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Scolopendra morsitans

January 01, 1970

Scolopendra morsitans, also known as the Tanzanian blue ringleg[2] or red-headed centipede,[3] is a species of centipede in the family Scolopendridae.[4][5] S. morsitans is the type species for the genus Scolopendra.[6][7]

Scolopendra morsitans
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Myriapoda
Class: Chilopoda
Order: Scolopendromorpha
Family: Scolopendridae
Genus: Scolopendra
Species:
S. morsitans
Binomial name
Scolopendra morsitans

Adult Tanzanian blue ringlegs grow to around 13 centimetres (5.1 in) and are generally characterised by bright red heads and striated body segments;[8] however, their colouration varies widely across regional populations.[5] The species is found across all inhabited continents[9] and is highly invasive.[5][7] The centipede is an aggressive and opportunistic predator which hunts primarily at night and feeds on other arthropods and some small vertebrates,[10][11] using a neurotoxic venom and its strong jaws to capture, incapacitate and digest its prey.[10][12] The species prefers warm environments and is often found beneath leaves, bark and other substrate on the ground.[11]

S. morsitans should not be confused with the giant red-headed centipede (Scolopendra heros),[13] Chinese red-headed centipede (Scolopendra subspines),[14] or the Tanzanian blue ring centipede (Ethmostigmus trignopdus), all of which have similar sounding common names to S. morsitans.

Taxonomy edit

Scolopendra morsitans was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his book 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758 and has since retained its original scientific name.[15] The species was nominated as the type species of the centipede genus Scolopendra in a submission to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature in 1955 which was approved two years later.[15][16] The name ‘Scolopendra’ is derived from a Greek term meaning ‘biting earthworms’ which was first used by Aristotle in his book Historia Animalium to refer to aquatic polychaetes and terrestrial centipedes.[17] The word ‘morsitans’ means ‘that bites’ in Latin, a name that is shared with a species of tsetse fly (Glossina morsitans).[18]

There are two recognised subspecies of S. morsitans—Scolopendra morsitans morsitans, which was first described by Linnaeus in 1758 to refer to a species locality in India,[6] and Scolopendra morsitans coerulescens, which was described by Francis Cragin and refers to a species locality first found in Kansas in the United States.[6] The species is monophyletic and occupies a clade with Scolopendra pinguis, which is the most closely related member of the genus Scolopendra to S. morsitans.[9]

Description edit

Tanzanian blue ringlegs have been recorded to grow to lengths of up to 127 mm (5.0 in) in Australian populations,[8] though in other regions, including Southeast Asia, they rarely exceed 100 mm (3.9 in).[5] Because S. morsitans populations differ greatly in colouration, using colour alone to identify the species can be misleading.[5] However, adults are generally characterised by a bright red head and brownish body with distinct striations between each body segment. Juveniles lack clear stripes and often have a head that is a similar colour to their body trunk.[8][9] In field observations, the species can sometimes be distinguished from other Scolopendras by its relatively thick rear legs (known as ultimate legs).[8]

 
Juvenile (A) and adult (B) Tanzanian blue ringlegs found in South-East Asia.

In north-western Thailand, adult Tanzanian blue ringlegs have dark blackish heads and ultimate legs,[5] whilst in north-east Thailand and Cambodia the centipedes have bright red heads and ultimate legs.[5] Similar variations in colour have been observed across Australia and Africa.[5][8] The centipede's antennae typically have 18–20 segments (occasionally 17 or 21–23), with the 5–7 segments closest to the head having dorsally facing hairs and the next 5–8 having ventrally facing hairs.[5][8] Their tooth plates contain 5–6 teeth. Body segments 7–20 contain visible lines (known as paramedian sutures) surrounding the centre of the trunk, while the final segment of the centipede has a central line known as a medial suture.[5][8] The centipede does not display obvious sexual dimorphism so subtle differences between the lateral margins of the tergites of male and female individuals are used as a visible determinant of sex.[8]

Distribution edit

The Tanzanian blue ringleg occupies a cosmopolitan distribution,[7][10] and is found across all major continents; however, it has not been widely documented in Europe.[7] It is thought to be native to the majority of continental Australia (with the exception of Victoria, South Australia, and south-western Western Australia), Africa (except for the Eritrean Highlands and Red Sea Hills), most of South and South East Asia, Madagascar and Sri Lanka.[7] The centipede has been introduced to much of the Americas, with sightings outside its native range in Peru, Mexico, Argentina, the Bahamas and the Southern United States.[7] It has been proposed that the preference of red-headed centipedes for habitats similar to the conditions on ships has resulted in their widespread invasion of inhabited areas.[7]

The species occupies a diverse range of habitats, from the arid and semi-arid outback of Australia to the diverse tropics and temperate zones of India and tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia.[5] Tanzanian blue ringlegs have a preference for warmer climates and the range of the centipede appears to be limited by this affinity.[8] Additionally, the centipede requires sufficient air humidity to survive which limits its habitat choice and distribution.[11] Individual populations of Tanzanian blue ringlegs are known to differ in physical characteristics based on their local geographical distributions,[5][8][9] this has prompted the creation of over 50 synonyms for S. morsitans in scientific literature, largely due to misidentification of location specific populations of the species.[6][9]

Tanzanian blue ringlegs are sometimes kept in captivity as pets and are traded and sold internationally for prices averaging around US$35 online.[19]

Life cycle edit

 
A Tanzanian blue ringleg in a maternal double coil

Male centipedes produce sperm-containing packets known as spermatophores wrapped in a silk-like substance which they then deposit in the sexual organs of female centipedes.[20] The sexual organs of male and female Tanzanian blue ringlegs are not visually distinct, and examination of an individual's tergites is required to reliably determine its sex.[8][20] Female centipedes construct brood chambers under substrate in protected areas for their young, laying clutches of 22–86 eggs and displaying extended parental care by forming a double coil around their eggs, newly hatched instar embryos, and post embryonic young.[11] When threatened, or otherwise stressed, mothers guarding their offspring are known to engage in filial cannibalism, consuming their own eggs or embryos in order to minimise the energetic loss associated with an attack or perilous situation.[11]

Because the Tanzanian blue ringleg finds shelter beneath leaves, logs and other ground substrate and is primarily active at night, very little is known about the species' natural biology, including precise information relating to their lifespan or length to maturity.[10] However, the closely related Scolopendra subspinipes is known to live for upwards of 10 years on average.[21] In captivity, S. morsitans has been reported to live for around 4 years.[19]

Behaviour edit

Centipedes of the family Scolopendridae are known to be opportunistic, generalist predators which primarily capture and kill live prey.[21] They use their front facing fangs, known as forcipules, to both hold and envenomate their prey, which most commonly consists of small arthropods.[10][12][21] Other species of the Scolopendra genus such as the Amazonian giant centipede (Scolopendra gigantea) and Scolopendra alternans have been observed feeding on large arachnids such as scorpions, toads, small snakes, and even mice and bats.[21] Some Scolopendra are known to use their anterior walking legs or ultimate legs to catch and hold prey for envenomation.[22][23] Blue ringleng forcipules are able to detect chemicals such as glucose and can act as sensory organs in the centipede, providing evidence that they play a role in its ability to taste and interact with its environment.[24]

Tanzanian blue ringlegs, along with other centipedes of the genus Scolopendra, are known to use their ultimate legs in threat displays—raising the appendages aggressively when approached from behind.[22] This behaviour is thought to be a form of automimicry, confusing potential predators by disguising their vulnerable flanks as their fang-bearing heads.[22]

Toxicology edit

Tanzanian blue ringleg venom is neurotoxic and acts on the nervous systems of invertebrates, and autonomic nervous system of vertebrates, to rapidly paralyse and kill the centipede's prey.[12] The centipede's venom contains serotonin, which causes a pain response, as well as a mix of proteins, enzymes, lipoproteins, cholesterol, triglycerides, cholesteryl esters, squalene, free fatty acids, and phospholipids.[12] Although the exact action of the fatty components of the centipede's venom are unknown,[12] removing the fatty portion of other venoms, such as that of the Indian cobra, is known to significantly reduce the lethality of the venom in vertebrates by a factor of 40–50%.[25] The protein components of the centipede's venom bear close resemblance to the venom compositions of scorpions and spiders such as the Mexican scorpion Centruroides limpidus,[26] the black widow spider,[27] and the brown recluse spider.[12][28]

Esterases in the venom of the Tanzanian blue ringleg were the first active enzymes to be found in the venom of any centipede, and were discovered by researchers at Ain Shams University in 1983.[12][29] The presence of enzymes in the centipede's venom such as estirases, acid and alkaline phosphatases, and proteases, allows the Tanzanian blue ringleg to digest its prey outside of its body, sucking the broken down components of the animals that it captures out of their body cavities.[12][21] This helps the centipedes consume the edible components of arthropods through their tough, chitinous exoskeletons.[21]

A transferrin protein, a class of protein which plays a role in the mammalian circulatory system, has been found in the venom of the Tanzanian blue ringleng along with the Scutigerid centipede Thereuopoda longicornis and the Scolopendrid Ethmostigmus rubripes.[29] Transferrins are thought to function in support of the blue ringleg's immunity as they are known to display antibacterial properties in invertebrates.[29] Some components of centipede venom, including that of S. morsitans,[30] are thought to result from bacterial and fungal genes that have been horizontally transferred by microorganisms throughout the evolutionary history of the chilopods.[30] Centipedes are the only known animals with a venom resulting at least in part from the horizontal transfer of genes from several other families of organisms.[30]

In cases of human bites, the venom of the Tanzanian blue ringleg is known to produce redness, swelling, and in some cases, severe pain.[31] Although robust case studies of S. morsitans are limited,[31] bites of the closely related Scolopendrid, Scolopendra subspinipes, can result in severe edema and pronounced localised swelling.[32]

References edit

  1. ^ "0208. Los ciempiés escutigeromorfos (Scutigeromorpha), escolopendromorfos (Scolopendromorpha) y geofilomorfos (Geophilomorpha) de la selva tropical caducifolia de la reserva de Chamela, Jalisco, México". Insecta Mundi: 1–17. 29 February 2012.
  2. ^ "Scolopedra morsitans". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 5 May 2022.
  3. ^ "Red-Headed Centipede (Species: Scolopendra Morsitans) in Taxonomy (Gaia Guide)". Gaia Guide. Retrieved 5 May 2022.
  4. ^ "Scolopendra morsitans". Global Invasive Species Database. Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. 28 April 2009. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Siriwut, Warut; Edgecombe, Gregory D.; Sutcharit, Chirasak; Panha, Somsak (2015). "The Centipede Genus Scolopendra in Mainland Southeast Asia: Molecular Phylogenetics, Geometric Morphometrics and External Morphology as Tools for Species Delimitation". PLOS ONE. 10 (8): e0135355. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1035355S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0135355. PMC 4536039. PMID 26270342.
  6. ^ a b c d "Chilobase". University of Padua. Retrieved 5 May 2022.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g Shelley, R; Edwards, G; Chagas Jr, Amazonas (2005). "Introduction of the Centipede Scolopendra Morsitans L., 1758, into Northeastern Florida, the First Authentic North American Record, and a Review of Its Global Occurrences (Scolopendromorpha: Scolopendridae: Scolopendrinae)". Entomological News. Vol. 116. pp. 39–58.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Koch, LE (1983). "Morphological Characters of Australian Scolopendrid Centipedes, and the Taxonomy and Distribution of Scolopendra Morsitans L. (Chilopoda:Scolopendridae:Scolopendrinae)". Australian Journal of Zoology. 31: 79. doi:10.1071/zo9830079.
  9. ^ a b c d e Panha, Somsak; Siriwut, Warut; Edgecombe, Gregory; Sutcharit, Chirasak; Tongkerd, Piyoros (2016). "A taxonomic review of the centipede genus Scolopendra Linnaeus, 1758 (Scolopendromorpha, Scolopendridae) in mainland Southeast Asia, with description of a new species from Laos". ZooKeys (590): 1–124. doi:10.3897/zookeys.590.7950. PMC 4926625. PMID 27408540.
  10. ^ a b c d e Hodges, Cameron W.; Goodyear, Jesse (2021). "Novel foraging behaviors of Scolopendra dehaani (Chilopoda: Scolopendridae) in Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand". International Journal of Tropical Insect Science. 41 (4): 3257–3262. doi:10.1007/s42690-021-00431-9. S2CID 234097157.
  11. ^ a b c d e Cupul-Magaña, Fabio G. (2020). "Cuidados Parentales en el Ciempiés Scolopendra morsitans1". Southwestern Entomologist. 45: 309. doi:10.3958/059.045.0135. S2CID 214718553.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h Mohamed, A.H.; Abu-Sinna, G.; El-Shabaka, H.A.; Abd El-Aal, A. (1983). "Proteins, lipids, lipoproteins and some enzyme characterizations of the venom extract from the centipede Scolopendra morsitans". Toxicon. 21 (3): 371–377. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(83)90093-4. PMID 6623485.
  13. ^ "Giant Red-Headed Centipede". Missouri Department of Conservation.
  14. ^ Ali, Salwa Mansur; Khan, Naveed Ahmed; Sagathevan, K.; Anwar, Ayaz; Siddiqui, Ruqaiyyah (2019). "Biologically active metabolite(s) from haemolymph of red-headed centipede Scolopendra subspinipes possess broad spectrum antibacterial activity". AMB Express. 9 (1): 95. doi:10.1186/s13568-019-0816-3. PMC 6598926. PMID 31254123.
  15. ^ a b Winsor, Mary P. (1976). "The Development of Linnaean Insect Classification". Taxon. 25 (1): 57–67. doi:10.2307/1220406. JSTOR 1220406.
  16. ^ Crabill, R. E. (1955). "Proposed use of the plenary powers to designate for the genus Scolopendra Linnaeus, 1758, (Class Myriapoda) a type species in harmony with accustomed usage". The Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature. 11: 134–136. doi:10.5962/bhl.part.2832.
  17. ^ Barber, A. (2014). "Early Records and Names of British & Irish Centipedes 'Scolopendra". Bulletin of the British Myriapod & Isopod Group. 27: 43–52.
  18. ^ Fraumann, Robert. (2003). “Glossina Morsitans.” Animal Diversity Web. 2003. https://animaldiversity.org./accounts/Glossina_morsitans/ .
  19. ^ a b Elias, Scott A. (2021). "The International Trade in Insects and Terrestrial Arthropods". Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences. pp. 378–394. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-821139-7.00195-1. ISBN 9780124095489. S2CID 244868866.
  20. ^ a b Jangi, B.S. (1955). "LXXI.—Some aspects of the morphology of the centipede Scolopendra morsitans Linn. (Scolopendridae)". Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 8 (92): 597–607. doi:10.1080/00222935508655671.
  21. ^ a b c d e f Dugon, Michel M.; Arthur, Wallace (2012). "Prey orientation and the role of venom availability in the predatory behaviour of the centipede Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans (Arthropoda: Chilopoda)". Journal of Insect Physiology. 58 (6): 874–880. doi:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2012.03.014. PMID 22490529.
  22. ^ a b c Kronmüller, Christian; Lewis, John G. J. (30 June 2015). "On the function of the ultimate legs of some Scolopendridae (Chilopoda, Scolopendromorpha)". ZooKeys (510): 269–278. doi:10.3897/zookeys.510.8674. ISSN 1313-2970. PMC 4523778. PMID 26257548.
  23. ^ Elzinga, Richard J. (1994). "The Use of Legs as Grasping Structures During Prey Capture and Feeding by the Centipede Scolopendra viridis Say (Chilopoda: Scolopendridae)". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 67 (4): 369–372. JSTOR 25085542.
  24. ^ Dass, C.M.S; Jangi, B.S (1977). "Chemoreceptive Function of the Poison Fang in the Centipede Scolopendra Morsitans L.". Indian Journal of Experimental Biology. 15: 803–4.
  25. ^ Kabara, Jon J.; Fischer, George H. (1969). "Chemical composition of Naja naja: Extractable lipids". Toxicon. 7 (3): 223–227. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(69)90009-9. PMID 5358066.
  26. ^ Fernández-Taboada, Guillermo; Riaño-Umbarila, Lidia; Olvera-Rodríguez, Alejandro; Gómez-Ramírez, Ilse Viridiana; Losoya-Uribe, Luis Fernando; Becerril, Baltazar (2021). "The venom of the scorpion Centruroides limpidus, which causes the highest number of stings in Mexico, is neutralized by two recombinant antibody fragments". Molecular Immunology. 137: 247–255. doi:10.1016/j.molimm.2021.07.010. PMID 34298407.
  27. ^ Ornberg, Richard L.; Smyth, Thomas; Benton, Allen W. (1976). "Isolation of a neurotoxin with a presynaptic action from the venom of the black widow spider (Latrodectus mactans, Fabr.)". Toxicon. 14 (4): 329–330. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(76)90030-1. PMID 960115.
  28. ^ Rekow, Mary A.; Civello, David J.; Geren, Collis R. (1983). "Enzymatic and hemolytic properties of brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) toxin and extracts of venom apparatus, cephalothorax and abdomen". Toxicon. 21 (3): 441–444. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(83)90102-2. PMID 6353666.
  29. ^ a b c Undheim, Eivind; Fry, Bryan; King, Glenn (2015). "Centipede Venom: Recent Discoveries and Current State of Knowledge". Toxins. 7 (3): 679–704. doi:10.3390/toxins7030679. PMC 4379518. PMID 25723324.
  30. ^ a b c Undheim, Eivind A. B.; Jenner, Ronald A. (2021). "Phylogenetic analyses suggest centipede venom arsenals were repeatedly stocked by horizontal gene transfer". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 818. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12..818U. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-21093-8. PMC 7864903. PMID 33547293.
  31. ^ a b Balit, Corrine R.; Harvey, Mark S.; Waldock, Julianne M.; Isbister, Geoffrey K. (2004). "Prospective Study of Centipede Bites in Australia". Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 42 (1): 41–48. doi:10.1081/clt-120028743. PMID 15083935. S2CID 24659920.
  32. ^ Veraldi, Stefano; Çuka, Ermira; Gaiani, Francesca (2014). "Scolopendra bites: A report of two cases and review of the literature". International Journal of Dermatology. 53 (7): 869–872. doi:10.1111/ijd.12434. PMID 24673437. S2CID 23154815.

January 01, 1970
scolopendra, morsitans, also, known, tanzanian, blue, ringleg, headed, centipede, species, centipede, family, scolopendridae, morsitans, type, species, genus, scolopendra, scientific, classification, domain, eukaryota, kingdom, animalia, phylum, arthropoda, su. Scolopendra morsitans also known as the Tanzanian blue ringleg 2 or red headed centipede 3 is a species of centipede in the family Scolopendridae 4 5 S morsitans is the type species for the genus Scolopendra 6 7 Scolopendra morsitans Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Arthropoda Subphylum Myriapoda Class Chilopoda Order Scolopendromorpha Family Scolopendridae Genus Scolopendra Species S morsitans Binomial name Scolopendra morsitansLinnaeus 1758 1 Adult Tanzanian blue ringlegs grow to around 13 centimetres 5 1 in and are generally characterised by bright red heads and striated body segments 8 however their colouration varies widely across regional populations 5 The species is found across all inhabited continents 9 and is highly invasive 5 7 The centipede is an aggressive and opportunistic predator which hunts primarily at night and feeds on other arthropods and some small vertebrates 10 11 using a neurotoxic venom and its strong jaws to capture incapacitate and digest its prey 10 12 The species prefers warm environments and is often found beneath leaves bark and other substrate on the ground 11 S morsitans should not be confused with the giant red headed centipede Scolopendra heros 13 Chinese red headed centipede Scolopendra subspines 14 or the Tanzanian blue ring centipede Ethmostigmus trignopdus all of which have similar sounding common names to S morsitans Contents 1 Taxonomy 2 Description 3 Distribution 4 Life cycle 5 Behaviour 6 Toxicology 7 ReferencesTaxonomy editScolopendra morsitans was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his book 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758 and has since retained its original scientific name 15 The species was nominated as the type species of the centipede genus Scolopendra in a submission to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature in 1955 which was approved two years later 15 16 The name Scolopendra is derived from a Greek term meaning biting earthworms which was first used by Aristotle in his book Historia Animalium to refer to aquatic polychaetes and terrestrial centipedes 17 The word morsitans means that bites in Latin a name that is shared with a species of tsetse fly Glossina morsitans 18 There are two recognised subspecies of S morsitans Scolopendra morsitans morsitans which was first described by Linnaeus in 1758 to refer to a species locality in India 6 and Scolopendra morsitans coerulescens which was described by Francis Cragin and refers to a species locality first found in Kansas in the United States 6 The species is monophyletic and occupies a clade with Scolopendra pinguis which is the most closely related member of the genus Scolopendra to S morsitans 9 Description editTanzanian blue ringlegs have been recorded to grow to lengths of up to 127 mm 5 0 in in Australian populations 8 though in other regions including Southeast Asia they rarely exceed 100 mm 3 9 in 5 Because S morsitans populations differ greatly in colouration using colour alone to identify the species can be misleading 5 However adults are generally characterised by a bright red head and brownish body with distinct striations between each body segment Juveniles lack clear stripes and often have a head that is a similar colour to their body trunk 8 9 In field observations the species can sometimes be distinguished from other Scolopendras by its relatively thick rear legs known as ultimate legs 8 nbsp Juvenile A and adult B Tanzanian blue ringlegs found in South East Asia In north western Thailand adult Tanzanian blue ringlegs have dark blackish heads and ultimate legs 5 whilst in north east Thailand and Cambodia the centipedes have bright red heads and ultimate legs 5 Similar variations in colour have been observed across Australia and Africa 5 8 The centipede s antennae typically have 18 20 segments occasionally 17 or 21 23 with the 5 7 segments closest to the head having dorsally facing hairs and the next 5 8 having ventrally facing hairs 5 8 Their tooth plates contain 5 6 teeth Body segments 7 20 contain visible lines known as paramedian sutures surrounding the centre of the trunk while the final segment of the centipede has a central line known as a medial suture 5 8 The centipede does not display obvious sexual dimorphism so subtle differences between the lateral margins of the tergites of male and female individuals are used as a visible determinant of sex 8 Distribution editThe Tanzanian blue ringleg occupies a cosmopolitan distribution 7 10 and is found across all major continents however it has not been widely documented in Europe 7 It is thought to be native to the majority of continental Australia with the exception of Victoria South Australia and south western Western Australia Africa except for the Eritrean Highlands and Red Sea Hills most of South and South East Asia Madagascar and Sri Lanka 7 The centipede has been introduced to much of the Americas with sightings outside its native range in Peru Mexico Argentina the Bahamas and the Southern United States 7 It has been proposed that the preference of red headed centipedes for habitats similar to the conditions on ships has resulted in their widespread invasion of inhabited areas 7 The species occupies a diverse range of habitats from the arid and semi arid outback of Australia to the diverse tropics and temperate zones of India and tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia 5 Tanzanian blue ringlegs have a preference for warmer climates and the range of the centipede appears to be limited by this affinity 8 Additionally the centipede requires sufficient air humidity to survive which limits its habitat choice and distribution 11 Individual populations of Tanzanian blue ringlegs are known to differ in physical characteristics based on their local geographical distributions 5 8 9 this has prompted the creation of over 50 synonyms for S morsitans in scientific literature largely due to misidentification of location specific populations of the species 6 9 Tanzanian blue ringlegs are sometimes kept in captivity as pets and are traded and sold internationally for prices averaging around US 35 online 19 Life cycle edit nbsp A Tanzanian blue ringleg in a maternal double coil Male centipedes produce sperm containing packets known as spermatophores wrapped in a silk like substance which they then deposit in the sexual organs of female centipedes 20 The sexual organs of male and female Tanzanian blue ringlegs are not visually distinct and examination of an individual s tergites is required to reliably determine its sex 8 20 Female centipedes construct brood chambers under substrate in protected areas for their young laying clutches of 22 86 eggs and displaying extended parental care by forming a double coil around their eggs newly hatched instar embryos and post embryonic young 11 When threatened or otherwise stressed mothers guarding their offspring are known to engage in filial cannibalism consuming their own eggs or embryos in order to minimise the energetic loss associated with an attack or perilous situation 11 Because the Tanzanian blue ringleg finds shelter beneath leaves logs and other ground substrate and is primarily active at night very little is known about the species natural biology including precise information relating to their lifespan or length to maturity 10 However the closely related Scolopendra subspinipes is known to live for upwards of 10 years on average 21 In captivity S morsitans has been reported to live for around 4 years 19 Behaviour editCentipedes of the family Scolopendridae are known to be opportunistic generalist predators which primarily capture and kill live prey 21 They use their front facing fangs known as forcipules to both hold and envenomate their prey which most commonly consists of small arthropods 10 12 21 Other species of the Scolopendra genus such as the Amazonian giant centipede Scolopendra gigantea and Scolopendra alternans have been observed feeding on large arachnids such as scorpions toads small snakes and even mice and bats 21 Some Scolopendra are known to use their anterior walking legs or ultimate legs to catch and hold prey for envenomation 22 23 Blue ringleng forcipules are able to detect chemicals such as glucose and can act as sensory organs in the centipede providing evidence that they play a role in its ability to taste and interact with its environment 24 Tanzanian blue ringlegs along with other centipedes of the genus Scolopendra are known to use their ultimate legs in threat displays raising the appendages aggressively when approached from behind 22 This behaviour is thought to be a form of automimicry confusing potential predators by disguising their vulnerable flanks as their fang bearing heads 22 Toxicology editTanzanian blue ringleg venom is neurotoxic and acts on the nervous systems of invertebrates and autonomic nervous system of vertebrates to rapidly paralyse and kill the centipede s prey 12 The centipede s venom contains serotonin which causes a pain response as well as a mix of proteins enzymes lipoproteins cholesterol triglycerides cholesteryl esters squalene free fatty acids and phospholipids 12 Although the exact action of the fatty components of the centipede s venom are unknown 12 removing the fatty portion of other venoms such as that of the Indian cobra is known to significantly reduce the lethality of the venom in vertebrates by a factor of 40 50 25 The protein components of the centipede s venom bear close resemblance to the venom compositions of scorpions and spiders such as the Mexican scorpion Centruroides limpidus 26 the black widow spider 27 and the brown recluse spider 12 28 Esterases in the venom of the Tanzanian blue ringleg were the first active enzymes to be found in the venom of any centipede and were discovered by researchers at Ain Shams University in 1983 12 29 The presence of enzymes in the centipede s venom such as estirases acid and alkaline phosphatases and proteases allows the Tanzanian blue ringleg to digest its prey outside of its body sucking the broken down components of the animals that it captures out of their body cavities 12 21 This helps the centipedes consume the edible components of arthropods through their tough chitinous exoskeletons 21 A transferrin protein a class of protein which plays a role in the mammalian circulatory system has been found in the venom of the Tanzanian blue ringleng along with the Scutigerid centipede Thereuopoda longicornis and the Scolopendrid Ethmostigmus rubripes 29 Transferrins are thought to function in support of the blue ringleg s immunity as they are known to display antibacterial properties in invertebrates 29 Some components of centipede venom including that of S morsitans 30 are thought to result from bacterial and fungal genes that have been horizontally transferred by microorganisms throughout the evolutionary history of the chilopods 30 Centipedes are the only known animals with a venom resulting at least in part from the horizontal transfer of genes from several other families of organisms 30 In cases of human bites the venom of the Tanzanian blue ringleg is known to produce redness swelling and in some cases severe pain 31 Although robust case studies of S morsitans are limited 31 bites of the closely related Scolopendrid Scolopendra subspinipes can result in severe edema and pronounced localised swelling 32 References edit 0208 Los ciempies escutigeromorfos Scutigeromorpha escolopendromorfos Scolopendromorpha y geofilomorfos Geophilomorpha de la selva tropical caducifolia de la reserva de Chamela Jalisco Mexico Insecta Mundi 1 17 29 February 2012 Scolopedra morsitans Global Biodiversity Information Facility Retrieved 5 May 2022 Red Headed Centipede Species Scolopendra Morsitans in Taxonomy Gaia Guide Gaia Guide Retrieved 5 May 2022 Scolopendra morsitans Global Invasive Species Database Invasive Species Specialist Group ISSG of the IUCN Species Survival Commission 28 April 2009 Retrieved 2 March 2012 a b c d e f g h i j k l Siriwut Warut Edgecombe Gregory D Sutcharit Chirasak Panha Somsak 2015 The Centipede Genus Scolopendra in Mainland Southeast Asia Molecular Phylogenetics Geometric Morphometrics and External Morphology as Tools for Species Delimitation PLOS ONE 10 8 e0135355 Bibcode 2015PLoSO 1035355S doi 10 1371 journal pone 0135355 PMC 4536039 PMID 26270342 a b c d Chilobase University of Padua Retrieved 5 May 2022 a b c d e f g Shelley R Edwards G Chagas Jr Amazonas 2005 Introduction of the Centipede Scolopendra Morsitans L 1758 into Northeastern Florida the First Authentic North American Record and a Review of Its Global Occurrences Scolopendromorpha Scolopendridae Scolopendrinae Entomological News Vol 116 pp 39 58 a b c d e f g h i j k Koch LE 1983 Morphological Characters of Australian Scolopendrid Centipedes and the Taxonomy and Distribution of Scolopendra Morsitans L Chilopoda Scolopendridae Scolopendrinae Australian Journal of Zoology 31 79 doi 10 1071 zo9830079 a b c d e Panha Somsak Siriwut Warut Edgecombe Gregory Sutcharit Chirasak Tongkerd Piyoros 2016 A taxonomic review of the centipede genus Scolopendra Linnaeus 1758 Scolopendromorpha Scolopendridae in mainland Southeast Asia with description of a new species from Laos ZooKeys 590 1 124 doi 10 3897 zookeys 590 7950 PMC 4926625 PMID 27408540 a b c d e Hodges Cameron W Goodyear Jesse 2021 Novel foraging behaviors of Scolopendra dehaani Chilopoda Scolopendridae in Nakhon Ratchasima Thailand International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 41 4 3257 3262 doi 10 1007 s42690 021 00431 9 S2CID 234097157 a b c d e Cupul Magana Fabio G 2020 Cuidados Parentales en el Ciempies Scolopendra morsitans1 Southwestern Entomologist 45 309 doi 10 3958 059 045 0135 S2CID 214718553 a b c d e f g h Mohamed A H Abu Sinna G El Shabaka H A Abd El Aal A 1983 Proteins lipids lipoproteins and some enzyme characterizations of the venom extract from the centipede Scolopendra morsitans Toxicon 21 3 371 377 doi 10 1016 0041 0101 83 90093 4 PMID 6623485 Giant Red Headed Centipede Missouri Department of Conservation Ali Salwa Mansur Khan Naveed Ahmed Sagathevan K Anwar Ayaz Siddiqui Ruqaiyyah 2019 Biologically active metabolite s from haemolymph of red headed centipede Scolopendra subspinipes possess broad spectrum antibacterial activity AMB Express 9 1 95 doi 10 1186 s13568 019 0816 3 PMC 6598926 PMID 31254123 a b Winsor Mary P 1976 The Development of Linnaean Insect Classification Taxon 25 1 57 67 doi 10 2307 1220406 JSTOR 1220406 Crabill R E 1955 Proposed use of the plenary powers to designate for the genus Scolopendra Linnaeus 1758 Class Myriapoda a type species in harmony with accustomed usage The Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 11 134 136 doi 10 5962 bhl part 2832 Barber A 2014 Early Records and Names of British amp Irish Centipedes Scolopendra Bulletin of the British Myriapod amp Isopod Group 27 43 52 Fraumann Robert 2003 Glossina Morsitans Animal Diversity Web 2003 https animaldiversity org accounts Glossina morsitans a b Elias Scott A 2021 The International Trade in Insects and Terrestrial Arthropods Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences pp 378 394 doi 10 1016 b978 0 12 821139 7 00195 1 ISBN 9780124095489 S2CID 244868866 a b Jangi B S 1955 LXXI Some aspects of the morphology of the centipede Scolopendra morsitans Linn Scolopendridae Annals and Magazine of Natural History 8 92 597 607 doi 10 1080 00222935508655671 a b c d e f Dugon Michel M Arthur Wallace 2012 Prey orientation and the role of venom availability in the predatory behaviour of the centipede Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans Arthropoda Chilopoda Journal of Insect Physiology 58 6 874 880 doi 10 1016 j jinsphys 2012 03 014 PMID 22490529 a b c Kronmuller Christian Lewis John G J 30 June 2015 On the function of the ultimate legs of some Scolopendridae Chilopoda Scolopendromorpha ZooKeys 510 269 278 doi 10 3897 zookeys 510 8674 ISSN 1313 2970 PMC 4523778 PMID 26257548 Elzinga Richard J 1994 The Use of Legs as Grasping Structures During Prey Capture and Feeding by the Centipede Scolopendra viridis Say Chilopoda Scolopendridae Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 67 4 369 372 JSTOR 25085542 Dass C M S Jangi B S 1977 Chemoreceptive Function of the Poison Fang in the Centipede Scolopendra Morsitans L Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 15 803 4 Kabara Jon J Fischer George H 1969 Chemical composition of Naja naja Extractable lipids Toxicon 7 3 223 227 doi 10 1016 0041 0101 69 90009 9 PMID 5358066 Fernandez Taboada Guillermo Riano Umbarila Lidia Olvera Rodriguez Alejandro Gomez Ramirez Ilse Viridiana Losoya Uribe Luis Fernando Becerril Baltazar 2021 The venom of the scorpion Centruroides limpidus which causes the highest number of stings in Mexico is neutralized by two recombinant antibody fragments Molecular Immunology 137 247 255 doi 10 1016 j molimm 2021 07 010 PMID 34298407 Ornberg Richard L Smyth Thomas Benton Allen W 1976 Isolation of a neurotoxin with a presynaptic action from the venom of the black widow spider Latrodectus mactans Fabr Toxicon 14 4 329 330 doi 10 1016 0041 0101 76 90030 1 PMID 960115 Rekow Mary A Civello David J Geren Collis R 1983 Enzymatic and hemolytic properties of brown recluse spider Loxosceles reclusa toxin and extracts of venom apparatus cephalothorax and abdomen Toxicon 21 3 441 444 doi 10 1016 0041 0101 83 90102 2 PMID 6353666 a b c Undheim Eivind Fry Bryan King Glenn 2015 Centipede Venom Recent Discoveries and Current State of Knowledge Toxins 7 3 679 704 doi 10 3390 toxins7030679 PMC 4379518 PMID 25723324 a b c Undheim Eivind A B Jenner Ronald A 2021 Phylogenetic analyses suggest centipede venom arsenals were repeatedly stocked by horizontal gene transfer Nature Communications 12 1 818 Bibcode 2021NatCo 12 818U doi 10 1038 s41467 021 21093 8 PMC 7864903 PMID 33547293 a b Balit Corrine R Harvey Mark S Waldock Julianne M Isbister Geoffrey K 2004 Prospective Study of Centipede Bites in Australia Journal of Toxicology Clinical Toxicology 42 1 41 48 doi 10 1081 clt 120028743 PMID 15083935 S2CID 24659920 Veraldi Stefano Cuka Ermira Gaiani Francesca 2014 Scolopendra bites A report of two cases and review of the literature International Journal of Dermatology 53 7 869 872 doi 10 1111 ijd 12434 PMID 24673437 S2CID 23154815 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Scolopendra morsitans amp oldid 1222038761, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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