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Russell's viper

April 08, 2024

Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) is a highly venomous snake in the family Viperidae native to the Indian subcontinent and one of the big four snakes in India. It was described in 1797 by George Shaw and Frederick Polydore Nodder, and named after Patrick Russell, who wrote about it in his 1796 work An account of Indian serpents, collected on the coast of Coromandel.

Russell's viper
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Viperidae
Genus: Daboia
Species:
D. russelii
Binomial name
Daboia russelii
(Shaw & Nodder, 1797)
Daboia russelii distribution
Synonyms
  • Coluber russelii Shaw & Nodder, 1797
  • Coluber daboie
    Latreille In Sonnini & Latreille, 1801
  • Coluber trinoculus
    Schneider In Bechstein, 1802
  • Vipera daboya Daudin, 1803
  • Vipera elegans Daudin, 1803
  • Coluber triseriatus Hermann, 1804
  • Vipera russelii — Gray, 1831
  • Daboia elegans — Gray, 1842
  • Daboia russelii — Gray, 1842
  • Daboia pulchella Gray, 1842
  • Echidna russellii Steindachner, 1869
Russell's viper (Daboia russelli) in a sensing moment

Taxonomy edit

English naturalist George Shaw—with illustrator Frederick Polydore Nodder—in The Naturalist's Miscellany: Or, Coloured Figures Of Natural Objects; Drawn and Described Immediately From Nature formally described the species in 1797 as Coluber russelii, from a specimen presented to the British Museum by Scottish herpetologist Patrick Russell.[1] Russell had written of the species in his 1796 work An account of Indian serpents, collected on the coast of Coromandel, confirming its highly venomous nature by experimenting on chickens and dogs. He added the native people called it katuka retula poda.[2]

Analysis of morphological and mitochondrial DNA data shows that the eastern subspecies of D. russelii should be considered a separate species, Daboia siamensis.[3]

A number of other subspecies may be encountered in literature,[4] including:

  • D. s. formosensis (Maki, 1931) – found in Thailand (considered a synonym of D. siamensis).
  • D. s. limitis (Mertens, 1927) – found in Indonesia (considered a synonym of D. siamensis).
  • D. r. pulchella (Gray, 1842) – found in Sri Lanka (considered a synonym of D. russelii).
  • D. r. nordicus (Deraniyagala, 1945) – found in northern India (considered a synonym of D. russelii).

The correct spelling of the species, D. russelii, has been, and still is, a matter of debate. Shaw and Nodder (1797), in their account of the species Coluber russelii, named it after Patrick Russell, but apparently misspelled his name, using only one "L" instead of two. Russell (1727–1805) was the author of An Account of Indian Serpents (1796) and A Continuation of an Account of Indian Serpents (1801). McDiarmid et al. (1999) are among those who favor the original misspelling, citing Article 32c (ii) of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Others, such as Zhao and Adler (1993) favor russellii.[5]

Etymology edit

The species is named after Patrick Russell (1726–1805),[6] a Scottish herpetologist who first described many of India's snakes, and the name of the genus is from the Hindi word[specify] meaning "that lies hid", or "the lurker".[7]

In English, common names of D. russelii include Russell's viper,[4][8][9][10] chain viper,[8][10] Indian Russell's viper,[11][12] common Russell's viper,[13] seven pacer,[14] chain snake, and scissors snake.[15]

Description edit

 
Head of the Russell's viper
 
Large fangs
 
Russell's viper in Pune Zoo

The head is flattened, triangular, and distinct from the neck. The snout is blunt, rounded, and raised. The nostrils are large, each in the middle of a large, single nasal scale. The lower edge of the nasal scale touches the nasorostral scale. The supranasal scale has a strong crescent shape and separates the nasal from the nasorostral scale anteriorly. The rostral scale is as broad as it is high.[4]

The crown of the head is covered with irregular, strongly fragmented scales. The supraocular scales are narrow, single, and separated by six to nine scales across the head. The eyes are large, flecked with yellow or gold, and surrounded by 10–15 circumorbital scales. The snake has 10–12 supralabials, the fourth and fifth of which are significantly larger. The eye is separated from the supralabials by three or four rows of suboculars. Of the two pairs of chin shields, the front pair is notably enlarged. The two maxillary bones support at least two, and at the most five or six, pairs of fangs at a time: the first are active and the rest replacements.[4] The fangs attain a length of 16.5 mm (0.65 in) in the average specimen.[16]

The body is stout, the cross-section of which is rounded to circular. The dorsal scales are strongly keeled; only the lowest row is smooth. Mid-body, the dorsal scales number 27–33. The ventral scales number 153–180. The anal plate is not divided. The tail is short—about 14% of the total length—with the paired subcaudals numbering 41–68.[4]

Dorsally, the color pattern consists of a deep yellow, tan, or brown ground color, with three series of dark brown spots that run the length of the body. Each of these spots has a black ring around it, the outer border of which is intensified with a rim of white or yellow. The dorsal spots, which usually number 23–30, may grow together, while the side spots may break apart. The head has a pair of distinct dark patches, one on each temple, together with a pinkish, salmon, or brownish V or X marking that forms an apex towards the snout. Behind the eye is a dark streak, outlined in white, pink, or buff. The venter is white, whitish, yellowish, or pinkish, often with an irregular scattering of dark spots.[4]

Russell's viper grows to a maximum body and tail length of 166 cm (65 in) and averages about 120 cm (47 in) in mainland Asia. On islands, it is slightly shorter on average.[4] It is more slender than most vipers.[17] The following dimensions for a "fair-sized adult specimen" were reported in 1937:[18]

  • Total length 1.24 m (4 ft 1 in)
  • Length of tail 430 mm (17 in)
  • Girth 150 mm (6 in)
  • Width of head 51 mm (2 in)
  • Length of head 51 mm (2 in)

Distribution and habitat edit

 
 
Russell's viper from India

Russell's viper is found in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan. Populations from South-East Asia previously assigned to this species are now considered to be part of a different species, Daboia siamensis.[3] The type locality is listed as "India". More specifically, this would be the Coromandel Coast, by inference of Russell (1796).[5]

Within its range, it can be common in some areas, but scarce in others.[17] In India, it is abundant in Punjab, very common along the West Coast and its hills, and in southern India, especially in the state of Karnataka and north to Bengal. It is uncommon to rare in the Ganges valley, northern Bengal, and Assam.

Russell's viper is not restricted to any particular habitat, but does tend to avoid dense forests. The snake is mostly found in open, grassy or bushy areas, but may also be found in second growth forests (scrub jungles), on forested plantations and farmland. It is most common in plains, coastal lowlands, and hills of suitable habitat. Generally, it is not found at altitude, but has been reported as far up as 2300–3000 m (7,500–9,800 ft). Humid environments, such as marshes, swamps, and rain forests, are avoided.[4]

This species is often found in highly urbanized areas and settlements in the countryside, the attraction being the rodents commensal with man.[16] As a result, those working outside in these areas are most at risk of being bitten. D. russelii does not associate as closely with human habitation as Naja and Bungarus species (cobras and kraits).[4]

Behaviour and ecology edit

Russell's viper is terrestrial and active primarily as a nocturnal forager. However, during cool weather, it alters its behavior and becomes more active during the day.[4] Adults are reported to be slow and sluggish unless pushed beyond a certain limit, after which they can become very aggressive. Juveniles, though, are generally more nervous.[4] When threatened, they form a series of S-loops, raise the first third of the body, and produce a hiss that is supposedly louder than that of any other snake. When striking from this position, they can exert so much force that even a large individual can lift most of its body off the ground in the process.[4] These snakes are strong and may react violently to being picked up.[19] The bite may be a snap, or they may hang on for many seconds.[16]

Although this genus does not have the heat-sensitive pit organs common to the Crotalinae, it is one of a number of viperines that are apparently able to react to thermal cues, further supporting the notion that they, too, possess a heat-sensitive organ.[20][21] The identity of this sensor is not certain, but the nerve endings in the supranasal sac of these snakes resemble those found in other heat-sensitive organs.[22]

Reproduction edit

Russell's viper is ovoviviparous.[17] Mating generally occurs early in the year, although pregnant females may be found at any time. The gestation period is more than six months. Young are produced from May to November, but mostly in June and July. It is a prolific breeder. Litters of 20–40 are common,[4] although fewer offspring may occur, as few as one.[16] The reported maximum is 75[23] in a single litter. At birth, juveniles are 215–260 mm (8.5–10.2 in) in total length. The minimum total length for a gravid female is about 100 cm (39 in). It seems that sexual maturity is achieved in 2–3 years. In one case, it took a specimen nearly 4.5 hours to give birth to 11 young.[4]

Prey edit

 
Russell's viper hunting

Russell's viper feeds primarily on rodents, although it will also eat small reptiles, land crabs, scorpions, and other arthropods. Juveniles are crepuscular, feeding on lizards and foraging actively. As they grow and become adults, they begin to specialize in rodents. Indeed, the presence of rodents and lizards is the main reason they are attracted to human habitation.[4] Juveniles are known to be cannibalistic.[16]

Mimicry edit

 
The rough-scaled sand boa Eryx conicus possibly mimics the appearance of Russell's viper

Some herpetologists believe, because D. russelii is so successful as a species and has such a fearful reputation within its natural environment, another snake has come to mimic its appearance. Superficially, the rough-scaled sand boa Eryx conicus has a color pattern that often looks like that of D. russelii, though it is completely harmless.[4][18]

Venom edit

Venom of this species is delivered by means of solenoglyphous dentition.[24] The quantity of venom produced by individual specimens of D. russelii is considerable. Venom yields for adult specimens have been reported as 130–250 mg, 150–250 mg, and 21–268 mg. For 13 juveniles with an average total length of 79 cm (31 in), the venom yield ranged from 8 to 79 mg (mean 45 mg).[4]

The LD50 in mice, which is used as a possible indicator of snake venom toxicity, is: 0.133 mg/kg intravenous,[25] 0.40 mg/kg intraperitoneal,[26] about 0.75 mg/kg subcutaneous.[27] For most humans, a lethal dose is about 40–70 mg, well within the amount that can be delivered in one bite. In general, the toxicity depends on a combination of five different venom fractions, each of which is less toxic when tested separately. Venom toxicity and bite symptoms in humans vary within different populations and over time.[4] In another study, Meier and Theakston reported that the lethality of venom of Russell viper varies with change in route of injection, as their results predicts the LD50 of 0.4 mg/kg through intraperitoneal (I.P) route, 0.75 mg/kg/subcutaneous (S.C) route and 0.3 mg/kg through intravenous (I.V) route.[28]

Symptoms edit

Envenomation symptoms begin with pain at the site of the bite, immediately followed by swelling of the affected extremity. Bleeding is a common symptom, especially from the gums and in the urine, and sputum may show signs of blood within 20 minutes after the bite. The blood pressure drops, and the heart rate falls. Blistering occurs at the site of the bite, developing along the affected limb in severe cases. Necrosis is usually superficial and limited to the muscles near the bite, but may be severe in extreme cases. Vomiting and facial swelling occur in about one-third of all cases.[4] Kidney failure (renal failure) also occurs in approximately 25–30 percent of untreated bites. Severe disseminated intravascular coagulation also can occur in severe envenomations. Early medical treatment and early access to antivenom can prevent and drastically reduce the chance of developing the severe/potentially lethal complications.

Severe pain may last for 2–4 weeks. It may persist locally, depending on the level of tissue damage. Often, local swelling peaks within 48–72 hours, involving both the affected limb and the trunk. If swelling up to the trunk occurs within 1–2 hours, envenomation is likely to be massive. Discoloration may occur throughout the swollen area as red blood cells and plasma leak into muscle tissue.[15] Death from septicaemia or kidney, respiratory, or cardiac failure may ensue 1 to 14 days after the bite, or sometimes later.[16]

A study in The Lancet showed that out of a sample of people who survived bites by D. russelii, 29% suffered severe damage to their pituitary glands, which later caused hypopituitarism.[29] Other scientific studies support the hypothesis that D. russelii bites can cause hypopituitarism.[30][31]

Antivenom treatment edit

In India, the Haffkine Institute prepares a polyvalent antivenom that is used to treat bites from this species.[16] In late 2016, a new antivenom had been developed by the Costa Rican Clodomiro Picado Institute, and clinical trials were started in Sri Lanka.[32]

Clinical use edit

Because this venom is so effective at inducing thrombosis, it has been incorporated into an in vitro diagnostic test for blood clotting that is widely used in hospital laboratories. This test is often referred to as dilute Russell's viper venom time (dRVVT). The coagulant in the venom directly activates factor X, which turns prothrombin into thrombin in the presence of factor V and phospholipid. The venom is diluted to give a clotting time of 23 to 27 seconds and the phospholipid is reduced to make the test extremely sensitive to phospholipid. The dRVVT test is more sensitive than the aPTT test for the detection of lupus anticoagulant (an autoimmune disorder), because it is not influenced by deficiencies in clotting factors VIII, IX or XI.[33]

References edit

  1. ^ Shaw, George (1797). "The Russelian Snake". The Naturalist's Miscellany. 8: 291–293.
  2. ^ Russell, Patrick (1796). An account of Indian serpents, collected on the coast of Coromandel. Vol. 1. London: W. Bulmer and Co. Shakespeare-Press. p. 10. from the original on 2023-02-10. Retrieved 2020-08-15.
  3. ^ a b Thorpe RS, Pook CE, Malhotra A (2007). "Phylogeography of the Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) complex in relation to variation in the colour pattern and symptoms of envenoming". Herpetological Journal. 17: 209–18.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Mallow D, Ludwig D, Nilson G (2003). True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company. 359 pp. ISBN 0-89464-877-2.
  5. ^ a b McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré TA (1999). Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, Volume 1. Washington, District of Columbia: Herpetologists' League. 511 pp. ISBN 1-893777-00-6 (series). ISBN 1-893777-01-4 (volume).
  6. ^ Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. ISBN 978-1-4214-0135-5. (Daboia russelii, pp. 229-230).
  7. ^ Weiner ESC, Simpson JA (editors) (1991). The Compact Oxford English Dictionary: New Edition. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-861258-3.
  8. ^ a b Snakes of Thailand: Venomous snakes 2016-03-30 at the Wayback Machine at Siam-Info 2016-05-06 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 20 October 2006.
  9. ^ Daboia russelii at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 2 August 2007.
  10. ^ a b . Retrieved 20 October 2006.
  11. ^ Captive Care of the Russell's viper 2008-04-09 at the Wayback Machine at VenomousReptiles.org. Retrieved 14 March 2007. April 9, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ Somaweera A (2007). Checklist of the Snakes of Sri Lanka. Peradeniya, Sri Lanka: Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya. PDF 2008-09-20 at the Wayback Machine at Sri Lanka Reptile 2009-08-18 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 March 2007.
  13. ^ Mehrtens JM (1987). Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling Publishers. 480 pp. ISBN 0-8069-6460-X.
  14. ^ Brown JH (1973). Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. 184 pp. LCCCN 73-229. ISBN 0-398-02808-7.
  15. ^ a b United States Navy (1991). Poisonous Snakes of the World. New York: United States Government/Dover Publications Inc. 203 pp. ISBN 0-486-26629-X.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Daniel, J.C. (2002). "Russell's viper". The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians. Oxford, USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 148–151. ISBN 0-19-566099-4.
  17. ^ a b c Stidworthy, J. (1974). Snakes of the World (Revised ed.). New York: Grosset & Dunlap Inc. ISBN 0-448-11856-4.
  18. ^ a b Ditmars, R.L. (1937). Reptiles of the World: The Crocodilians, Lizards, Snakes, Turtles and Tortoises of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. New York: The MacMillan Company.
  19. ^ Whitaker Z (1989). Snakeman: The Story of a Naturalist. Bombay: India Magazine Books. 184 pp. ASIN B0007BR65Y.
  20. ^ Krochmal AR, Bakken GS (August 2003). "Thermoregulation is the pits: use of thermal radiation for retreat site selection by rattlesnakes". J. Exp. Biol. 206 (Pt 15): 2539–45. doi:10.1242/jeb.00471. PMID 12819261. from the original on 2023-02-10. Retrieved 2009-11-29.
  21. ^ Krochmal AR, Bakken GS, LaDuc TJ (2004). "Heat in evolution's kitchen: evolutionary perspectives on the functions and origin of the facial pit of pitvipers (Viperidae: Crotalinae)". J. Exp. Biol. 207 (Pt 24): 4231–8. doi:10.1242/jeb.01278. PMID 15531644. from the original on 2023-02-10. Retrieved 2008-02-22.
  22. ^ York DS, Silver TM, Smith AA (1998). "Innervation of the supranasal sac of the puff adder". Anat. Rec. 251 (2): 221–5. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(199806)251:2<221::AID-AR10>3.0.CO;2-Q. PMID 9624452.
  23. ^ "Russell's Viper delivers 75 snakelets". Bangalore Mirror. from the original on 2020-07-11. Retrieved 2020-07-11.
  24. ^ Mao, Shou-Hsian (May 19, 1967). "Bite Patterns of Taiwan Venomous and Non-Venomous Snakes" (PDF). zoolstud.sinica.edu.tw. (PDF) from the original on December 23, 2021. Retrieved December 23, 2021.
  25. ^ . Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2012-01-08.
  26. ^ . Archived from the original on 2009-07-18. Retrieved 2012-01-08.
  27. ^ . Archived from the original on 2005-02-05. Retrieved 2012-01-08.
  28. ^ Meier, J; Theakston, RD (1986). "Approximate LD50 determinations of snake venoms using eight to ten experimental animals". Toxicon. 24 (4): 395–401. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(86)90199-6. PMID 3715904.
  29. ^ "The deadly Russell Viper: How the snake's venom affects humans". May 4, 2015. from the original on December 13, 2020. Retrieved November 29, 2020.
  30. ^ Tun-Pe; Warrell, D. A.; Tin-Nu-Swe; Phillips, R. E.; Moore, R. A.; Myint-Lwin; Burke, C. W. (3 October 1987). "Acute and chronic pituitary failure resembling Sheehan's syndrome following bites by Russell's viper in Burma". The Lancet. 330 (8562): 763–767. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(87)92500-1. PMID 2888987. S2CID 41839362.
  31. ^ Antonypillai, C. N.; Wass, J. A. H.; Warrell, D. A.; Rajaratnam, H. N. (2010). "Hypopituitarism following envenoming by Russell's Vipers (Daboia siamensis and D. russelii ) resembling Sheehan's syndrome: First case report from Sri Lanka, a review of the literature and recommendations for endocrine management". QJM. 104 (2): 97–108. doi:10.1093/qjmed/hcq214. PMID 21115460.
  32. ^ Rodrigo, Malaka (9 October 2016). "Trials to start for home-grown anti-venom". The Sunday Times (Sri Lanka). from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  33. ^ Antiphospholipid Syndrome 2006-11-17 at the Wayback Machine at SpecialtyLaboratories 2019-04-02 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 27 September 2006.

Further reading edit

  • Hawgood BJ (November 1994). "The life and viper of Dr Patrick Russell MD FRS (1727–1805): physician and naturalist". Toxicon. 32 (11): 1295–304. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(94)90402-2. PMID 7886689.
  • Adler K, Smith HM, Prince SH, David P, Chiszar D (2000). "Russell's viper: Daboia russelii not Daboia russellii, due to Classical Latin rules". Hamadryad. 25 (2): 83–5.
  • Boulenger GA (1890). The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Batrachia. London: Secretary of State for India in Council. (Taylor and Francis, printers). xviii + 541 pp. ("Vipera russellii", pp. 420–421, Figure 123).
  • Boulenger GA (1896). Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume III., Containing the...Viperidæ. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers). xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I.- XXV. ("Vipera russellii", pp. 490–491).
  • Breidenbach CH (1990). "Thermal cues influence strikes in pitless vipers". Journal of Herpetology. 24 (4). Society for the Study of Reptiles and Amphibians: 448–50. doi:10.2307/1565074. JSTOR 1565074.
  • Cox M (1991). The Snakes of Thailand and Their Husbandry. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company. 526 pp. ISBN 0-89464-437-8.
  • Daniels JC (2002). Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society/Oxford University Press. viii + 238pp.
  • Das I (2002). A Photographic Guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of India. Sanibel Island, Florida: Ralph Curtis Books. 144 pp. ISBN 0-88359-056-5. (Russell's viper, "Daboia russelii", p. 60).
  • Dimitrov GD, Kankonkar RC (February 1968). "Fractionation of Vipera russelli venom by gel filtration. I. Venom composition and relative fraction function". Toxicon. 5 (3): 213–21. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(68)90092-5. PMID 5640304.
  • Dowling HG (1993). "The name of Russell's viper". Amphibia-Reptilia. 14 (3): 320. doi:10.1163/156853893X00543.
  • Gharpurey K (1962). Snakes of India and Pakistan. Bombay, India: Popular Prakishan. 79 pp.
  • Groombridge B (1980). A phyletic analysis of viperine snakes. Ph-D thesis. City of London: Polytechnic College. 250 pp.
  • Groombridge B (1986). "Phyletic relationships among viperine snakes". In: Proceedings of the third European herpetological meeting; 1985 July 5–11; Charles University, Prague. pp 11–17.
  • Jena I, Sarangi A (1993). Snakes of Medical Importance and Snake-bite Treatment. New Delhi: SB Nangia, Ashish Publishing House. 293 pp.
  • Lenk P, Kalyabina S, Wink M, Joger U [in German] (April 2001). "Evolutionary relationships among the true vipers (Reptilia: Viperidae) inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 19 (1): 94–104. doi:10.1006/mpev.2001.0912. PMID 11286494.
  • Mahendra BC (1984). "Handbook of the snakes of India, Ceylon, Burma, Bangladesh and Pakistan". Annals of Zoology (Agra, India) 22.
  • Master RW, Rao SS (July 1961). "Identification of enzymes and toxins in venoms of Indian cobra and Russell's viper after starch gel electrophoresis". J. Biol. Chem. 236 (7): 1986–90. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)64116-X. PMID 13767976.
  • Minton SA Jr. (1974). Venom Diseases. Springfield, Illinois: CC Thomas Publishing. 386 pp.
  • Morris PA (1948). Boy's Book of Snakes: How to Recognize and Understand Them. A volume of the Humanizing Science Series, edited by Jacques Cattell. New York: Ronald Press. viii + 185 pp. (Russell's viper, "Vipera russellii", pp. 156–157, 182).
  • Naulleau G, van den Brule B (1980). "Captive reproduction of Vipera russelli". Herpetological Review. 11. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles: 110–2.
  • Obst FJ (1983). "Zur Kenntnis der Schlangengattung Vipera". Zoologische Abhandlungen. 38. Staatliches Museums für Tierkunde in Dresden: 229–35. (in German).
  • Reid HA (1968). "Symptomatology, pathology, and treatment of land snake bite in India and southeast Asia". In: Bucherl W, Buckley E, Deulofeu V (editors). Venomous Animals and Their Venoms. Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press. pp 611–42.
  • Shaw G, Nodder FP (1797). The Naturalist's Miscellany. Volume 9. London: Nodder and Co. 65 pp. (Coluber russelii, new species, Plate 291).
  • Shortt (1863). "A short account of the viper Daboia elegans (Vipera Russellii)". Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 11 (3): 384–5.
  • Silva A de (1990). Colour Guide to the Snakes of Sri Lanka. Avon (Eng): R & A Books. ISBN 1-872688-00-4. 130 pp.
  • Sitprija V, Benyajati C, Boonpucknavig V (1974). "Further observations of renal insufficiency in snakebite". Nephron. 13 (5): 396–403. doi:10.1159/000180416. PMID 4610437.
  • Smith MA (1943). The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma, Including the Whole of the Indo-Chinese Sub-region. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. III.—Serpentes. London: Secretary of State for India. (Taylor and Francis, printers). xii + 583 pp. ("Vipera russelli", pp. 482–485).
  • Thiagarajan P, Pengo V, Shapiro SS (October 1986). "The use of the dilute Russell viper venom time for the diagnosis of lupus anticoagulants". Blood. 68 (4): 869–74. doi:10.1182/blood.V68.4.869.869. PMID 3092888.
  • Maung-Maung-Thwin, Khin-Mee-Mee, Mi-Mi-Kyin, Thein-Than (1988). "Kinetics of envenomation with Russell's viper (Vipera russelli) venom and of antivenom use in mice". Toxicon. 26 (4): 373–8. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(88)90005-0. PMID 3406948.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Mg-Mg-Thwin, Thein-Than, U Hla-Pe (1985). "Relationship of administered dose to blood venom levels in mice following experimental envenomation by Russell's viper (Vipera russelli) venom". Toxicon. 23 (1): 43–52. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(85)90108-4. PMID 3922088.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Tweedie MWF (1983). The Snakes of Malaya. Singapore: Singapore National Printers Ltd. 105 pp. ASIN B0007B41IO.
  • Vit Z (1977). "The Russell's viper". Prezgl. Zool. 21: 185–8.
  • Wall F (1906). "The breeding of Russell's viper". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 16: 292–312.
  • Wall F (1921). Ophidia Taprobanica or the Snakes of Ceylon. Colombo, Ceylon [Sri Lanka]: Colombo Museum. (H.R. Cootle, Government Printer). xxii + 581 pp. ("Vipera russelli", pp. 504–529, Figures 91-92).
  • Whitaker R (1978). Common Indian Snakes. New Delhi (India): MacMillan. 85 pp.
  • Wüster W (1992). "Cobras and other herps in south-east Asia". British Herpetological Society Bulletin. 39: 19–24.
  • Wüster W, Otsuka S, Malhotra A, Thorpe RS (1992). "Population Systematics of Russell's viper: A Multivariate Study". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 47 (1): 97–113. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1992.tb00658.x.
  • Zhao EM, Adler K (1993). Herpetology of China. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. 522 pp. ISBN 0-916984-28-1.

External links edit

 
Wikispecies has information related to Russell's viper.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Daboia russelii.
  • Daboia russelii at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 5 September 2007.
  • at Michigan Engineering. Accessed 5 September 2007.
  • Russell's viper at SurvivalIQ. Accessed 5 September 2007.
  • Mark O'Shea in Sri Lanka at Mark O'Shea. Accessed 5 September 2007.
  • Common Poisonous Snakes in Taiwan at Formosan Fat Tire. Accessed 5 September 2007.
  • Video of Daboia russelii on YouTube. Accessed 5 September 2007.
  • Video of Daboia russelii feeding on YouTube. Accessed 5 September 2007.
  • Toxicology

April 08, 2024
russell, viper, daboia, russelii, highly, venomous, snake, family, viperidae, native, indian, subcontinent, four, snakes, india, described, 1797, george, shaw, frederick, polydore, nodder, named, after, patrick, russell, wrote, about, 1796, work, account, indi. Russell s viper Daboia russelii is a highly venomous snake in the family Viperidae native to the Indian subcontinent and one of the big four snakes in India It was described in 1797 by George Shaw and Frederick Polydore Nodder and named after Patrick Russell who wrote about it in his 1796 work An account of Indian serpents collected on the coast of Coromandel Russell s viperScientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass ReptiliaOrder SquamataSuborder SerpentesFamily ViperidaeGenus DaboiaSpecies D russeliiBinomial nameDaboia russelii Shaw amp Nodder 1797 Daboia russelii distributionSynonymsColuber russelii Shaw amp Nodder 1797 Coluber daboie Latreille In Sonnini amp Latreille 1801 Coluber trinoculus Schneider In Bechstein 1802 Vipera daboya Daudin 1803 Vipera elegans Daudin 1803 Coluber triseriatus Hermann 1804 Vipera russelii Gray 1831 Daboia elegans Gray 1842 Daboia russelii Gray 1842 Daboia pulchella Gray 1842 Echidna russellii Steindachner 1869Russell s viper Daboia russelli in a sensing moment Contents 1 Taxonomy 2 Etymology 3 Description 4 Distribution and habitat 5 Behaviour and ecology 5 1 Reproduction 5 2 Prey 5 3 Mimicry 6 Venom 6 1 Symptoms 6 2 Antivenom treatment 6 3 Clinical use 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksTaxonomy editEnglish naturalist George Shaw with illustrator Frederick Polydore Nodder in The Naturalist s Miscellany Or Coloured Figures Of Natural Objects Drawn and Described Immediately From Nature formally described the species in 1797 as Coluber russelii from a specimen presented to the British Museum by Scottish herpetologist Patrick Russell 1 Russell had written of the species in his 1796 work An account of Indian serpents collected on the coast of Coromandel confirming its highly venomous nature by experimenting on chickens and dogs He added the native people called it katuka retula poda 2 Analysis of morphological and mitochondrial DNA data shows that the eastern subspecies of D russelii should be considered a separate species Daboia siamensis 3 A number of other subspecies may be encountered in literature 4 including D s formosensis Maki 1931 found in Thailand considered a synonym of D siamensis D s limitis Mertens 1927 found in Indonesia considered a synonym of D siamensis D r pulchella Gray 1842 found in Sri Lanka considered a synonym of D russelii D r nordicus Deraniyagala 1945 found in northern India considered a synonym of D russelii The correct spelling of the species D russelii has been and still is a matter of debate Shaw and Nodder 1797 in their account of the species Coluber russelii named it after Patrick Russell but apparently misspelled his name using only one L instead of two Russell 1727 1805 was the author of An Account of Indian Serpents 1796 and A Continuation of an Account of Indian Serpents 1801 McDiarmid et al 1999 are among those who favor the original misspelling citing Article 32c ii of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature Others such as Zhao and Adler 1993 favor russellii 5 Etymology editThe species is named after Patrick Russell 1726 1805 6 a Scottish herpetologist who first described many of India s snakes and the name of the genus is from the Hindi word specify meaning that lies hid or the lurker 7 In English common names of D russelii include Russell s viper 4 8 9 10 chain viper 8 10 Indian Russell s viper 11 12 common Russell s viper 13 seven pacer 14 chain snake and scissors snake 15 Description edit nbsp Head of the Russell s viper nbsp Large fangs nbsp Russell s viper in Pune ZooThe head is flattened triangular and distinct from the neck The snout is blunt rounded and raised The nostrils are large each in the middle of a large single nasal scale The lower edge of the nasal scale touches the nasorostral scale The supranasal scale has a strong crescent shape and separates the nasal from the nasorostral scale anteriorly The rostral scale is as broad as it is high 4 The crown of the head is covered with irregular strongly fragmented scales The supraocular scales are narrow single and separated by six to nine scales across the head The eyes are large flecked with yellow or gold and surrounded by 10 15 circumorbital scales The snake has 10 12 supralabials the fourth and fifth of which are significantly larger The eye is separated from the supralabials by three or four rows of suboculars Of the two pairs of chin shields the front pair is notably enlarged The two maxillary bones support at least two and at the most five or six pairs of fangs at a time the first are active and the rest replacements 4 The fangs attain a length of 16 5 mm 0 65 in in the average specimen 16 The body is stout the cross section of which is rounded to circular The dorsal scales are strongly keeled only the lowest row is smooth Mid body the dorsal scales number 27 33 The ventral scales number 153 180 The anal plate is not divided The tail is short about 14 of the total length with the paired subcaudals numbering 41 68 4 Dorsally the color pattern consists of a deep yellow tan or brown ground color with three series of dark brown spots that run the length of the body Each of these spots has a black ring around it the outer border of which is intensified with a rim of white or yellow The dorsal spots which usually number 23 30 may grow together while the side spots may break apart The head has a pair of distinct dark patches one on each temple together with a pinkish salmon or brownish V or X marking that forms an apex towards the snout Behind the eye is a dark streak outlined in white pink or buff The venter is white whitish yellowish or pinkish often with an irregular scattering of dark spots 4 Russell s viper grows to a maximum body and tail length of 166 cm 65 in and averages about 120 cm 47 in in mainland Asia On islands it is slightly shorter on average 4 It is more slender than most vipers 17 The following dimensions for a fair sized adult specimen were reported in 1937 18 Total length 1 24 m 4 ft 1 in Length of tail 430 mm 17 in Girth 150 mm 6 in Width of head 51 mm 2 in Length of head 51 mm 2 in Distribution and habitat edit nbsp nbsp Russell s viper from India Russell s viper is found in India Sri Lanka Bangladesh Nepal and Pakistan Populations from South East Asia previously assigned to this species are now considered to be part of a different species Daboia siamensis 3 The type locality is listed as India More specifically this would be the Coromandel Coast by inference of Russell 1796 5 Within its range it can be common in some areas but scarce in others 17 In India it is abundant in Punjab very common along the West Coast and its hills and in southern India especially in the state of Karnataka and north to Bengal It is uncommon to rare in the Ganges valley northern Bengal and Assam Russell s viper is not restricted to any particular habitat but does tend to avoid dense forests The snake is mostly found in open grassy or bushy areas but may also be found in second growth forests scrub jungles on forested plantations and farmland It is most common in plains coastal lowlands and hills of suitable habitat Generally it is not found at altitude but has been reported as far up as 2300 3000 m 7 500 9 800 ft Humid environments such as marshes swamps and rain forests are avoided 4 This species is often found in highly urbanized areas and settlements in the countryside the attraction being the rodents commensal with man 16 As a result those working outside in these areas are most at risk of being bitten D russelii does not associate as closely with human habitation as Naja and Bungarus species cobras and kraits 4 Behaviour and ecology editRussell s viper is terrestrial and active primarily as a nocturnal forager However during cool weather it alters its behavior and becomes more active during the day 4 Adults are reported to be slow and sluggish unless pushed beyond a certain limit after which they can become very aggressive Juveniles though are generally more nervous 4 When threatened they form a series of S loops raise the first third of the body and produce a hiss that is supposedly louder than that of any other snake When striking from this position they can exert so much force that even a large individual can lift most of its body off the ground in the process 4 These snakes are strong and may react violently to being picked up 19 The bite may be a snap or they may hang on for many seconds 16 Although this genus does not have the heat sensitive pit organs common to the Crotalinae it is one of a number of viperines that are apparently able to react to thermal cues further supporting the notion that they too possess a heat sensitive organ 20 21 The identity of this sensor is not certain but the nerve endings in the supranasal sac of these snakes resemble those found in other heat sensitive organs 22 Reproduction edit Russell s viper is ovoviviparous 17 Mating generally occurs early in the year although pregnant females may be found at any time The gestation period is more than six months Young are produced from May to November but mostly in June and July It is a prolific breeder Litters of 20 40 are common 4 although fewer offspring may occur as few as one 16 The reported maximum is 75 23 in a single litter At birth juveniles are 215 260 mm 8 5 10 2 in in total length The minimum total length for a gravid female is about 100 cm 39 in It seems that sexual maturity is achieved in 2 3 years In one case it took a specimen nearly 4 5 hours to give birth to 11 young 4 Prey edit nbsp Russell s viper huntingRussell s viper feeds primarily on rodents although it will also eat small reptiles land crabs scorpions and other arthropods Juveniles are crepuscular feeding on lizards and foraging actively As they grow and become adults they begin to specialize in rodents Indeed the presence of rodents and lizards is the main reason they are attracted to human habitation 4 Juveniles are known to be cannibalistic 16 Mimicry edit nbsp The rough scaled sand boa Eryx conicus possibly mimics the appearance of Russell s viperSome herpetologists believe because D russelii is so successful as a species and has such a fearful reputation within its natural environment another snake has come to mimic its appearance Superficially the rough scaled sand boa Eryx conicus has a color pattern that often looks like that of D russelii though it is completely harmless 4 18 Venom editVenom of this species is delivered by means of solenoglyphous dentition 24 The quantity of venom produced by individual specimens of D russelii is considerable Venom yields for adult specimens have been reported as 130 250 mg 150 250 mg and 21 268 mg For 13 juveniles with an average total length of 79 cm 31 in the venom yield ranged from 8 to 79 mg mean 45 mg 4 The LD50 in mice which is used as a possible indicator of snake venom toxicity is 0 133 mg kg intravenous 25 0 40 mg kg intraperitoneal 26 about 0 75 mg kg subcutaneous 27 For most humans a lethal dose is about 40 70 mg well within the amount that can be delivered in one bite In general the toxicity depends on a combination of five different venom fractions each of which is less toxic when tested separately Venom toxicity and bite symptoms in humans vary within different populations and over time 4 In another study Meier and Theakston reported that the lethality of venom of Russell viper varies with change in route of injection as their results predicts the LD50 of 0 4 mg kg through intraperitoneal I P route 0 75 mg kg subcutaneous S C route and 0 3 mg kg through intravenous I V route 28 Symptoms edit Envenomation symptoms begin with pain at the site of the bite immediately followed by swelling of the affected extremity Bleeding is a common symptom especially from the gums and in the urine and sputum may show signs of blood within 20 minutes after the bite The blood pressure drops and the heart rate falls Blistering occurs at the site of the bite developing along the affected limb in severe cases Necrosis is usually superficial and limited to the muscles near the bite but may be severe in extreme cases Vomiting and facial swelling occur in about one third of all cases 4 Kidney failure renal failure also occurs in approximately 25 30 percent of untreated bites Severe disseminated intravascular coagulation also can occur in severe envenomations Early medical treatment and early access to antivenom can prevent and drastically reduce the chance of developing the severe potentially lethal complications Severe pain may last for 2 4 weeks It may persist locally depending on the level of tissue damage Often local swelling peaks within 48 72 hours involving both the affected limb and the trunk If swelling up to the trunk occurs within 1 2 hours envenomation is likely to be massive Discoloration may occur throughout the swollen area as red blood cells and plasma leak into muscle tissue 15 Death from septicaemia or kidney respiratory or cardiac failure may ensue 1 to 14 days after the bite or sometimes later 16 A study in The Lancet showed that out of a sample of people who survived bites by D russelii 29 suffered severe damage to their pituitary glands which later caused hypopituitarism 29 Other scientific studies support the hypothesis that D russelii bites can cause hypopituitarism 30 31 Antivenom treatment edit In India the Haffkine Institute prepares a polyvalent antivenom that is used to treat bites from this species 16 In late 2016 a new antivenom had been developed by the Costa Rican Clodomiro Picado Institute and clinical trials were started in Sri Lanka 32 Clinical use edit Because this venom is so effective at inducing thrombosis it has been incorporated into an in vitro diagnostic test for blood clotting that is widely used in hospital laboratories This test is often referred to as dilute Russell s viper venom time dRVVT The coagulant in the venom directly activates factor X which turns prothrombin into thrombin in the presence of factor V and phospholipid The venom is diluted to give a clotting time of 23 to 27 seconds and the phospholipid is reduced to make the test extremely sensitive to phospholipid The dRVVT test is more sensitive than the aPTT test for the detection of lupus anticoagulant an autoimmune disorder because it is not influenced by deficiencies in clotting factors VIII IX or XI 33 References edit Shaw George 1797 The Russelian Snake The Naturalist s Miscellany 8 291 293 Russell Patrick 1796 An account of Indian serpents collected on the coast of Coromandel Vol 1 London W Bulmer and Co Shakespeare Press p 10 Archived from the original on 2023 02 10 Retrieved 2020 08 15 a b Thorpe RS Pook CE Malhotra A 2007 Phylogeography of the Russell s viper Daboia russelii complex in relation to variation in the colour pattern and symptoms of envenoming Herpetological Journal 17 209 18 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Mallow D Ludwig D Nilson G 2003 True Vipers Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers Malabar Florida Krieger Publishing Company 359 pp ISBN 0 89464 877 2 a b McDiarmid RW Campbell JA Toure TA 1999 Snake Species of the World A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference Volume 1 Washington District of Columbia Herpetologists League 511 pp ISBN 1 893777 00 6 series ISBN 1 893777 01 4 volume Beolens Bo Watkins Michael Grayson Michael 2011 The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press xiii 296 pp ISBN 978 1 4214 0135 5 Daboia russelii pp 229 230 Weiner ESC Simpson JA editors 1991 The Compact Oxford English Dictionary New Edition USA Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 861258 3 a b Snakes of Thailand Venomous snakes Archived 2016 03 30 at the Wayback Machine at Siam Info Archived 2016 05 06 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 20 October 2006 Daboia russelii at the Reptarium cz Reptile Database Accessed 2 August 2007 a b Retrieved 20 October 2006 Captive Care of the Russell s viper Archived 2008 04 09 at the Wayback Machine at VenomousReptiles org Retrieved 14 March 2007 Archived April 9 2008 at the Wayback Machine Somaweera A 2007 Checklist of the Snakes of Sri Lanka Peradeniya Sri Lanka Department of Zoology Faculty of Science University of Peradeniya PDF Archived 2008 09 20 at the Wayback Machine at Sri Lanka Reptile Archived 2009 08 18 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 14 March 2007 Mehrtens JM 1987 Living Snakes of the World in Color New York Sterling Publishers 480 pp ISBN 0 8069 6460 X Brown JH 1973 Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes Springfield Illinois Charles C Thomas 184 pp LCCCN 73 229 ISBN 0 398 02808 7 a b United States Navy 1991 Poisonous Snakes of the World New York United States Government Dover Publications Inc 203 pp ISBN 0 486 26629 X a b c d e f g Daniel J C 2002 Russell s viper The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians Oxford USA Oxford University Press pp 148 151 ISBN 0 19 566099 4 a b c Stidworthy J 1974 Snakes of the World Revised ed New York Grosset amp Dunlap Inc ISBN 0 448 11856 4 a b Ditmars R L 1937 Reptiles of the World The Crocodilians Lizards Snakes Turtles and Tortoises of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres New York The MacMillan Company Whitaker Z 1989 Snakeman The Story of a Naturalist Bombay India Magazine Books 184 pp ASIN B0007BR65Y Krochmal AR Bakken GS August 2003 Thermoregulation is the pits use of thermal radiation for retreat site selection by rattlesnakes J Exp Biol 206 Pt 15 2539 45 doi 10 1242 jeb 00471 PMID 12819261 Archived from the original on 2023 02 10 Retrieved 2009 11 29 Krochmal AR Bakken GS LaDuc TJ 2004 Heat in evolution s kitchen evolutionary perspectives on the functions and origin of the facial pit of pitvipers Viperidae Crotalinae J Exp Biol 207 Pt 24 4231 8 doi 10 1242 jeb 01278 PMID 15531644 Archived from the original on 2023 02 10 Retrieved 2008 02 22 York DS Silver TM Smith AA 1998 Innervation of the supranasal sac of the puff adder Anat Rec 251 2 221 5 doi 10 1002 SICI 1097 0185 199806 251 2 lt 221 AID AR10 gt 3 0 CO 2 Q PMID 9624452 Russell s Viper delivers 75 snakelets Bangalore Mirror Archived from the original on 2020 07 11 Retrieved 2020 07 11 Mao Shou Hsian May 19 1967 Bite Patterns of Taiwan Venomous and Non Venomous Snakes PDF zoolstud sinica edu tw Archived PDF from the original on December 23 2021 Retrieved December 23 2021 LD50 intravenous Archived from the original on 2011 07 16 Retrieved 2012 01 08 LD50 intraperitoneal Archived from the original on 2009 07 18 Retrieved 2012 01 08 LD50 subcutaneous Archived from the original on 2005 02 05 Retrieved 2012 01 08 Meier J Theakston RD 1986 Approximate LD50 determinations of snake venoms using eight to ten experimental animals Toxicon 24 4 395 401 doi 10 1016 0041 0101 86 90199 6 PMID 3715904 The deadly Russell Viper How the snake s venom affects humans May 4 2015 Archived from the original on December 13 2020 Retrieved November 29 2020 Tun Pe Warrell D A Tin Nu Swe Phillips R E Moore R A Myint Lwin Burke C W 3 October 1987 Acute and chronic pituitary failure resembling Sheehan s syndrome following bites by Russell s viper in Burma The Lancet 330 8562 763 767 doi 10 1016 s0140 6736 87 92500 1 PMID 2888987 S2CID 41839362 Antonypillai C N Wass J A H Warrell D A Rajaratnam H N 2010 Hypopituitarism following envenoming by Russell s Vipers Daboia siamensis and D russelii resembling Sheehan s syndrome First case report from Sri Lanka a review of the literature and recommendations for endocrine management QJM 104 2 97 108 doi 10 1093 qjmed hcq214 PMID 21115460 Rodrigo Malaka 9 October 2016 Trials to start for home grown anti venom The Sunday Times Sri Lanka Archived from the original on 20 July 2021 Retrieved 20 July 2021 Antiphospholipid Syndrome Archived 2006 11 17 at the Wayback Machine at SpecialtyLaboratories Archived 2019 04 02 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 27 September 2006 Further reading editHawgood BJ November 1994 The life and viper of Dr Patrick Russell MD FRS 1727 1805 physician and naturalist Toxicon 32 11 1295 304 doi 10 1016 0041 0101 94 90402 2 PMID 7886689 Adler K Smith HM Prince SH David P Chiszar D 2000 Russell s viper Daboia russelii not Daboia russellii due to Classical Latin rules Hamadryad 25 2 83 5 Boulenger GA 1890 The Fauna of British India Including Ceylon and Burma Reptilia and Batrachia London Secretary of State for India in Council Taylor and Francis printers xviii 541 pp Vipera russellii pp 420 421 Figure 123 Boulenger GA 1896 Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum Natural History Volume III Containing the Viperidae London Trustees of the British Museum Natural History Taylor and Francis printers xiv 727 pp Plates I XXV Vipera russellii pp 490 491 Breidenbach CH 1990 Thermal cues influence strikes in pitless vipers Journal of Herpetology 24 4 Society for the Study of Reptiles and Amphibians 448 50 doi 10 2307 1565074 JSTOR 1565074 Cox M 1991 The Snakes of Thailand and Their Husbandry Malabar Florida Krieger Publishing Company 526 pp ISBN 0 89464 437 8 Daniels JC 2002 Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians Mumbai Bombay Natural History Society Oxford University Press viii 238pp Das I 2002 A Photographic Guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of India Sanibel Island Florida Ralph Curtis Books 144 pp ISBN 0 88359 056 5 Russell s viper Daboia russelii p 60 Dimitrov GD Kankonkar RC February 1968 Fractionation of Vipera russelli venom by gel filtration I Venom composition and relative fraction function Toxicon 5 3 213 21 doi 10 1016 0041 0101 68 90092 5 PMID 5640304 Dowling HG 1993 The name of Russell s viper Amphibia Reptilia 14 3 320 doi 10 1163 156853893X00543 Gharpurey K 1962 Snakes of India and Pakistan Bombay India Popular Prakishan 79 pp Groombridge B 1980 A phyletic analysis of viperine snakes Ph D thesis City of London Polytechnic College 250 pp Groombridge B 1986 Phyletic relationships among viperine snakes In Proceedings of the third European herpetological meeting 1985 July 5 11 Charles University Prague pp 11 17 Jena I Sarangi A 1993 Snakes of Medical Importance and Snake bite Treatment New Delhi SB Nangia Ashish Publishing House 293 pp Lenk P Kalyabina S Wink M Joger U in German April 2001 Evolutionary relationships among the true vipers Reptilia Viperidae inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 19 1 94 104 doi 10 1006 mpev 2001 0912 PMID 11286494 Mahendra BC 1984 Handbook of the snakes of India Ceylon Burma Bangladesh and Pakistan Annals of Zoology Agra India 22 Master RW Rao SS July 1961 Identification of enzymes and toxins in venoms of Indian cobra and Russell s viper after starch gel electrophoresis J Biol Chem 236 7 1986 90 doi 10 1016 S0021 9258 18 64116 X PMID 13767976 Minton SA Jr 1974 Venom Diseases Springfield Illinois CC Thomas Publishing 386 pp Morris PA 1948 Boy s Book of Snakes How to Recognize and Understand Them A volume of the Humanizing Science Series edited by Jacques Cattell New York Ronald Press viii 185 pp Russell s viper Vipera russellii pp 156 157 182 Naulleau G van den Brule B 1980 Captive reproduction of Vipera russelli Herpetological Review 11 Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles 110 2 Obst FJ 1983 Zur Kenntnis der Schlangengattung Vipera Zoologische Abhandlungen 38 Staatliches Museums fur Tierkunde in Dresden 229 35 in German Reid HA 1968 Symptomatology pathology and treatment of land snake bite in India and southeast Asia In Bucherl W Buckley E Deulofeu V editors Venomous Animals and Their Venoms Vol 1 New York Academic Press pp 611 42 Shaw G Nodder FP 1797 The Naturalist s Miscellany Volume 9 London Nodder and Co 65 pp Coluber russelii new species Plate 291 Shortt 1863 A short account of the viper Daboia elegans Vipera Russellii Annals and Magazine of Natural History 11 3 384 5 Silva A de 1990 Colour Guide to the Snakes of Sri Lanka Avon Eng R amp A Books ISBN 1 872688 00 4 130 pp Sitprija V Benyajati C Boonpucknavig V 1974 Further observations of renal insufficiency in snakebite Nephron 13 5 396 403 doi 10 1159 000180416 PMID 4610437 Smith MA 1943 The Fauna of British India Ceylon and Burma Including the Whole of the Indo Chinese Sub region Reptilia and Amphibia Vol III Serpentes London Secretary of State for India Taylor and Francis printers xii 583 pp Vipera russelli pp 482 485 Thiagarajan P Pengo V Shapiro SS October 1986 The use of the dilute Russell viper venom time for the diagnosis of lupus anticoagulants Blood 68 4 869 74 doi 10 1182 blood V68 4 869 869 PMID 3092888 Maung Maung Thwin Khin Mee Mee Mi Mi Kyin Thein Than 1988 Kinetics of envenomation with Russell s viper Vipera russelli venom and of antivenom use in mice Toxicon 26 4 373 8 doi 10 1016 0041 0101 88 90005 0 PMID 3406948 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Mg Mg Thwin Thein Than U Hla Pe 1985 Relationship of administered dose to blood venom levels in mice following experimental envenomation by Russell s viper Vipera russelli venom Toxicon 23 1 43 52 doi 10 1016 0041 0101 85 90108 4 PMID 3922088 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Tweedie MWF 1983 The Snakes of Malaya Singapore Singapore National Printers Ltd 105 pp ASIN B0007B41IO Vit Z 1977 The Russell s viper Prezgl Zool 21 185 8 Wall F 1906 The breeding of Russell s viper Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 16 292 312 Wall F 1921 Ophidia Taprobanica or the Snakes of Ceylon Colombo Ceylon Sri Lanka Colombo Museum H R Cootle Government Printer xxii 581 pp Vipera russelli pp 504 529 Figures 91 92 Whitaker R 1978 Common Indian Snakes New Delhi India MacMillan 85 pp Wuster W 1992 Cobras and other herps in south east Asia British Herpetological Society Bulletin 39 19 24 Wuster W Otsuka S Malhotra A Thorpe RS 1992 Population Systematics of Russell s viper A Multivariate Study Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 47 1 97 113 doi 10 1111 j 1095 8312 1992 tb00658 x Zhao EM Adler K 1993 Herpetology of China Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles 522 pp ISBN 0 916984 28 1 External links edit nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Russell s viper nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Daboia russelii nbsp Snakes portalDaboia russelii at the Reptarium cz Reptile Database Accessed 5 September 2007 Russell s viper at Michigan Engineering Accessed 5 September 2007 Russell s viper at SurvivalIQ Accessed 5 September 2007 Mark O Shea in Sri Lanka at Mark O Shea Accessed 5 September 2007 Common Poisonous Snakes in Taiwan at Formosan Fat Tire Accessed 5 September 2007 Video of Daboia russelii on YouTube Accessed 5 September 2007 Video of Daboia russelii feeding on YouTube Accessed 5 September 2007 Toxicology Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Russell 27s viper amp oldid 1210507609, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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