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Raitt's sand eel

January 01, 1970

Raitt's sand eel (Ammodytes marinus), also known as the lesser sand eel, is a small semi-pelagic ray-finned fish found in the North Atlantic Ocean.[1][2] The Raitt's sand eel is member of the family Ammodytidae which includes all 31 species of sand eels, often referred to as sand lances.[3] Contrary to their name sand eels, including Raitt's sand eel, are not true eels and instead belong to the order of “weever-like” fishes, the Trachiniformes.[4][1]

Raitt's sand eel
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Trachiniformes
Family: Ammodytidae
Genus: Ammodytes
Species:
A. marinus
Binomial name
Ammodytes marinus
Raitt, 1934

Description edit

The Raitt's sand eel is a small elongated fish that is usually about 20 cm long.[5] The maximum length reported for this species of sand eel is 25 cm.[1] They are silver all over with darker scales on their dorsal side.[6] Raitt's sand eels have a short tail fin that is deeply forked. They have a long and low dorsal fin that is twice as long as the tail fin and runs along almost the entire body. The scales on their underside are arranged randomly instead of in a distinct pattern as in many other fish.[1] The Raitt's sand eel has a pointed jaw where the lower jaw projects further than the upper jaw.[7]

It is difficult to distinguish this species from the other members in its genus ‘’Ammodytes’’ as they are all very similar in appearance.[2]

Evolution edit

The evolutionary history of the Raitt's sand eel is still debated and its exact relationship to the other members of its order Perciformes is unknown. There is currently no universally accepted phylogeny for the Raitt's sand eel's suborder the Trachinoidei.[8]

Distribution and habitat edit

The Raitt's sand eel is found across the Northeast Atlantic Ocean and is particularly abundant in the North Sea.[9] They live in both the shallow open ocean and coastal waters.[6] Four other species of sand eel are also distributed in this part of the Atlantic.[10] The fisheries here are dominated by Raitt's sand eel suggesting the Raitt's sand eel is the most abundant in the area.

The southern boundary of the Raitt's sand eel is predicted to move further North in the future due to climate change.[11] The Raitt's sand eel survives better in cooler waters and may move North to avoid warming sea temperatures.

Sand eels live amongst sandy sediment of the sea bed where they spend most of the year burrowed avoiding predators.[3] They are also found living in bedrock and kelp habitats. Sandbanks are the most important habitat for the sand eel as they are used as nursery, spawning and resting grounds.[12] Raitt's sand eels live in turbulent areas of the ocean and do not live in depths below 100m.[13]

Raitt's sand eel have very specific habitat requirements. They are specialised to live in waters high in oxygen but with low levels of silt and clay.[14] These requirements mean the Raitt's sand eel is found in distinct patches across the North Atlantic and instead of one continuous population.[15]

Population edit

Due to their lifestyle, it has been very difficult to estimate the population size of the Raitt's sand eel. Most monitoring techniques are inappropriate and cannot detect the burrowed sand eels.[16]

 
A black-legged kittiwake flying above the sea

Biological indicators, or bioindicators, are now being used to assess the size of the Raitt's sand eel population.[17] The main indicator used for sand eels are black-legged kittiwake seabirds. These coastal breeding birds are heavily reliant on sand eels and therefore their population size changes in response to the amount of Raitt's sand eel present. This can give a lot of information about the abundance of sand eels in the area.[17]

The Raitt's sand eel is known from fishing records to have regular population fluctuations. Overfishing, climate change and food web effects have all been shown to have contributed to these fluctuations.[11] As the Raitt's sand eel is found in the North Atlantic Ocean its climate is altered by the North Atlantic Oscillation. This weather fluctuation can alter the recruitment of sand eel. Warmer temperatures decrease the number of sand eel juveniles that survive to adulthood and so yearly changes to temperature can cause fluctuating population size. Changes to the abundance of species connected to the Raitt's sand eel in the food web has also caused variable population size. Calanus copepods are an important prey item for sand eels. The population of Raitt's sand eel has been related to changes in the availability of this prey. Young Raitt's sand eels have lower survival when copepods are less abundant.[11]

Ecology edit

The Raitt's sand eel is a keystone species in the North Sea food web.[18] They are the prey of a significant number of species including seabirds, marine mammals and larger fish.[19] Seabirds in particular rely heavily on the Raitt's sand eel to feed their chicks. When the sand eels leave their burrows to feed seabirds dive into the water to catch them and then return to their nests. Atlantic puffin, black-legged kittiwake, common guillemot and razorbills are all known predators of this species. Common guillemots feed exclusively on Raitt's sand eel during the breeding season.[20]

In the sea many larger fish species prey on the Raitt's sand eel including cod, haddock, whiting, saithe and mackerel.[13] Many of these are very commercially valuable species and declines in sand eel have caused declines in their numbers due to lack of prey.[21] Marine mammals also feed on Raitt's sand eels but less regularly. Mostly species such as grey seals, harbour seals and harbour porpoise consume many sand eels in the spring and early summer.[22]

Raitt's sand eels feed mainly on zooplankton.[23] By consuming zooplankton they act as a link through to the higher trophic level predators that eat sand eels.

Behaviour edit

Sand eel species switch between open water swimming and burying themselves in the sand to avoid nearby predators.[12] When they are not burrowed they live in shoal formations.[12] They spend most of the winter burrowed in the sediment but then enter the open water between March and June to feed as the abundance of prey increases.[24] Even in the summer months when Raitt's sand eels emerge to feed they still burrow in the sand in the night.[6]

Life cycle edit

Raitt's sand eels breed in December and January when they briefly leave their winter burrows in the sediment.[25] They lay their eggs in the sand which incubate there until they hatch in February and March. The hatched sand eels live in the open water above the sediment until metamorphosis. After this, they return to burrow in the sediment.[14] Most Raitt's sand eels live for only 3 or 4 years as they have a high level of natural death.[11]

Commercial uses edit

 
An open water aquaculture fish farm

All species of sand eels are used extensively in the fish oil and fishmeal industries.[22] Their bodies are rich in lipids which makes them an ideal fish for these purposes.[26] The demand for fishmeal has increased with the rise of aquaculture over the last few decades.[21] Global production of farmed fish doubled between 1985-2000 and this created huge demands for fishmeal to feed the farmed fish. Raitt's sand eel alongside capelin and Norway pout are the primary species used for this purpose.[21]

Sand eels have been fished since the 1950s.[14] However, this was not done for industrial purposes until the 1970s when the fishing fleet for sand eel increased rapidly.[22] The Raitt's sand eel is the most abundant species of sand eel in these fisheries and makes up over 90% of the catch. In 1977 the sand eel fishery became the largest fishery in the North Sea, with landings regularly exceeding 1 million tonnes.[15] This high level of fishing caused a decline in stocks over time as the fishery became unsustainable.[5] This led to both financial losses for the fishing industry and negative environmental consequences.[6]

Raitt's sand eel fisheries are difficult to manage due to lack of population size data and regular population fluctuations. No catch predictions can be made for the fishery due to its instability.[11]

Environmental concerns edit

Sand eel fisheries produce a lot of bycatch due to the techniques used to collect them.[22] The netting used has a very small mesh size in order to catch the small Raitt's sand eel and larger species get caught in them. Common guillemot seabirds have repeatedly been found caught and killed in these nets and this has sparked concerns over the negative impacts of the fishery on the environment.

Fisheries of sand eel can also be harmful to seabird colonies. Fishing the Raitt's sand eel means there are less available to be eaten by the seabirds. Populations of Atlantic puffin and black-legged kittiwake have declined in response to decreased prey levels of sand eel in the sea.[19]

Fishery closure edit

 
An Atlantic puffin flying with sand eel in beak

As a result of overfishing of the Raitt's sand eel the sand eel fishery in the North Sea off the coast of Scotland was closed down in 2000.[27] An observed decline in Atlantic puffins was linked to reduced numbers of sand eel prey and the fishery was closed in the hope to recover the puffin population. After the closure the numbers of Raitt's sand eel increased and benefited many top predators including the black-legged kittiwake.[17] The fishery continues to be closed except for a small area carefully managed to make assessments of the sand eel stock.[2] These previous problems with Raitt's sand eel fisheries and the concerns for seabirds, commercially valuable fish and marine mammals have led to calls for better management and monitoring of sand eel abundance.[22]

Controversy edit

The impacts of intense Raitt's sand eel fishing has been debated.[26] Census data has shown that seabird populations as a whole are not negatively impacted by sand eel fisheries. Some has suggested that the observed declines in seabirds such as puffins were isolated incidences that do not represent the whole population.[26]

Conservation status edit

The Raitt's sand eel is currently not assessed by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[28]

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2016). "Ammodytes marinus" in FishBase. January 2016 version.
  2. ^ a b c Heath, M. R., Rasmussen, J., Bailey, M. C., Dunn, J., Fraser, J., Gallego, A., Hay, S. J., Inglis, M. & Robinson, S. (2012). "Larval mortality rates and population dynamics of Lesser Sandeel (Ammodytes marinus) in the northwestern North Sea" (PDF). Journal of Marine Systems. 93: 47–57. Bibcode:2012JMS....93...47H. doi:10.1016/j.jmarsys.2011.08.010.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ a b Orr, J. W., Wildes, S., Kai, Y., Raring, N., Nakabo, T., Katugin, O. & Guyon, J. (2015). "Systematics of North Pacific sand lances of the genus Ammodytes based on molecular and morphological evidence, with the description of a new species from Japan". Fishery Bulletin. 113 (2): 129–156. doi:10.7755/fb.113.2.3.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Nelson, JS; Grande, TC & Wilson, MVH (2016). "Classification of fishes from Fishes of the World 5th Edition" (PDF). Retrieved 10 June 2018.
  5. ^ a b Kubilius, R., Ona, E. (2012). "Target strength and tilt-angle distribution of the lesser sandeel (Ammodytes marinus)". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 69 (6): 1099–1107. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fss093. hdl:11250/109435.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ a b c d Johnsen, E., Pedersen, R., Ona, E. (2009). "Size-dependent frequency response of sandeel schools". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 68 (1): 43–51. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsp091.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Whitehead, P.J.P; Bauchot, M-L.; Hureau, J-C.; Nielsen, J.; Tortonese, E. (1986). Fishes of the North-eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Paris: UNESCO.
  8. ^ Imamura, H. & Odani, K. (2013). "An overview of the phylogenetic relationships of the suborder Trachinoidei (Acanthomorpha: Perciformes". Ichthyological Research. 60 (1): 1–15. doi:10.1007/s10228-012-0304-0. S2CID 17615940.
  9. ^ Mitchell, A., McCarthy, E., Verspoor, E. (1998). "Discrimination of the North Atlantic lesser sandeels Ammodytes marinus, A. tobianus, A. dubius and Gymnammodytes semisquamatus by mitochondrial DNA restriction fragment patterns". Fisheries Research. 36 (1): 61–65. doi:10.1016/S0165-7836(98)00081-2.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Naevdal, G. & Thorkildsen, S. (2002). "Genetic studies on species composition and population structure of sand eels (Genera: Ammodytes, Hyperoplus and Gymnammodytes) in Norwegian waters". Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 18 (2): 124–126. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0426.2002.00310.x.
  11. ^ a b c d e Arnott, S.A, Ruxton, G.D. (2002). "Sandeel recruitment in the North Sea: demographic, climatic and trophic effects". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 238: 199–210. Bibcode:2002MEPS..238..199A. doi:10.3354/meps238199.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ a b c van Deurs, M., Hartvig, M. & Steffensen, J. F. (2011). "Critical threshold size for overwintering sandeels (Ammodytes marinus)". Marine Biology. 158 (12): 2755–2764. doi:10.1007/s00227-011-1774-8. S2CID 14127035.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ a b Pedersen, S.A., Lewy, P., Wright, P. (1999). "Assessments of the lesser sandeel (Ammodytes marinus) in the North Sea based on revised stock divisions". Fisheries Research. 41 (3): 221–241. doi:10.1016/S0165-7836(99)00026-0.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ a b c van Deurs, M., van Hal, R., Tomczak, M. T., Jonasdottir, S. H. & Dolmer, P. (2009). "Recruitment of lesser sandeel Ammodytes marinus in relation to density dependence and zooplankton composition". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 381: 249–258. Bibcode:2009MEPS..381..249V. doi:10.3354/meps07960.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ a b Wright, P., Jensen, H. & Tuck, I. (2000). "The influence of sediment type on the distribution of the lesser sandeel, Ammodytes marinus". Journal of Sea Research. 44 (3–4): 243–256. Bibcode:2000JSR....44..243W. doi:10.1016/S1385-1101(00)00050-2. S2CID 84140625.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Pinto, J. M., Pearson, W. H. & Anderson, J. W. (1984). "Sediment Preferences and Oil Contamination in the Pacific Sand Lance Ammodytes hexapterus". Marine Biology. 83 (2): 129–156. doi:10.1007/bf00394728. S2CID 84127519.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ a b c Daunt, F., Wanless, S., Greenstreet, S. P. R., Jensen, H., Hamer, K. C. & Harris, M. P. (2008). "The impact of the sandeel fishery closure on seabird food consumption, distribution, and productivity in the northwestern North Sea" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 65 (3): 362–381. doi:10.1139/F07-164. S2CID 55086717.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Laugier, F., Feunteun, E., Pecheyran, C. & Carpentier, A. (2015). "Life history of the Small Sandeel, Ammodytes tobianus, inferred from otolith microchemistry. A methodological approach". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 165: 237–246. Bibcode:2015ECSS..165..237L. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2015.05.022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ a b Frederiksen, M., Wanless, S., Harris, M. P., Rothery, P. & Wilson, L. J. (2004). "The role of industrial fisheries and oceanographic change in the decline of North Sea black-legged kittiwakes". Journal of Applied Ecology. 41 (6): 1129–1139. doi:10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00966.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Wright, P.J., Begg, G.S. (1997). "A spatial comparison of common guillemots and sandeels in Scottish waters". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 54 (4): 578–592. doi:10.1006/jmsc.1997.0245.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ a b c Naylor, R., Goldburg, R., Primavera, J., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M., Clay, J., Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. & Troell, M. (2000). "Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies". Nature. 405 (6790): 1017–1024. Bibcode:2000Natur.405.1017N. doi:10.1038/35016500. hdl:10862/1737. PMID 10890435. S2CID 4411053.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ a b c d e Tasker, M. L., Camphuysen, C. J., Cooper, J., Garthe, S., Montevecchi, W. A. & Blaber, S. J. M. (2000). "The impacts of fishing on marine birds". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 57 (3): 531–547. doi:10.1006/jmsc.2000.0714.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Boulcott, P. & Wright, P. J. (2008). "Critical timing for reproductive allocation in a capital breeder: evidence from sandeel". Aquatic Biology. 3 (1): 31–40. doi:10.3354/ab00063.
  24. ^ Winslade, P. (1974). "Behavioral-Studies on Lesser Sandeel Ammodytes marinus (Raitt) .3. Effect of Temperature on Activity and Environmental-Control of Annual Cycle of Activity". Journal of Fish Biology. 6 (5): 587–599. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1974.tb05102.x.
  25. ^ Macer, C.T. (1965). "The distribution of larval sandeels (Ammodytidae) in the southern North Sea". Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 45 (1): 187–207. doi:10.1017/s0025315400004070. S2CID 84439403.
  26. ^ a b c Furness, R.W. (2002). "Management implications of interactions between fisheries and sandeel-dependent seabirds and seals in the North Sea". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 59 (2): 261–269. doi:10.1006/jmsc.2001.1155.
  27. ^ Greenstreet, S. P. R., Armstrong, E., Mosegaard, H., Jensen, H., Gibb, I. M., Fraser, H. M., Scott, B. E., Holland, G. J. & Sharples, J. (2006). "Variation in the abundance of sandeels Ammodytes marinus off southeast Scotland: an evaluation of area-closure fisheries management and stock abundance assessment methods". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 63 (8): 1530–1550. doi:10.1016/j.icesjms.2006.05.009.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". 22 March 2016.

January 01, 1970
raitt, sand, ammodytes, marinus, also, known, lesser, sand, small, semi, pelagic, finned, fish, found, north, atlantic, ocean, member, family, ammodytidae, which, includes, species, sand, eels, often, referred, sand, lances, contrary, their, name, sand, eels, . Raitt s sand eel Ammodytes marinus also known as the lesser sand eel is a small semi pelagic ray finned fish found in the North Atlantic Ocean 1 2 The Raitt s sand eel is member of the family Ammodytidae which includes all 31 species of sand eels often referred to as sand lances 3 Contrary to their name sand eels including Raitt s sand eel are not true eels and instead belong to the order of weever like fishes the Trachiniformes 4 1 Raitt s sand eel Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Actinopterygii Order Trachiniformes Family Ammodytidae Genus Ammodytes Species A marinus Binomial name Ammodytes marinusRaitt 1934 Contents 1 Description 2 Evolution 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Population 5 Ecology 5 1 Behaviour 5 2 Life cycle 6 Commercial uses 6 1 Environmental concerns 6 2 Fishery closure 6 3 Controversy 7 Conservation status 8 ReferencesDescription editThe Raitt s sand eel is a small elongated fish that is usually about 20 cm long 5 The maximum length reported for this species of sand eel is 25 cm 1 They are silver all over with darker scales on their dorsal side 6 Raitt s sand eels have a short tail fin that is deeply forked They have a long and low dorsal fin that is twice as long as the tail fin and runs along almost the entire body The scales on their underside are arranged randomly instead of in a distinct pattern as in many other fish 1 The Raitt s sand eel has a pointed jaw where the lower jaw projects further than the upper jaw 7 It is difficult to distinguish this species from the other members in its genus Ammodytes as they are all very similar in appearance 2 Evolution editThe evolutionary history of the Raitt s sand eel is still debated and its exact relationship to the other members of its order Perciformes is unknown There is currently no universally accepted phylogeny for the Raitt s sand eel s suborder the Trachinoidei 8 Distribution and habitat editThe Raitt s sand eel is found across the Northeast Atlantic Ocean and is particularly abundant in the North Sea 9 They live in both the shallow open ocean and coastal waters 6 Four other species of sand eel are also distributed in this part of the Atlantic 10 The fisheries here are dominated by Raitt s sand eel suggesting the Raitt s sand eel is the most abundant in the area The southern boundary of the Raitt s sand eel is predicted to move further North in the future due to climate change 11 The Raitt s sand eel survives better in cooler waters and may move North to avoid warming sea temperatures Sand eels live amongst sandy sediment of the sea bed where they spend most of the year burrowed avoiding predators 3 They are also found living in bedrock and kelp habitats Sandbanks are the most important habitat for the sand eel as they are used as nursery spawning and resting grounds 12 Raitt s sand eels live in turbulent areas of the ocean and do not live in depths below 100m 13 Raitt s sand eel have very specific habitat requirements They are specialised to live in waters high in oxygen but with low levels of silt and clay 14 These requirements mean the Raitt s sand eel is found in distinct patches across the North Atlantic and instead of one continuous population 15 Population editDue to their lifestyle it has been very difficult to estimate the population size of the Raitt s sand eel Most monitoring techniques are inappropriate and cannot detect the burrowed sand eels 16 nbsp A black legged kittiwake flying above the sea Biological indicators or bioindicators are now being used to assess the size of the Raitt s sand eel population 17 The main indicator used for sand eels are black legged kittiwake seabirds These coastal breeding birds are heavily reliant on sand eels and therefore their population size changes in response to the amount of Raitt s sand eel present This can give a lot of information about the abundance of sand eels in the area 17 The Raitt s sand eel is known from fishing records to have regular population fluctuations Overfishing climate change and food web effects have all been shown to have contributed to these fluctuations 11 As the Raitt s sand eel is found in the North Atlantic Ocean its climate is altered by the North Atlantic Oscillation This weather fluctuation can alter the recruitment of sand eel Warmer temperatures decrease the number of sand eel juveniles that survive to adulthood and so yearly changes to temperature can cause fluctuating population size Changes to the abundance of species connected to the Raitt s sand eel in the food web has also caused variable population size Calanus copepods are an important prey item for sand eels The population of Raitt s sand eel has been related to changes in the availability of this prey Young Raitt s sand eels have lower survival when copepods are less abundant 11 Ecology editThe Raitt s sand eel is a keystone species in the North Sea food web 18 They are the prey of a significant number of species including seabirds marine mammals and larger fish 19 Seabirds in particular rely heavily on the Raitt s sand eel to feed their chicks When the sand eels leave their burrows to feed seabirds dive into the water to catch them and then return to their nests Atlantic puffin black legged kittiwake common guillemot and razorbills are all known predators of this species Common guillemots feed exclusively on Raitt s sand eel during the breeding season 20 In the sea many larger fish species prey on the Raitt s sand eel including cod haddock whiting saithe and mackerel 13 Many of these are very commercially valuable species and declines in sand eel have caused declines in their numbers due to lack of prey 21 Marine mammals also feed on Raitt s sand eels but less regularly Mostly species such as grey seals harbour seals and harbour porpoise consume many sand eels in the spring and early summer 22 Raitt s sand eels feed mainly on zooplankton 23 By consuming zooplankton they act as a link through to the higher trophic level predators that eat sand eels Behaviour edit Sand eel species switch between open water swimming and burying themselves in the sand to avoid nearby predators 12 When they are not burrowed they live in shoal formations 12 They spend most of the winter burrowed in the sediment but then enter the open water between March and June to feed as the abundance of prey increases 24 Even in the summer months when Raitt s sand eels emerge to feed they still burrow in the sand in the night 6 Life cycle edit Raitt s sand eels breed in December and January when they briefly leave their winter burrows in the sediment 25 They lay their eggs in the sand which incubate there until they hatch in February and March The hatched sand eels live in the open water above the sediment until metamorphosis After this they return to burrow in the sediment 14 Most Raitt s sand eels live for only 3 or 4 years as they have a high level of natural death 11 Commercial uses edit nbsp An open water aquaculture fish farm All species of sand eels are used extensively in the fish oil and fishmeal industries 22 Their bodies are rich in lipids which makes them an ideal fish for these purposes 26 The demand for fishmeal has increased with the rise of aquaculture over the last few decades 21 Global production of farmed fish doubled between 1985 2000 and this created huge demands for fishmeal to feed the farmed fish Raitt s sand eel alongside capelin and Norway pout are the primary species used for this purpose 21 Sand eels have been fished since the 1950s 14 However this was not done for industrial purposes until the 1970s when the fishing fleet for sand eel increased rapidly 22 The Raitt s sand eel is the most abundant species of sand eel in these fisheries and makes up over 90 of the catch In 1977 the sand eel fishery became the largest fishery in the North Sea with landings regularly exceeding 1 million tonnes 15 This high level of fishing caused a decline in stocks over time as the fishery became unsustainable 5 This led to both financial losses for the fishing industry and negative environmental consequences 6 Raitt s sand eel fisheries are difficult to manage due to lack of population size data and regular population fluctuations No catch predictions can be made for the fishery due to its instability 11 Environmental concerns edit Sand eel fisheries produce a lot of bycatch due to the techniques used to collect them 22 The netting used has a very small mesh size in order to catch the small Raitt s sand eel and larger species get caught in them Common guillemot seabirds have repeatedly been found caught and killed in these nets and this has sparked concerns over the negative impacts of the fishery on the environment Fisheries of sand eel can also be harmful to seabird colonies Fishing the Raitt s sand eel means there are less available to be eaten by the seabirds Populations of Atlantic puffin and black legged kittiwake have declined in response to decreased prey levels of sand eel in the sea 19 Fishery closure edit nbsp An Atlantic puffin flying with sand eel in beak As a result of overfishing of the Raitt s sand eel the sand eel fishery in the North Sea off the coast of Scotland was closed down in 2000 27 An observed decline in Atlantic puffins was linked to reduced numbers of sand eel prey and the fishery was closed in the hope to recover the puffin population After the closure the numbers of Raitt s sand eel increased and benefited many top predators including the black legged kittiwake 17 The fishery continues to be closed except for a small area carefully managed to make assessments of the sand eel stock 2 These previous problems with Raitt s sand eel fisheries and the concerns for seabirds commercially valuable fish and marine mammals have led to calls for better management and monitoring of sand eel abundance 22 Controversy edit The impacts of intense Raitt s sand eel fishing has been debated 26 Census data has shown that seabird populations as a whole are not negatively impacted by sand eel fisheries Some has suggested that the observed declines in seabirds such as puffins were isolated incidences that do not represent the whole population 26 Conservation status editThe Raitt s sand eel is currently not assessed by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 28 References edit a b c d Froese Rainer Pauly Daniel eds 2016 Ammodytes marinus in FishBase January 2016 version a b c Heath M R Rasmussen J Bailey M C Dunn J Fraser J Gallego A Hay S J Inglis M amp Robinson S 2012 Larval mortality rates and population dynamics of Lesser Sandeel Ammodytes marinus in the northwestern North Sea PDF Journal of Marine Systems 93 47 57 Bibcode 2012JMS 93 47H doi 10 1016 j jmarsys 2011 08 010 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Orr J W Wildes S Kai Y Raring N Nakabo T Katugin O amp Guyon J 2015 Systematics of North Pacific sand lances of the genus Ammodytes based on molecular and morphological evidence with the description of a new species from Japan Fishery Bulletin 113 2 129 156 doi 10 7755 fb 113 2 3 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Nelson JS Grande TC amp Wilson MVH 2016 Classification of fishes from Fishes of the World 5th Edition PDF Retrieved 10 June 2018 a b Kubilius R Ona E 2012 Target strength and tilt angle distribution of the lesser sandeel Ammodytes marinus ICES Journal of Marine Science 69 6 1099 1107 doi 10 1093 icesjms fss093 hdl 11250 109435 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c d Johnsen E Pedersen R Ona E 2009 Size dependent frequency response of sandeel schools ICES Journal of Marine Science 68 1 43 51 doi 10 1093 icesjms fsp091 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Whitehead P J P Bauchot M L Hureau J C Nielsen J Tortonese E 1986 Fishes of the North eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean Paris UNESCO Imamura H amp Odani K 2013 An overview of the phylogenetic relationships of the suborder Trachinoidei Acanthomorpha Perciformes Ichthyological Research 60 1 1 15 doi 10 1007 s10228 012 0304 0 S2CID 17615940 Mitchell A McCarthy E Verspoor E 1998 Discrimination of the North Atlantic lesser sandeels Ammodytes marinus A tobianus A dubius and Gymnammodytes semisquamatus by mitochondrial DNA restriction fragment patterns Fisheries Research 36 1 61 65 doi 10 1016 S0165 7836 98 00081 2 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Naevdal G amp Thorkildsen S 2002 Genetic studies on species composition and population structure of sand eels Genera Ammodytes Hyperoplus and Gymnammodytes in Norwegian waters Journal of Applied Ichthyology 18 2 124 126 doi 10 1046 j 1439 0426 2002 00310 x a b c d e Arnott S A Ruxton G D 2002 Sandeel recruitment in the North Sea demographic climatic and trophic effects Marine Ecology Progress Series 238 199 210 Bibcode 2002MEPS 238 199A doi 10 3354 meps238199 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c van Deurs M Hartvig M amp Steffensen J F 2011 Critical threshold size for overwintering sandeels Ammodytes marinus Marine Biology 158 12 2755 2764 doi 10 1007 s00227 011 1774 8 S2CID 14127035 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Pedersen S A Lewy P Wright P 1999 Assessments of the lesser sandeel Ammodytes marinus in the North Sea based on revised stock divisions Fisheries Research 41 3 221 241 doi 10 1016 S0165 7836 99 00026 0 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c van Deurs M van Hal R Tomczak M T Jonasdottir S H amp Dolmer P 2009 Recruitment of lesser sandeel Ammodytes marinus in relation to density dependence and zooplankton composition Marine Ecology Progress Series 381 249 258 Bibcode 2009MEPS 381 249V doi 10 3354 meps07960 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Wright P Jensen H amp Tuck I 2000 The influence of sediment type on the distribution of the lesser sandeel Ammodytes marinus Journal of Sea Research 44 3 4 243 256 Bibcode 2000JSR 44 243W doi 10 1016 S1385 1101 00 00050 2 S2CID 84140625 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Pinto J M Pearson W H amp Anderson J W 1984 Sediment Preferences and Oil Contamination in the Pacific Sand Lance Ammodytes hexapterus Marine Biology 83 2 129 156 doi 10 1007 bf00394728 S2CID 84127519 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c Daunt F Wanless S Greenstreet S P R Jensen H Hamer K C amp Harris M P 2008 The impact of the sandeel fishery closure on seabird food consumption distribution and productivity in the northwestern North Sea PDF Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 65 3 362 381 doi 10 1139 F07 164 S2CID 55086717 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Laugier F Feunteun E Pecheyran C amp Carpentier A 2015 Life history of the Small Sandeel Ammodytes tobianus inferred from otolith microchemistry A methodological approach Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 165 237 246 Bibcode 2015ECSS 165 237L doi 10 1016 j ecss 2015 05 022 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Frederiksen M Wanless S Harris M P Rothery P amp Wilson L J 2004 The role of industrial fisheries and oceanographic change in the decline of North Sea black legged kittiwakes Journal of Applied Ecology 41 6 1129 1139 doi 10 1111 j 0021 8901 2004 00966 x a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Wright P J Begg G S 1997 A spatial comparison of common guillemots and sandeels in Scottish waters ICES Journal of Marine Science 54 4 578 592 doi 10 1006 jmsc 1997 0245 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c Naylor R Goldburg R Primavera J Kautsky N Beveridge M Clay J Folke C Lubchenco J Mooney H amp Troell M 2000 Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies Nature 405 6790 1017 1024 Bibcode 2000Natur 405 1017N doi 10 1038 35016500 hdl 10862 1737 PMID 10890435 S2CID 4411053 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c d e Tasker M L Camphuysen C J Cooper J Garthe S Montevecchi W A amp Blaber S J M 2000 The impacts of fishing on marine birds ICES Journal of Marine Science 57 3 531 547 doi 10 1006 jmsc 2000 0714 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Boulcott P amp Wright P J 2008 Critical timing for reproductive allocation in a capital breeder evidence from sandeel Aquatic Biology 3 1 31 40 doi 10 3354 ab00063 Winslade P 1974 Behavioral Studies on Lesser Sandeel Ammodytes marinus Raitt 3 Effect of Temperature on Activity and Environmental Control of Annual Cycle of Activity Journal of Fish Biology 6 5 587 599 doi 10 1111 j 1095 8649 1974 tb05102 x Macer C T 1965 The distribution of larval sandeels Ammodytidae in the southern North Sea Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 45 1 187 207 doi 10 1017 s0025315400004070 S2CID 84439403 a b c Furness R W 2002 Management implications of interactions between fisheries and sandeel dependent seabirds and seals in the North Sea ICES Journal of Marine Science 59 2 261 269 doi 10 1006 jmsc 2001 1155 Greenstreet S P R Armstrong E Mosegaard H Jensen H Gibb I M Fraser H M Scott B E Holland G J amp Sharples J 2006 Variation in the abundance of sandeels Ammodytes marinus off southeast Scotland an evaluation of area closure fisheries management and stock abundance assessment methods ICES Journal of Marine Science 63 8 1530 1550 doi 10 1016 j icesjms 2006 05 009 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 22 March 2016 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Raitt 27s sand eel amp oldid 1208041827, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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