the ingredients are carefully chosen so that their combination yields a color temperature conversion filter; that is, the filtered light is still white.

Illuminant series D

 

Relative spectral power distribution of illuminant D and a black body of the same correlated color temperature (in red), normalized about 560 nm.

The D series of illuminants are designed to represent natural daylight and lie along the daylight locus. They are difficult to produce artificially, but are easy to characterize mathematically.

By 1964, several spectral power distributions (SPDs) of daylight had been measured independently by H. W. Budde of the National Research Council of Canada in Ottawa, H. R. Condit and F. Grum of the Eastman Kodak Company in Rochester, New York,^[7] and S. T. Henderson and D. Hodgkiss of Thorn Electrical Industries in Enfield (north London),^[8] totaling among them 622 samples. Deane B. Judd, David MacAdam, and Günter Wyszecki analyzed these samples and found that the (x, y) chromaticity coordinates followed a simple, quadratic relation, later known as the daylight locus:^[9]

${\displaystyle y=2.870x-3.000x^{2}-0.275.}$ 

Characteristic vector analysis revealed that the SPDs could be satisfactorily approximated by using the mean (S₀) and first two characteristic vectors (S₁ and S₂):^[10][11]

${\displaystyle S_{D}(\lambda )=S_{0}(\lambda )+M_{1}S_{1}(\lambda )+M_{2}S_{2}(\lambda ).}$ 

 

Characteristic vectors of illuminant D; component SPDs S₀ (blue), S₁ (green), S₂ (red).

In simpler terms, the SPD of the studied daylight samples can be expressed as the linear combination of three, fixed SPDs. The first vector (S₀) is the mean of all the SPD samples, which is the best reconstituted SPD that can be formed with only a fixed vector. The second vector (S₁) corresponds to yellow–blue variation (along the locus), accounting for changes in the correlated color temperature due to proportion of indirect to direct sunlight.^[9] The third vector (S₂) corresponds to pink–green variation (across the locus) caused by the presence of water in the form of vapor and haze.^[9]

 

The Planckian locus is depicted on the CIE 1960 UCS, along with isotherms (lines of constant correlated color temperature) and representative illuminant coordinates

By the time the D-series was formalized by the CIE,^[12] a computation of the chromaticity ${\displaystyle (x,y)}$  for a particular isotherm was included.^[13] Judd et al. then extended the reconstituted SPDs to 300 nm–330 nm and 700 nm–830 nm by using Moon's spectral absorbance data of the Earth's atmosphere.^[14] The tabulated SPDs presented by the CIE today are derived by linear interpolation of the 10 nm data set down to 5 nm.^[15] However, there is a proposal to use spline interpolation instead.^[16]

Similar studies have been undertaken in other parts of the world, or repeating Judd et al.'s analysis with modern computational methods. In several of these studies, the daylight locus is notably closer to the Planckian locus than in Judd et al.^{[17] [18]}

The CIE positions D65 as the standard daylight illuminant:

[D65] is intended to represent average daylight and has a correlated colour temperature of approximately 6500 K. CIE standard illuminant D65 should be used in all colorimetric calculations requiring representative daylight, unless there are specific reasons for using a different illuminant. Variations in the relative spectral power distribution of daylight are known to occur, particularly in the ultraviolet spectral region, as a function of season, time of day, and geographic location.

— ISO 10526:1999/CIE S005/E-1998, CIE Standard Illuminants for Colorimetry^[19]

 

Daylight locus in the CIE 1960 UCS. The isotherms are perpendicular to the Planckian locus. The two sections of the daylight locus, from 4000–7000 K and 7000–25000 K, are color-coded. Note that the two loci are separated by a fairly even distance, of around ${\displaystyle \Delta _{uv}=0.003}$ .

Computation

The relative spectral power distribution (SPD) ${\displaystyle S_{D}(\lambda )}$  of a D series illuminant can be derived from its chromaticity coordinates in the CIE 1931 color space, ${\displaystyle (x_{D},y_{D})}$ .^[20] First, the chromaticity coordinates must be determined:

${\displaystyle x_{D}={\begin{cases}0.244063+0.09911{\frac {10^{3}}{T}}+2.9678{\frac {10^{6}}{T^{2}}}-4.6070{\frac {10^{9}}{T^{3}}}&4000\ \mathrm {K} \leq T\leq 7000\ \ \mathrm {K} \\0.237040+0.24748{\frac {10^{3}}{T}}+1.9018{\frac {10^{6}}{T^{2}}}-2.0064{\frac {10^{9}}{T^{3}}}&7000\ \mathrm {K} <T\leq 25000\ \mathrm {K} \end{cases}}}$ 

${\displaystyle y_{D}=-3.000x_{D}^{2}+2.870x_{D}-0.275}$ 

where T is the illuminant's CCT. Note that the CCTs of the canonical illuminants, D₅₀, D₅₅, D₆₅, and D₇₅, differ slightly from what their names suggest. For example, D50 has a CCT of 5003 K ("horizon" light), while D65 has a CCT of 6504 K (noon light). This is because the value of the constants in Planck's law have been slightly changed since the definition of these canonical illuminants, whose SPDs are based on the original values in Planck's law.^[1] The same discrepancy applies to all illuminants in the D series—D₅₀, D₅₅, D₆₅, D₇₅—and can be "rectified" by multiplying the nominal color temperature by ${\displaystyle {\frac {c_{2}}{1.4380}}}$ ; for example ${\displaystyle 6500\ {\text{K}}\times {\frac {1.438776877\dots }{1.4380}}=6503.51\ {\text{K}}}$  for D₆₅.

To determine the D-series SPD (S_D) that corresponds to those coordinates, the coefficients M₁ and M₂ of the characteristic vectors S₁ and S₂ are determined:

${\displaystyle S_{D}(\lambda )=S_{0}(\lambda )+M_{1}S_{1}(\lambda )+M_{2}S_{2}(\lambda ),}$ 

${\displaystyle M_{1}=(-1.3515-1.7703x_{D}+5.9114y_{D})/M,}$ 

${\displaystyle M_{2}=(0.0300-31.4424x_{D}+30.0717y_{D})/M,}$ 

${\displaystyle M=0.0241+0.2562x_{D}-0.7341y_{D}}$ 

where ${\displaystyle S_{0}(\lambda ),S_{1}(\lambda ),S_{2}(\lambda )}$  are the mean and first two eigenvector SPDs, depicted in figure.^[20] The characteristic vectors both have a zero at 560 nm, since all the relative SPDs have been normalized about this point. In order to match all significant digits of the published data of the canonical illuminants the values of M₁ and M₂ have to be rounded to three decimal places before calculation of S_D.^[1]

D65 values

Using the standard 2° observer, the CIE 1931 color space chromaticity coordinates of D65 are^[21]

$${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=0.31272\\y&=0.32903\end{aligned}}}$$

 

and the XYZ tristimulus values (normalized to Y = 100), are

$${\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{2}X&={}&95.047\\Y&={}&100{\phantom {.000}}\\Z&={}&108.883\end{alignedat}}}$$

 

For the supplementary 10° observer,^{[citation needed]}

$${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=0.31382\\y&=0.33100\end{aligned}}}$$

 

and the corresponding XYZ tristimulus values are

$${\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{2}X&={}&94.811\\Y&={}&100{\phantom {.000}}\\Z&={}&107.304\end{alignedat}}}$$

 

Since D65 represents white light, its coordinates are also a white point, corresponding to a correlated color temperature of 6504 K. Rec. 709, used in HDTV systems, truncates the CIE 1931 coordinates to x=0.3127, y=0.329.

Daylight simulator

There are no actual daylight light sources, only simulators. Constructing a practical light source that emulates a D-series illuminant is a difficult problem. The chromaticity can be replicated simply by taking a well known light source and applying filters, such as the Spectralight III, that used filtered incandescent lamps.^[22] However, the SPDs of these sources deviate from the D-series SPD, leading to bad performance on the CIE metamerism index.^[23][24] Better sources were achieved in the 2010s with phosphor-coated white LEDs that can easily emulate the A, D, and E illuminants with high CRI.^[25]

Illuminant E

 

Illuminant E is beneath the Planckian locus, and roughly at the CCT of D₅₅.

Illuminant E is an equal-energy radiator; it has a constant SPD inside the visible spectrum. It is useful as a theoretical reference; an illuminant that gives equal weight to all wavelengths. It also has equal CIE XYZ tristimulus values, thus its chromaticity coordinates are (x,y)=(1/3,1/3). This is by design; the XYZ color matching functions are normalized such that their integrals over the visible spectrum are the same.^[1]

Illuminant E is not a black body, so it does not have a color temperature, but it can be approximated by a D series illuminant with a CCT of 5455 K. (Of the canonical illuminants, D₅₅ is the closest.) Manufacturers sometimes compare light sources against illuminant E to calculate the excitation purity.^[26]

Illuminant series F

The F series of illuminants represent various types of fluorescent lighting.

F1–F6 "standard" fluorescent lamps consist of two semi-broadband emissions of antimony and manganese activations in calcium halophosphate phosphor.^[27] F4 is of particular interest since it was used for calibrating the CIE color rendering index (the CRI formula was chosen such that F4 would have a CRI of 51). F7–F9 are "broadband" (full-spectrum light) fluorescent lamps with multiple phosphors, and higher CRIs. Finally, F10–F12 are narrow triband illuminants consisting of three "narrowband" emissions (caused by ternary compositions of rare-earth phosphors) in the R,G,B regions of the visible spectrum. The phosphor weights can be tuned to achieve the desired CCT.

The spectra of these illuminants are published in Publication 15:2004.^[5][28]

•  
  FL 1–6: Standard
•  
  FL 7–9: Broadband
•  
  FL 10–12: Narrowband

Illuminant series LED

Publication 15:2018 introduces new illuminants for different white LED types with CCTs ranging from approx. 2700 K to 6600 K.

LED-B1 through B5 defines LEDs with phosphor-converted blue light. LED-BH1 defines a blend of phosphor-converted blue and a red LED. LED-RGB1 defines the white light produced by a tricolor LED mix. LED-V1 and V2 define LEDs with phosphor-converted violet light.

White point

Main article: White point

The spectrum of a standard illuminant, like any other profile of light, can be converted into tristimulus values. The set of three tristimulus coordinates of an illuminant is called a white point. If the profile is normalized, then the white point can equivalently be expressed as a pair of chromaticity coordinates.

If an image is recorded in tristimulus coordinates (or in values which can be converted to and from them), then the white point of the illuminant used gives the maximum value of the tristimulus coordinates that will be recorded at any point in the image, in the absence of fluorescence. It is called the white point of the image.

The process of calculating the white point discards a great deal of information about the profile of the illuminant, and so although it is true that for every illuminant the exact white point can be calculated, it is not the case that knowing the white point of an image alone tells you a great deal about the illuminant that was used to record it.

White points of standard illuminants

A list of standardized illuminants, their CIE chromaticity coordinates (x,y) of a perfectly reflecting (or transmitting) diffuser, and their correlated color temperatures (CCTs) are given below. The CIE chromaticity coordinates are given for both the 2 degree field of view (1931) and the 10 degree field of view (1964).^[29]The color swatches represent the color of each white point, automatically calculated by Wikipedia using the Color temperature template.

White points of standard illuminants^{[30][31][32][33]}

Name	CIE 1931 2°		CIE 1964 10°		CCT (K)	Color	Note
	x2°	y2°	x10°	y10°
A	0.44758	0.40745	0.45117	0.40594	2856		incandescent / tungsten
B	0.34842	0.35161	0.34980	0.35270	4874		obsolete, direct sunlight at noon
C	0.31006	0.31616	0.31039	0.31905	6774		obsolete, average / North sky daylight NTSC 1953^[34], PAL-M^[35]^[a]
D50	0.34567	0.35850	0.34773	0.35952	5003		horizon light, ICC profile PCS^[a]
D55	0.33242	0.34743	0.33411	0.34877	5503		mid-morning / mid-afternoon daylight
D65	0.31272	0.32903	0.31382	0.33100	6504		noon daylight: television, sRGB color space^[a]
D75	0.29902	0.31485	0.29968	0.31740	7504		North sky daylight
D93	0.28315	0.29711	0.28327	0.30043	9305		high-efficiency blue phosphor monitors, BT.2035^[a]
E	0.33333	0.33333	0.33333	0.33333	5454		equal energy
F1	0.31310	0.33727	0.31811	0.33559	6430		daylight fluorescent
F2	0.37208	0.37529	0.37925	0.36733	4230		cool white fluorescent
F3	0.40910	0.39430	0.41761	0.38324	3450		white fluorescent
F4	0.44018	0.40329	0.44920	0.39074	2940		warm white fluorescent
F5	0.31379	0.34531	0.31975	0.34246	6350		daylight fluorescent
F6	0.37790	0.38835	0.38660	0.37847	4150		light white fluorescent
F7	0.31292	0.32933	0.31569	0.32960	6500		D65 simulator, daylight simulator
F8	0.34588	0.35875	0.34902	0.35939	5000		D50 simulator, Sylvania F40 Design 50
F9	0.37417	0.37281	0.37829	0.37045	4150		cool white deluxe fluorescent
F10	0.34609	0.35986	0.35090	0.35444	5000		Philips TL85, Ultralume 50
F11	0.38052	0.37713	0.38541	0.37123	4000		Philips TL84, Ultralume 40
F12	0.43695	0.40441	0.44256	0.39717	3000		Philips TL83, Ultralume 30
LED-B1	0.4560	0.4078			2733		phosphor-converted blue
LED-B2	0.4357	0.4012			2998		phosphor-converted blue
LED-B3	0.3756	0.3723			4103		phosphor-converted blue
LED-B4	0.3422	0.3502			5109		phosphor-converted blue
LED-B5	0.3118	0.3236			6598		phosphor-converted blue
LED-BH1	0.4474	0.4066			2851		mixing of phosphor-converted blue LED and red LED (blue-hybrid)
LED-RGB1	0.4557	0.4211			2840		mixing of red, green, and blue LEDs
LED-V1	0.4560	0.4548			2724		phosphor-converted violet
LED-V2	0.3781	0.3775			4070		phosphor-converted violet

1. Displays simply use the white point of this standard illuminant; they do not emit the required spectrum.

References

1. Schanda, János (2007). "3: CIE Colorimetry". Colorimetry: Understanding the CIE System. Wiley Interscience. pp. 37–46. ISBN 978-0-470-04904-4.
2. CIE Technical Report (1999). . 51.2-1999 (including Supplement 1-1999). Paris: Bureau central de la CIE. ISBN 978-92-9034-051-5. Archived from the original on 2008-04-16. A method is provided for evaluating the suitability of a test source as a simulator of CIE Standard Illuminants D55, D65, or D75. The Supplement, prepared in 1999, adds the CIE Illuminant D50 to the line of illuminants where the method can be applied to. For each of these standard illuminants, spectral radiance factor data are supplied for five pairs of nonfluorescent samples that are metameric matches. The colorimetric differences of the five pairs are computed for the test illuminant; the average of these differences is taken as the visible range metamerism index and is used as a measure of the quality of the test illuminant as a simulator for nonfluorescent samples. For fluorescent samples, the quality is further assessed in terms of an ultraviolet range metamerism index, defined as the average of the colorimetric differences computed with the test illuminant for three further pairs of samples, each pair consisting of a fluorescent and a nonfluorescent sample which are metameric under the standard illuminant.
3. CIE Standard (2004). Standard Method of Assessing the Spectral Quality of Daylight Simulators for Visual Appraisal and Measurement of Colour. S012/E:2004. Prepared by TC 1-53 "A Standard Method for Assessing the Quality of Daylight Simulators". ISO Standard 23603:2005(E).
4. Lam, Yuk-Ming; Xin, John H. (August 2002). "Evaluation of the quality of different D65 simulators for visual assessment". Color Research & Application. 27 (4): 243–251. doi:10.1002/col.10061. hdl:10397/26550.
5. CIE Technical Report (2004). . Publication 15:2004 (3rd ed.). CIE Central Bureau, Vienna. ISBN 978-3-901906-33-6. Archived from the original on 2008-02-13.
6. Davis, Raymond; Gibson, Kasson S. (January 21, 1931). "Filters for the reproduction of sunlight and daylight and the determination of color temperature". Precision Measurement and Calibration. 10. National Bureau of Standards: 641–805.
7. Condit, Harold R.; Grum, Frank (July 1964). "Spectral energy distribution of daylight". JOSA. 54 (7): 937–944. doi:10.1364/JOSA.54.000937.
8. Henderson, Stanley Thomas; Hodgkiss, D. (1963). "The spectral energy distribution of daylight". British Journal of Applied Physics. 14 (3): 125–131. Bibcode:1963BJAP...14..125H. doi:10.1088/0508-3443/14/3/307.
   Henderson, Stanley Thomas; Hodgkiss, D. (1964). "The spectral energy distribution of daylight". British Journal of Applied Physics. 15 (8): 947–952. Bibcode:1964BJAP...15..947H. doi:10.1088/0508-3443/15/8/310.
9. Judd, Deane B.; MacAdam, David L.; Wyszecki, Günter (August 1964). "Spectral Distribution of Typical Daylight as a Function of Correlated Color Temperature". JOSA. 54 (8): 1031–1040. doi:10.1364/JOSA.54.001031.
10. Simonds, John L. (August 1963). "Application of Characteristic Vector Analysis to Photographic and Optical Response Data". JOSA. 53 (8): 968–974. doi:10.1364/JOSA.53.000968.
11. Tzeng, Di-Yuan; Berns, Roy S. (April 2005). "A review of principal component analysis and its applications to color technology". Color Research & Application. 30 (2): 84–98. doi:10.1002/col.20086.
12. Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (1964). Proceedings of the 15th Session, Vienna.
13. Kelly, Kenneth L. (August 1963). "Lines of Constant Correlated Color Temperature Based on MacAdam's (u,v) Uniform Chromaticity Transformation of the CIE Diagram". JOSA. 53 (8): 999–1002. doi:10.1364/JOSA.53.000999.
14. Moon, Parry (November 1940). "Proposed standard solar-radiation curves for engineering use". Journal of the Franklin Institute. 230 (5): 583–617. doi:10.1016/S0016-0032(40)90364-7.
15. CIE 1931 and 1964 Standard Colorimetric Observers from 380 nm to 780 nm in increments of 5 nm.
16. Kránicz, Balázs; Schanda, János (August 2000). "Re-evaluation of daylight spectral distributions". Color Research & Application. 25 (4): 250–259. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.42.521. doi:10.1002/1520-6378(200008)25:4<250::AID-COL5>3.0.CO;2-D. Later the S₀(λ), S₁(λ) and S₂(λ) functions have been linearly interpolated at 5 nm steps and for even finer step-size also a linear interpolation has been recommended
17. Studies from the 1960s and 1970s include:
    • G. T. Winch; M. C. Boshoff; C. J. Kok & A. G. du Toit (April 1966). "Spectroradiometric and Colorimetric Characteristics of Daylight in the Southern Hemisphere: Pretoria, South Africa". JOSA. 56 (4): 456–464. doi:10.1364/JOSA.56.000456. The derived chromaticities were found to be much closer to the full radiator locus than those previously published, which had been obtained in the northern hemisphere.
    • Das, S.R.; Sastri, V.D.P. (March 1965). "Spectral Distribution and Color of Tropical Daylight". JOSA. 55 (3): 319–323. doi:10.1364/JOSA.55.000319.
    • Sastri, V.D.P.; Das, S.R. (March 1968). "Typical Spectral Distributions and Color for Tropical Daylight". JOSA. 58 (3): 391–398. doi:10.1364/JOSA.58.000391.
    • Sastri, V.D.P. (January 11, 1976). "Locus of daylight chromaticities in relation to atmospheric conditions". Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. 9 (1): L1–L3. Bibcode:1976JPhD....9L...1S. doi:10.1088/0022-3727/9/1/001. S2CID 250832186.
    • Dixon, E.R. (April 1978). "Spectral distribution of Australian daylight". JOSA. 68 (4): 437–450. doi:10.1364/JOSA.68.000437.
18. Analyses using the faster computation of the 1990s and 2000s include:
    • Hernández-Andrés, Javier; Javier Romero; Antonio García-Beltrán; Juan L. Nieves (February 20, 1998). "Testing Linear Models on Spectral Daylight Measurements". Applied Optics. 37 (6): 971–977. Bibcode:1998ApOpt..37..971H. doi:10.1364/AO.37.000971. PMID 18268673.
    • Hernández-Andrés, Javier; Javier Romero; Juan L. Nieves; Raymond L. Lee Jr (June 2001). "Color and spectral analysis of daylight in southern Europe". JOSA A. 18 (6): 1325–1335. Bibcode:2001JOSAA..18.1325H. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.384.70. doi:10.1364/JOSAA.18.001325. PMID 11393625.
    • Thanh Hai Bui; Reiner Lenz; Tomas Landelius (2004). Group theoretical investigations of daylight spectra (PDF). CGIV (European Conference on Colour Graphics, Imaging and Vision). pp. 437–442. Retrieved 2008-05-13.
19. . www.cie.co.at. CIE. 1999. Archived from the original on 2017-12-04. Retrieved 2018-12-17.
20. The coefficients differ from those in the original paper due to the change in the constants in Planck's law. See Lindbloom for the current version, and Planckian locus for details.
21. Schanda, János (2007). "3. CIE Colorimetry". In Schanda, János (ed.). Colorimetry: understanding the CIE system. John Wiley & Sons. Appendix A, p. 74.
22. Wyszecki, Gunter (1970). "Development of New CIE Sources for Colorimetry". Die Farbe. 19: 43–.
23. CIE Technical Report (1999). . Paris: Bureau central de la CIE. ISBN 978-92-9034-051-5. Archived from the original on 2017-08-21. A method is provided for evaluating the suitability of a test source as a simulator of CIE Standard Illuminants D55, D65, or D75. The Supplement, prepared in 1999, adds the CIE Illuminant D50 to the line of illuminants where the method can be applied to. For each of these standard illuminants, spectral radiance factor data are supplied for five pairs of nonfluorescent samples that are metameric matches. The colorimetric differences of the five pairs are computed for the test illuminant; the average of these differences is taken as the visible range metamerism index and is used as a measure of the quality of the test illuminant as a simulator for nonfluorescent samples. For fluorescent samples, the quality is further assessed in terms of an ultraviolet range metamerism index, defined as the average of the colorimetric differences computed with the test illuminant for three further pairs of samples, each pair consisting of a fluorescent and a nonfluorescent sample which are metameric under the standard illuminant.
24. Lam, Yuk-Ming; Xin, John H. (August 2002). "Evaluation of the quality of different D65 simulators for visual assessment". Color Research & Application. 27 (4): 243–251. doi:10.1002/col.10061.
25. "CIE Illuminant Technology - Yujileds". Yujileds - High CRI LED Leader. 5 September 2023.
26. Philips. "Optical Testing for SuperFlux, SnapLED and LUXEON Emitters" (PDF). CIE has defined the color coordinates of several different white Illuminants, but within Lumileds, CIE illuminant E is used for all color calculations
27. For commercial examples of calcium halophosphate fluorescents, see for example US 5447660  Method for making a calcium halophosphate phosphor or US 6666993  Single component calcium halophosphate phosphor
28. Spectral power distribution of Illuminants Series F (Excel), in 5 nm increments from 380 nm to 780 nm.
29. Mitchell Charity. "Blackbody color datafile". vendian.org.
30. Danny Pascale. "A Review of RGB color spaces" (PDF). Babel Color.
31. (PDF), archived from the original on 2005-05-23, retrieved 2017-12-11
32. , archived from the original on 2011-07-25, retrieved 2017-12-11
33. Colorimetry, 4th Edition, vol. CIE 015:2018, doi:10.25039/TR.015.2018, ISBN 978-3-902842-13-8
34. 47 CFR § 73.682 (20) (iv)
35. "RECOMMENDATION ITU-R BT.470-6 - CONVENTIONAL TELEVISION SYSTEMS, p.16" (PDF).

External links

• , as published in
• Konica Minolta Sensing: Light sources & Illuminants