Cross section of a spirochaete cellEndoflagella Components. Legend: Fig. 1: A cross-section of a typical spirochete cell showing endoflagella located in the periplasm between the inner cytoplasmic membrane and the outer membrane. Periplasm, consisting of a gel-like matrix, provides a semi-stable medium to secure endoflagella during rotation. The axial filament, indicated in red, is composed of bundles of endoflagella. Fig. 2: A side-view of a spirochete cell which shows two axial filaments in opposing motion. One axial filament rotates in a clockwise orientation; an adjacent axial filament rotates in a counter-clockwise orientation. Rotation of the endoflagella creates torsion and drives the corkscrew rotation of the cell. Fig. 3: An expanded view of the cellular membranes that surround endoflagellum. Both the inner and outer membrane contain a phospholipid bi-layer, with non-polar fatty acid chains in-ward of polar phosphorus heads. Peptidoglycan, the cell wall, provides structure in bacterial microorganisms. Axial filaments are superior to the peptidoglycan.
Spirochaetes are distinguished from other bacterial phyla by the location of their flagella, called endoflagella, or periplasmic flagella, which are sometimes called axial filaments.[8][9] Endoflagella are anchored at each end (pole) of the bacterium within the periplasmic space (between the inner and outer membranes) where they project backwards to extend the length of the cell.[10] These cause a twisting motion which allows the spirochaete to move about. When reproducing, a spirochaete will undergo asexual transverse binary fission. Most spirochaetes are free-living and anaerobic, but there are numerous exceptions. Spirochaete bacteria are diverse in their pathogenic capacity and the ecological niches that they inhabit, as well as molecular characteristics including guanine-cytosine content and genome size.[11][12]
Salvarsan, the first partially organic synthetic antimicrobial drug in medical history, was effective against spirochaetes and primarily used to cure syphilis. Additionally, oral spirochaetes are known to play a significant role in the pathogenesis of human periodontal disease.[17]
Taxonomy and molecular signaturesedit
The class currently consists of 14 validly named genera across 4 orders and 5 families.[18][19][20] The orders Brachyspirales, Brevinematales and Leptospirales each contain a single family, Brachyspiraceae, Brevinemataceae and Leptospiraceae, respectively. The Spirochaetales order harbours two families, Spirochaetaceae and Borreliaceae. Molecular markers in the form of conserved signature indels (CSIs) and CSPs have been found specific for each of the orders, with the exception of Brevinimetales, that provide a reliable means to demarcate these clades from one another within the diverse phylum.[19] Additional CSIs have been found exclusively shared by each family within the Spirochaetales. These molecular markers are in agreement with the observed phylogenetic tree branching of two monophyletic clades within the Spirochaetales order.[19] CSIs have also been found that further differentiate taxonomic groups within the Borreliaceae family that further delineate evolutionary relationships that are in accordance with physical characteristics such as pathogenicity (viz. Borrelia emend. Borreliella gen. nov.).[21] However, this study has been criticized, and other studies using different approaches do not support the proposed split.[22] The new naming system for the Lyme and relapsing fever Borrelia has not been adopted by the scientific literature.[22]
A CSI has also been found exclusively shared by all Spirochaetota species.[19] This CSI is a 3 amino acid insert in the flagellar basal body rod protein FlgC which is an important part of the unique endoflagellar structure shared by Spirochaetota species.[23] Given that the CSI is exclusively shared by members within this phylum, it has been postulated that it may be related to the characteristic flagellar properties observed among Spirochaetota species.[19][23]
Historically, all families belonging to the Spirochaetota phylum were assigned to a single order, the Spirochaetales.[11][12] However, the current taxonomic view is more connotative of accurate evolutionary relationships. The distribution of a CSI is indicative of shared ancestry within the clade for which it is specific. It thus functions as a synapomorphic characteristic, so that the distributions of different CSIs provide the means to identify different orders and families within the phylum and so justify the phylogenetic divisions.[19]
^Paster BJ (2010). "Class I. Spirochaetia class. nov.". In Krieg NR, Staley JT, Brown DR, Hedlund BP, Paster BJ (eds.). Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. Vol. 4—The Bacteroidetes, Spirochaetes, Tenericutes (Mollicutes), Acidobacteria, Fibrobacteres, Fusobacteria, Dictyoglomi, Gemmatimonadetes, Lentisphaerae, Verrucomicrobia, Chlamydiae, and Planctomycetes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-68572-4. ISBN978-0-387-95042-6.
^Oren A, Garrity GM (2020). "Validation list no. 195. List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published". Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 70 (9): 4844–4847. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004366. PMID 32993851. S2CID 222147003.
^Oren A, Garrity GM (2021). "Valid publication of the names of forty-two phyla of prokaryotes". Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 71 (10): 5056. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.005056. PMID 34694987. S2CID 239887308.
^. Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on 27 January 2021.
^Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. Elsevier.
^Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN978-0-8385-8529-0.
^Margulis L, Ashen JB, Solé M, Guerrero R (August 1993). "Composite, large spirochetes from microbial mats: spirochete structure review". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (15): 6966–6970. Bibcode:1993PNAS...90.6966M. doi:10.1073/pnas.90.15.6966. PMC47056. PMID 8346204.
^Nakamura S (April 2020). "Spirochete Flagella and Motility". Biomolecules. 10 (4): 550. doi:10.3390/biom10040550. PMC7225975. PMID 32260454.
^Carroll KC, Hobden JA, Miller S (2019). "Spirochetes and Other Spiral Microorganisms". Jawetz, Melnick, & Adelberg’s Medical Microbiology. McGraw-Hill Education. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
^Madigan MT (2019). Brock biology of microorganisms (Fifteenth, Global ed.). NY, NY: Pearson. p. 519. ISBN9781292235103.
^ abPaster BJ (2011). "Phylum XV. Spirochaetes Garrity and Holt.". In Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Garrity GM, Staley JT (eds.). Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. New York: Springer. p. 471.
^ abPaster BJ (2011). "Family I. Sprochaetes Swellengrebel 1907, 581AL.". In Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Garrity GM, Staley JT (eds.). Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. New York: Springer. pp. 473–531.
^McBride A, Athanazio D, Reis M, Ko A (2005). "Leptospirosis". Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases. 18 (5): 376–86. doi:10.1097/01.qco.0000178824.05715.2c. PMID 16148523. S2CID 220576544.
^Wolcott KA, Margos G, Fingerle V, Becker NS (September 2021). "Host association of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: A review". Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases. 12 (5): 101766. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101766. PMID 34161868.
^Schwan TG (June 1996). "Ticks and Borrelia: model systems for investigating pathogen-arthropod interactions". Infectious Agents and Disease. 5 (3): 167–181. PMID 8805079.
^Amat Villegas I, Borobio Aguilar E, Beloqui Perez R, de Llano Varela P, Oquiñena Legaz S, Martínez-Peñuela Virseda JM (January 2004). "[Colonic spirochetes: an infrequent cause of adult diarrhea]". Gastroenterol Hepatol (in Spanish). 27 (1): 21–3. doi:10.1016/s0210-5705(03)70440-3. PMID 14718105.
^Schoch CL, Ciufo S, Domrachev M, Hotton CL, Kannan S, Khovanskaya R, et al. "TherSpirochaetia". National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) taxonomy database. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
^ abcdefGupta RS, Mahmood S, Adeolu M (2013). "A phylogenomic and molecular signature based approach for characterization of the phylum Spirochaetes and its major clades: proposal for a taxonomic revision of the phylum". Front Microbiol. 4 (217): 217. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2013.00217. PMC3726837. PMID 23908650.
^Oren A, Garrity GM (2014). "List of new names and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published" (PDF). Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 64 (3): 693–696. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.062521-0.
^Adeolu M, Gupta RS (2014). "A phylogenomic and molecular marker based proposal for the division of the genus Borrelia into two genera: the emended genus Borrelia containing only the members of the relapsing fever Borrelia, and the genus Borreliella gen. nov. containing the members of the Lyme disease Borrelia (Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex)". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 105 (6): 1049–1072. doi:10.1007/s10482-014-0164-x. PMID 24744012.
^ abWinslow C, Coburn J (2019). "Recent discoveries and advancements in research on the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi". F1000Research. 8: 763. doi:10.12688/f1000research.18379.1. PMC6545822. PMID 31214329.
^Schoch CL, Ciufo S, Domrachev M, Hotton CL, Kannan S, Khovanskaya R, et al. "Spirochaetes". National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) taxonomy database. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
External linksedit
Introduction to the Spirochetes University of California Museum of Paleontology (UCMP)
spirochaete, this, article, about, bacterial, phylum, spiral, shaped, bacteria, general, spiral, bacteria, spirochaete, spirochete, member, phylum, spirochaetota, also, called, which, contains, distinctive, diderm, double, membrane, gram, negative, bacteria, m. This article is about the bacterial phylum For spiral shaped bacteria in general see spiral bacteria A spirochaete ˈ s p aɪ r oʊ ˌ k iː t 4 or spirochete is a member of the phylum Spirochaetota also called Spirochaetes 5 ˌ s p aɪ r oʊ ˈ k iː t iː z which contains distinctive diderm double membrane Gram negative bacteria most of which have long helically coiled corkscrew shaped or spiraled hence the name cells 6 Spirochaetes are chemoheterotrophic in nature with lengths between 3 and 500 mm and diameters around 0 09 to at least 3 mm 7 Spirochaetes Treponema pallidum a spirochaete which causes syphilis Scientific classification Domain Bacteria Phylum SpirochaetotaGarrity and Holt 2021 3 Class SpirochaetiaPaster 2020 1 471 563 2 Orders Brachyspirales Brevinematales Leptospirales Spirochaetales Treponematales Synonyms Spirochaetota Protozoobacteriales Prevot 1958 Spirochaetae Cavalier Smith 2002 Spirochaetaeota Oren et al 2015 Spirochaetes Garrity and Holt 2001 Spirochaetota Whitman et al 2018 Spirochaetia Spirochaetes Cavalier Smith 2002 Spirochaetia Cavalier Smith 2020 Leptospiria Cavalier Smith 2020 Cross section of a spirochaete cell Endoflagella Components Legend Fig 1 A cross section of a typical spirochete cell showing endoflagella located in the periplasm between the inner cytoplasmic membrane and the outer membrane Periplasm consisting of a gel like matrix provides a semi stable medium to secure endoflagella during rotation The axial filament indicated in red is composed of bundles of endoflagella Fig 2 A side view of a spirochete cell which shows two axial filaments in opposing motion One axial filament rotates in a clockwise orientation an adjacent axial filament rotates in a counter clockwise orientation Rotation of the endoflagella creates torsion and drives the corkscrew rotation of the cell Fig 3 An expanded view of the cellular membranes that surround endoflagellum Both the inner and outer membrane contain a phospholipid bi layer with non polar fatty acid chains in ward of polar phosphorus heads Peptidoglycan the cell wall provides structure in bacterial microorganisms Axial filaments are superior to the peptidoglycan Spirochaetes are distinguished from other bacterial phyla by the location of their flagella called endoflagella or periplasmic flagella which are sometimes called axial filaments 8 9 Endoflagella are anchored at each end pole of the bacterium within the periplasmic space between the inner and outer membranes where they project backwards to extend the length of the cell 10 These cause a twisting motion which allows the spirochaete to move about When reproducing a spirochaete will undergo asexual transverse binary fission Most spirochaetes are free living and anaerobic but there are numerous exceptions Spirochaete bacteria are diverse in their pathogenic capacity and the ecological niches that they inhabit as well as molecular characteristics including guanine cytosine content and genome size 11 12 Contents 1 Pathogenicity 2 Taxonomy and molecular signatures 3 Phylogeny 4 Taxonomy 5 See also 6 References 7 External linksPathogenicity editMany organisms within the Spirochaetota phylum cause prevalent diseases Pathogenic members of this phylum include the following Leptospira species which causes leptospirosis 13 Borrelia burgdorferi B mayonii B bissettiae B garinii B afzelii B spielmanii B lusitaniae which cause Lyme disease 14 Borrelia recurrentis which causes relapsing fever 15 Treponema pallidum subspecies which cause treponematoses such as syphilis and yaws Brachyspira pilosicoli and Brachyspira aalborgi which cause intestinal spirochaetosis 16 Salvarsan the first partially organic synthetic antimicrobial drug in medical history was effective against spirochaetes and primarily used to cure syphilis Additionally oral spirochaetes are known to play a significant role in the pathogenesis of human periodontal disease 17 Taxonomy and molecular signatures editThe class currently consists of 14 validly named genera across 4 orders and 5 families 18 19 20 The orders Brachyspirales Brevinematales and Leptospirales each contain a single family Brachyspiraceae Brevinemataceae and Leptospiraceae respectively The Spirochaetales order harbours two families Spirochaetaceae and Borreliaceae Molecular markers in the form of conserved signature indels CSIs and CSPs have been found specific for each of the orders with the exception of Brevinimetales that provide a reliable means to demarcate these clades from one another within the diverse phylum 19 Additional CSIs have been found exclusively shared by each family within the Spirochaetales These molecular markers are in agreement with the observed phylogenetic tree branching of two monophyletic clades within the Spirochaetales order 19 CSIs have also been found that further differentiate taxonomic groups within the Borreliaceae family that further delineate evolutionary relationships that are in accordance with physical characteristics such as pathogenicity viz Borrelia emend Borreliella gen nov 21 However this study has been criticized and other studies using different approaches do not support the proposed split 22 The new naming system for the Lyme and relapsing fever Borrelia has not been adopted by the scientific literature 22 A CSI has also been found exclusively shared by all Spirochaetota species 19 This CSI is a 3 amino acid insert in the flagellar basal body rod protein FlgC which is an important part of the unique endoflagellar structure shared by Spirochaetota species 23 Given that the CSI is exclusively shared by members within this phylum it has been postulated that it may be related to the characteristic flagellar properties observed among Spirochaetota species 19 23 Historically all families belonging to the Spirochaetota phylum were assigned to a single order the Spirochaetales 11 12 However the current taxonomic view is more connotative of accurate evolutionary relationships The distribution of a CSI is indicative of shared ancestry within the clade for which it is specific It thus functions as a synapomorphic characteristic so that the distributions of different CSIs provide the means to identify different orders and families within the phylum and so justify the phylogenetic divisions 19 Phylogeny editSee also Bacterial taxonomy 16S rRNA based LTP 08 2023 24 25 26 120 single copy marker proteins based GTDB 08 RS214 27 28 29 Spirochaetia Leptospirales Leptospiraceae Turneriella Leptonema Leptospira Brevinematales Brevinemataceae Brevinema Brachyspirales Brachyspiraceae Brachyspira Spirochaetales Exilispiraceae Exilispira Thermospiraceae Thermospira Rectinemataceae Rectinema Treponemataceae Gracilinema Zuelzera Breznakiella Helmutkoenigia Leadbettera Treponema primitia Brucepastera Teretinema Treponema Treponema species group 2 Spirochaeta thermophila Sediminispirochaeta Marispirochaeta Sphaerochaetaceae Pleomorphochaeta Bullifex Sphaerochaeta Spirochaetaceae Spirochaeta lutea Salinispira Spirochaeta Spirochaeta halophila Alkalispirochaeta Spirochaetaceae 2 Spirochaeta species group 2 Oceanispirochaeta Spirochaeta cellobiosiphila Thiospirochaeta Spirochaeta aurantia Borreliaceae Borrelia Borreliella Leptospirae Leptospiria Turneriellales Turneriellaceae Turneriella Leptospirales Leptonemataceae Leptonema Leptospiraceae Leptospira Euspirochaetae Brevinematia Brevinematales Brevinemataceae Brevinema Brachyspirae Brachyspirales Brachyspiraceae Brachyspira Exilispiria Exilispirales Exilispiraceae Exilispira Spirochaetia Borreliales Borreliaceae Borrelia Borreliella Entomospirales Entomospiraceae Entomospira DSM 17781 DSM 17781 Spirochaeta cellobiosiphila Spirochaetales E DSM 19205 Thiospirochaeta Spirochaetaceae B Spirochaeta species group 2 Oceanispirochaeta Sphaerochaetales Sphaerochaetaceae Parasphaerochaeta Sphaerochaeta Bullifex Ca Ornithospirochaeta Marispirochaetales Marispirochaetaceae Marispirochaeta Sediminispirochaetales Sediminispirochaetaceae Sediminispirochaeta Spirochaetales A Spirochaetaceae A Spirochaeta thermophila Salinispirales Salinispiraceae Spirochaeta lutea Salinispira DSM 8902 Spirochaeta africana Alkalispirochaetaceae Alkalispirochaeta Treponematales Rectinemataceae Rectinema Breznakiellaceae Gracilinema Breznakiella Leadbettera Treponema primitia Treponemataceae Ca Gallitreponema Treponema species group 2 Ca Avitreponema Brucepastera TreponemaTaxonomy editThe currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature LPSN 30 and National Center for Biotechnology Information NCBI 31 Phylum Spirochaetota Garrity and Holt 2021 Class Spirochaetia Paster 2020 Genus Spirosymplokos Guerrero et al 1993 Order Leptospirales Gupta et al 2014 Family Leptospiraceae Hovind Hougen 1979 Genus Leptonema Hovind Hougen 1983 Genus Leptospira Noguchi 1917 Genus Turneriella Levett et al 2005 Order Brachyspirales corrig Gupta et al 2014 Family Brachyspiraceae Paster 2012 Genus Brachyspira Hovind Hougen et al 1982 Genus Ca Maribrachyspira Matsuyama et al 2017 Order Brevinematales Gupta et al 2014 Family Brevinemataceae Paster 2012 Genus Brevinema Defosse et al 1995 Family Longinemaceae Karnachuk et al 2021 Genus Longinema Karnachuk et al 2021 Family Thermospiraceae Ben Ali Gam et al 2023 Genus Thermospira Ben Ali Gam et al 2023 Order Exilispirales Pallen Rodriguez R amp Alikhan 2022 Family Exilispiraceae Pallen Rodriguez R amp Alikhan 2022 Genus Exilispira Imachi et al 2008 Order Spirochaetales Buchanan 1917 Entomospirales Pallen Rodriguez R amp Alikhan 2022 Marispirochaetales Pallen Rodriguez R amp Alikhan 2022 Salinispirales Pallen Rodriguez R amp Alikhan 2022 Sediminispirochaetales Pallen Rodriguez R amp Alikhan 2022 Family Pillotinaceae Margulis amp Hinkle 1992 Genus Pillotina Hollande and Gharagozlou 1967 ex Bermudes et al 1988 Family Borreliaceae Gupta et al 2014 Genus Borrelia Swellengrebel 1907 relapsing fever Borrelia reptile associated Borrelia and Echidna associated Borrelia Genus Borreliella Adeolu amp Gupta 2015 Lyme disease Borrelia Genus Cristispira Gross 1910 Family Sphaerochaetaceae Hordt et al 2020 Genus Bullifex Wylensek et al 2021 incl Ca Aphodenecus Gilroy et al 2021 Genus Ca Ornithospirochaeta Gilroy et al 2021 Genus Parasphaerochaeta Bidzhieva et al 2020 Genus Ca Physcosoma Gilroy et al 2022 Genus Pleomorphochaeta Arroua et al 2016 Genus Sphaerochaeta Ritalahti et al 2012 Family Spirochaetaceae Swellengrebel 1907 Entomospiraceae Pallen Rodriguez R amp Alikhan 2022 Marispirochaetaceae Pallen Rodriguez R amp Alikhan 2022 Salinispiraceae Pallen Rodriguez R amp Alikhan 2022 Sediminispirochaetaceae Pallen Rodriguez R amp Alikhan 2022 Thiospirochaetaceae Pallen Rodriguez R amp Alikhan 2022 Genus Ca Allospironema Paster amp Dewhirst 2000 Genus Canaleparolina Wier Ashen amp Margulis 2000 Genus Clevelandina Bermudes et al 1988 Genus Diplocalyx Gharagozlou 1968 ex Bermudes et al 1988 non Richard 1850 non Presl 1845 Genus Hollandina To et al 1978 ex Bermudes et al 1988 non Haynes 1956 Genus Mobilifilum Margulis et al 1990 Genus Alkalispirochaeta Sravanthi et al 2016 Genus Entomospira Grana Miraglia et al 2020 non Enderlein 1917 Genus Marispirochaeta Shivani et al 2017 Genus Oceanispirochaeta Subhash amp Lee 2017b Genus Salinispira Ben Hania et al 2015 Genus Sediminispirochaeta Shivani et al 2016 Genus Spirochaeta Ehrenberg 1835 em Pikuta et al 2009 non Turczaninow 1851 Genus Thiospirochaeta Dubinina et al 2020 Order Treponematales Song et al 2021 Family Breznakiellaceae Brune et al 2022 Genus Breznakiella Song et al 2022 Genus Gracilinema Brune et al 2022 Genus Helmutkoenigia Brune et al 2022 Genus Leadbettera Brune et al 2022 Genus Zuelzera Brune et al 2022 Family Rectinemataceae Song et al 2021 Genus Rectinema Koelschbach et al 2017 Family Treponemataceae Robinson 1948 Genus Ca Avitreponema Gilroy et al 2021 Genus Brucepastera Song et al 2022 Genus Ca Gallitreponema Gilroy et al 2021 Genus Teretinema Song et al 2022 Genus Treponema Schaudinn 1905 em Abt et al 2013See also editList of bacteria genera List of bacterial orders Bacteriology Borrelia Brevinema andersonii Flagellum Lyme disease microbiology Pinta disease Prokaryote Syphilis Treponema pallidum YawsReferences edit Paster BJ 2010 Class I Spirochaetia class nov In Krieg NR Staley JT Brown DR Hedlund BP Paster BJ eds Bergey s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology Vol 4 The Bacteroidetes Spirochaetes Tenericutes Mollicutes Acidobacteria Fibrobacteres Fusobacteria Dictyoglomi Gemmatimonadetes Lentisphaerae Verrucomicrobia Chlamydiae and Planctomycetes 2nd ed New York NY Springer doi 10 1007 978 0 387 68572 4 ISBN 978 0 387 95042 6 Oren A Garrity GM 2020 Validation list no 195 List of new names and new combinations previously effectively but not validly published Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 70 9 4844 4847 doi 10 1099 ijsem 0 004366 PMID 32993851 S2CID 222147003 Oren A Garrity GM 2021 Valid publication of the names of forty two phyla of prokaryotes Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 71 10 5056 doi 10 1099 ijsem 0 005056 PMID 34694987 S2CID 239887308 SPIROCHAETE Meaning amp Definition for UK English Lexico com Lexico Dictionaries English Archived from the original on 27 January 2021 Dorland s Illustrated Medical Dictionary Elsevier Ryan KJ Ray CG eds 2004 Sherris Medical Microbiology 4th ed McGraw Hill ISBN 978 0 8385 8529 0 Margulis L Ashen JB Sole M Guerrero R August 1993 Composite large spirochetes from microbial mats spirochete structure review Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 90 15 6966 6970 Bibcode 1993PNAS 90 6966M doi 10 1073 pnas 90 15 6966 PMC 47056 PMID 8346204 Nakamura S April 2020 Spirochete Flagella and Motility Biomolecules 10 4 550 doi 10 3390 biom10040550 PMC 7225975 PMID 32260454 Carroll KC Hobden JA Miller S 2019 Spirochetes and Other Spiral Microorganisms Jawetz Melnick amp Adelberg s Medical Microbiology McGraw Hill Education Retrieved 9 May 2021 Madigan MT 2019 Brock biology of microorganisms Fifteenth Global ed NY NY Pearson p 519 ISBN 9781292235103 a b Paster BJ 2011 Phylum XV Spirochaetes Garrity and Holt In Brenner DJ Krieg NR Garrity GM Staley JT eds Bergey s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology New York Springer p 471 a b Paster BJ 2011 Family I Sprochaetes Swellengrebel 1907 581AL In Brenner DJ Krieg NR Garrity GM Staley JT eds Bergey s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology New York Springer pp 473 531 McBride A Athanazio D Reis M Ko A 2005 Leptospirosis Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 18 5 376 86 doi 10 1097 01 qco 0000178824 05715 2c PMID 16148523 S2CID 220576544 Wolcott KA Margos G Fingerle V Becker NS September 2021 Host association of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato A review Ticks and Tick Borne Diseases 12 5 101766 doi 10 1016 j ttbdis 2021 101766 PMID 34161868 Schwan TG June 1996 Ticks and Borrelia model systems for investigating pathogen arthropod interactions Infectious Agents and Disease 5 3 167 181 PMID 8805079 Amat Villegas I Borobio Aguilar E Beloqui Perez R de Llano Varela P Oquinena Legaz S Martinez Penuela Virseda JM January 2004 Colonic spirochetes an infrequent cause of adult diarrhea Gastroenterol Hepatol in Spanish 27 1 21 3 doi 10 1016 s0210 5705 03 70440 3 PMID 14718105 Yousefi L Leylabadlo HE Pourlak T Eslami H Taghizadeh S Ganbarov K et al July 2020 Oral spirochetes Pathogenic mechanisms in periodontal disease Microbial Pathogenesis 144 104193 doi 10 1016 j micpath 2020 104193 PMID 32304795 S2CID 215818931 Schoch CL Ciufo S Domrachev M Hotton CL Kannan S Khovanskaya R et al TherSpirochaetia National Center for Biotechnology Information NCBI taxonomy database Retrieved 25 October 2016 a b c d e f Gupta RS Mahmood S Adeolu M 2013 A phylogenomic and molecular signature based approach for characterization of the phylum Spirochaetes and its major clades proposal for a taxonomic revision of the phylum Front Microbiol 4 217 217 doi 10 3389 fmicb 2013 00217 PMC 3726837 PMID 23908650 Oren A Garrity GM 2014 List of new names and new combinations previously effectively but not validly published PDF Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 64 3 693 696 doi 10 1099 ijs 0 062521 0 Adeolu M Gupta RS 2014 A phylogenomic and molecular marker based proposal for the division of the genus Borrelia into two genera the emended genus Borrelia containing only the members of the relapsing fever Borrelia and the genus Borreliella gen nov containing the members of the Lyme disease Borrelia Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 105 6 1049 1072 doi 10 1007 s10482 014 0164 x PMID 24744012 a b Winslow C Coburn J 2019 Recent discoveries and advancements in research on the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi F1000Research 8 763 doi 10 12688 f1000research 18379 1 PMC 6545822 PMID 31214329 a b Macnab RM 2003 How bacteria assemble flagella Annu Rev Microbiol 57 77 100 doi 10 1146 annurev micro 57 030502 090832 PMID 12730325 The LTP Retrieved 20 November 2023 LTP all tree in newick format Retrieved 20 November 2023 LTP 08 2023 Release Notes PDF Retrieved 20 November 2023 GTDB release 08 RS214 Genome Taxonomy Database Retrieved 10 May 2023 bac120 r214 sp label Genome Taxonomy Database Retrieved 10 May 2023 Taxon History Genome Taxonomy Database Retrieved 10 May 2023 Euzeby JP Spirochaetes List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature LPSN Retrieved 20 July 2018 Schoch CL Ciufo S Domrachev M Hotton CL Kannan S Khovanskaya R et al Spirochaetes National Center for Biotechnology Information NCBI taxonomy database Retrieved 20 July 2018 External links editIntroduction to the Spirochetes University of California Museum of Paleontology UCMP Portal nbsp Biology Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Spirochaete amp oldid 1208745869, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
