Pteropoda encompasses the two cladesThecosomata, the sea butterflies, and Gymnosomata, the sea angels. The Thecosomata (lit. "case-body"[3]) have a shell, while the Gymnosomata ("naked body") do not. The two clades may or may not be sister taxa; if not, their similarity (in that they are both pelagic, small, and transparent, and both groups swim using wing-like flaps (parapodia) which protrude from their bodies) may reflect adaptation to their particular lifestyle.
In 1824, Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville named these two groups Gymnosomata and Thecosomata and named the combining order Aporobranchia instead of Pteropoda.[5] He rejected the additional genera, except Phyllirhoë which he upgraded to a third group that he called Psilosomata. Only much later was Phyllirhoë classified within the order Nudibranchia.
Other attempts were made to describe the Pteropoda. John Edward Gray divided the Pteropoda into Dactylobranchia (with just the genus Cavolinia) and Pterobranchia (including all the other genera).[6] Cuvier (and his followers) did not accept the classification by de Blainville; they preferred the original classification as described in Le Règne Animal.
In 1829, Paul Rang followed the Cuvierian classification but tried to include the character of having a distinct head or not.[7] The German naturalist Lorenz Oken went one step further and, for the sake of symmetry, wanted each order to contain four families and each family to contain four genera.[8]Pierre André Latreille divided the Pteropoda according to the size of their fins: "Macroptérygiens" (including only Pneumonoderma) and "Microptérygiens" (including all the others). In 1851, William Bullock Clark treated the Pteropoda as a family and emended the spelling to Pteropodidae (a name now used for a family of fruit bats)
Finally, all these attempts were abandoned and, as more and more species were described as a result of several scientific expeditions, the classification of the Pteropoda into Thecosomata and Gymnosomata was generally adopted. Many of these new species were first described by French zoologists, for example, Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard, Paul Rang, Alcide d'Orbigny and Louis François Auguste Souleyet.
The relationship between these two clades is not unequivocally established, but it seems that they are sister taxa.[2]
Evolutionary history
Pteropods are estimated to have originated during the Early Cretaceous, around 133 million years ago, with the diversification into the major lineages occurring during the mid-late Cretaceous. The oldest known fossil pteropod is a member of Limacinidae from the early-middle Campanian deposits of the San Juan Islands.[9][10]
A study was conducted on the West Coast of the United States to see ocean acidification's effects on pteropods.[12]Limacina helicina was used to test the sensitivity to decreasing pH.[12] This species of pteropod is potentially vulnerable to the corrosive waters associated with ocean acidification due to their calcium carbonate shell.[13] The shell of a pteropod was immersed in ocean water with the projected pH level that the water will reach by the year 2100. After a month and a half in the water, the shell had almost completely dissolved.[12]
Distribution
Pteropods are found in all major oceans, usually 0–10 metres (0–33 ft) below the ocean surface and in all levels of latitude. Pteropods can be found lower than 10 meters, but in less amounts in terms of biomass, however, pteropod distribution is more spread out deeper based on findings. This can be explained as Pteropods from tropical areas become more common in deeper areas. They are not found commonly in the deep sea, in fact, few live lower than 500 meters below sea level. Continental shelves, areas containing many opportunities for nutrients, and productivity are locations in which Pteropods are usually populous, according to patterns in data. Springtime is a peak season for pteropoda, as they reach higher populations, though data shows that pteropoda south of the equator are less abundant seasonally. In addition, current data suggests that 93% of the world's pteropods are part of the Thecosomata family, while the 7% are Gymnosomata.[14]
References
^Wägele, Heike; Klussmann-Kolb, Annette; Verbeek, Eva; Schrödl, Michael (2013). "Flashback and foreshadowing—a review of the taxon Opisthobranchia". Organisms Diversity & Evolution. 14: 133–149. doi:10.1007/s13127-013-0151-5.
^ abKlussmann-Kolb, A.; Dinapoli, A. (2006). "Systematic position of the pelagic Thecosomata and Gymnosomata within Opisthobranchia (Mollusca, Gastropoda) - revival of the Pteropoda". Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research. 44 (2): 118. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0469.2006.00351.x.
^Manuel de l'histoire naturelle des mollusques et leurs coquilles
^Description d'un genre nouveau de la classe des Ptéropodes, Ann. d. &i. Nat., ser. 1, t. V. p. 284, 1825.
^Peijnenburg, Katja T. C. A.; Janssen, Arie W.; Wall-Palmer, Deborah; Goetze, Erica; Maas, Amy E.; Todd, Jonathan A.; Marlétaz, Ferdinand (2020-10-13). "The origin and diversification of pteropods precede past perturbations in the Earth's carbon cycle". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (41): 25609–25617. doi:10.1073/pnas.1920918117. PMC7568333. PMID 32973093.
^A. W. Janssen, J. L. Goedert, Notes on the systematics, morphology and biostratigraphy of fossil holoplanktonic Mollusca, 24. First observation of a genuinely Late Mesozoic thecosomatous pteropod. Basteria 80, 59–63 (2016)
^Peijnenburg, Katja T. C. A.; Janssen, Arie W.; Wall-Palmer, Deborah; Goetze, Erica; Maas, Amy E.; Todd, Jonathan A.; Marlétaz, Ferdinand (2020-09-24). "The origin and diversification of pteropods precede past perturbations in the Earth's carbon cycle". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (41): 25609–25617. doi:10.1073/pnas.1920918117. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC7568333. PMID 32973093.
^ abcBednaršek, N.; Feely, R. A.; Reum, J. C. P.; Peterson, B.; Menkel, J.; Alin, S. R.; Hales, B. (2014). "Limacina helicina shell dissolution as an indicator of declining habitat suitability owing to ocean acidification in the California Current Ecosystem". Proc. R. Soc. B. 281 (1785): 20140123. doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.0123. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC4024287. PMID 24789895.
^Comeau, S.; Gorsky, G.; Jeffree, R.; Teyssié, J.-L.; Gattuso, J.-P. (2009-09-04). "Impact of ocean acidification on a key Arctic pelagic mollusc (Limacina helicina)". Biogeosciences. 6 (9): 1877–1882. doi:10.5194/bg-6-1877-2009. ISSN 1726-4189.
^N. Bednaršek, J. Možina, M. Vogt, C. O'Brien, and G. A. Tarling (10 Dec 2012). "The global distribution of pteropods and their contribution to carbonate and carbon biomass in the modern ocean". Earth System Science Data. 4 (1): 167–186. doi:10.5194/essd-4-167-2012. hdl:20.500.11850/60379. Retrieved 18 June 2018.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
External links
Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition auf dem Dampfer "Valdivia" 1898-1899. Part 9 Atlas by German planktologist Carl Chun
Alice K. Burridge, Christine Hörnlein, Arie W. Janssen, Martin Hughes, Stephanie L. Bush, Ferdinand Marlétaz, Rebeca Gasca, Annelies C. Pierrot-Bults, Ellinor Michel, Jonathan A. Todd, Jeremy R. Young, Karen J. Osborn, Steph B. J. Menken, Katja T. C. A. Peijnenburg : Time-calibrated molecular phylogeny of pteropods; PLOS|ONE, June 12, 2017
March 04, 2023
pteropoda, confused, with, theropoda, dinosaurs, pteropodidae, megabats, pterosaur, extinct, flying, reptiles, common, name, pteropods, from, greek, meaning, wing, foot, specialized, free, swimming, pelagic, snails, slugs, marine, opisthobranch, gastropods, mo. Not to be confused with Theropoda dinosaurs Pteropodidae megabats or Pterosaur extinct flying reptiles Pteropoda common name pteropods from the Greek meaning wing foot are specialized free swimming pelagic sea snails and sea slugs marine opisthobranch gastropods Most live in the top 10 m of the ocean and are less than 1 cm long The monophyly of Pteropoda is the subject of a lengthy debate they have even been considered as paraphyletic with respect to cephalopods 1 Current consensus guided by molecular studies leans towards interpreting the group as monophyletic 2 PteropodaTemporal range Campanian Recent PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg NA sea angel of the species Clione limacinaScientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum MolluscaClass GastropodaSubclass HeterobranchiaInformal group OpisthobranchiaOrder PteropodaCuvier 1804Pteropoda encompasses the two clades Thecosomata the sea butterflies and Gymnosomata the sea angels The Thecosomata lit case body 3 have a shell while the Gymnosomata naked body do not The two clades may or may not be sister taxa if not their similarity in that they are both pelagic small and transparent and both groups swim using wing like flaps parapodia which protrude from their bodies may reflect adaptation to their particular lifestyle Contents 1 Taxonomy 2 Evolutionary history 3 Phylogeny 4 Threats 4 1 Vulnerability to ocean acidification 5 Distribution 6 References 7 External linksTaxonomy EditThe group Pteropoda was established by Georges Cuvier as pteropodes in 1804 4 Francois Peron and Charles Alexandre Lesueur thought the group to be larger and so they also included the opisthobranch taxa Phyllirhoe and Glaucus the heteropoda taxa Carinaria and Firola and even the Ctenophora Callianira In 1810 these authors divided the whole group in two separate groups those with a shell and those without a shell In 1824 Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville named these two groups Gymnosomata and Thecosomata and named the combining order Aporobranchia instead of Pteropoda 5 He rejected the additional genera except Phyllirhoe which he upgraded to a third group that he called Psilosomata Only much later was Phyllirhoe classified within the order Nudibranchia Other attempts were made to describe the Pteropoda John Edward Gray divided the Pteropoda into Dactylobranchia with just the genus Cavolinia and Pterobranchia including all the other genera 6 Cuvier and his followers did not accept the classification by de Blainville they preferred the original classification as described in Le Regne Animal In 1829 Paul Rang followed the Cuvierian classification but tried to include the character of having a distinct head or not 7 The German naturalist Lorenz Oken went one step further and for the sake of symmetry wanted each order to contain four families and each family to contain four genera 8 Pierre Andre Latreille divided the Pteropoda according to the size of their fins Macropterygiens including only Pneumonoderma and Micropterygiens including all the others In 1851 William Bullock Clark treated the Pteropoda as a family and emended the spelling to Pteropodidae a name now used for a family of fruit bats Finally all these attempts were abandoned and as more and more species were described as a result of several scientific expeditions the classification of the Pteropoda into Thecosomata and Gymnosomata was generally adopted Many of these new species were first described by French zoologists for example Jean Rene Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard Paul Rang Alcide d Orbigny and Louis Francois Auguste Souleyet The relationship between these two clades is not unequivocally established but it seems that they are sister taxa 2 Evolutionary history EditPteropods are estimated to have originated during the Early Cretaceous around 133 million years ago with the diversification into the major lineages occurring during the mid late Cretaceous The oldest known fossil pteropod is a member of Limacinidae from the early middle Campanian deposits of the San Juan Islands 9 10 Phylogeny EditCladogram of genera and species of pteropods Pteropoda Gymnosomata Clione antarctica Pneumodermopsis spe Spongiobranchaea australis Pneumoderma violaceum Thecosomata Pseudothecosomata Cymbulia sibogae Peracle reticulata Euthecosomata Limacinoidea Heliconoides inflatus Cavolinioidea Limacina retroversa Limacina antarctica Limacina lesueurii Limacina trochiformis Limacina bulimoides Creseis acicula Creseis virgula Styliola subula Hyalocylis striata Clio pyramidata Cuvierina atlantica Clio cuspidata Diacavolinia longirostris Cavolinia inflexa Diacria danae Diacria trispinosaThe phylogenetic tree has been inferred from 2 654 nuclear proteins representing 834 394 concatenated amino acid positions 11 Threats EditVulnerability to ocean acidification Edit Unhealthy pteropod showing effects of ocean acidification Main article Ocean acidification A study was conducted on the West Coast of the United States to see ocean acidification s effects on pteropods 12 Limacina helicina was used to test the sensitivity to decreasing pH 12 This species of pteropod is potentially vulnerable to the corrosive waters associated with ocean acidification due to their calcium carbonate shell 13 The shell of a pteropod was immersed in ocean water with the projected pH level that the water will reach by the year 2100 After a month and a half in the water the shell had almost completely dissolved 12 Distribution EditPteropods are found in all major oceans usually 0 10 metres 0 33 ft below the ocean surface and in all levels of latitude Pteropods can be found lower than 10 meters but in less amounts in terms of biomass however pteropod distribution is more spread out deeper based on findings This can be explained as Pteropods from tropical areas become more common in deeper areas They are not found commonly in the deep sea in fact few live lower than 500 meters below sea level Continental shelves areas containing many opportunities for nutrients and productivity are locations in which Pteropods are usually populous according to patterns in data Springtime is a peak season for pteropoda as they reach higher populations though data shows that pteropoda south of the equator are less abundant seasonally In addition current data suggests that 93 of the world s pteropods are part of the Thecosomata family while the 7 are Gymnosomata 14 References Edit Wagele Heike Klussmann Kolb Annette Verbeek Eva Schrodl Michael 2013 Flashback and foreshadowing a review of the taxon Opisthobranchia Organisms Diversity amp Evolution 14 133 149 doi 10 1007 s13127 013 0151 5 a b Klussmann Kolb A Dinapoli A 2006 Systematic position of the pelagic Thecosomata and Gymnosomata within Opisthobranchia Mollusca Gastropoda revival of the Pteropoda Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 44 2 118 doi 10 1111 j 1439 0469 2006 00351 x theco Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press Subscription or participating institution membership required Memoire sur l Hyale et Ie Pneumoderme Ann Mus Hist Nat Paris 4 p 232 Diet d Sci Nat t xxxii p 271 London Medical Repository p 235 1821 Manuel de l histoire naturelle des mollusques et leurs coquilles Description d un genre nouveau de la classe des Pteropodes Ann d amp i Nat ser 1 t V p 284 1825 Peijnenburg Katja T C A Janssen Arie W Wall Palmer Deborah Goetze Erica Maas Amy E Todd Jonathan A Marletaz Ferdinand 2020 10 13 The origin and diversification of pteropods precede past perturbations in the Earth s carbon cycle Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117 41 25609 25617 doi 10 1073 pnas 1920918117 PMC 7568333 PMID 32973093 A W Janssen J L Goedert Notes on the systematics morphology and biostratigraphy of fossil holoplanktonic Mollusca 24 First observation of a genuinely Late Mesozoic thecosomatous pteropod Basteria 80 59 63 2016 Peijnenburg Katja T C A Janssen Arie W Wall Palmer Deborah Goetze Erica Maas Amy E Todd Jonathan A Marletaz Ferdinand 2020 09 24 The origin and diversification of pteropods precede past perturbations in the Earth s carbon cycle Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117 41 25609 25617 doi 10 1073 pnas 1920918117 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 7568333 PMID 32973093 a b c Bednarsek N Feely R A Reum J C P Peterson B Menkel J Alin S R Hales B 2014 Limacina helicina shell dissolution as an indicator of declining habitat suitability owing to ocean acidification in the California Current Ecosystem Proc R Soc B 281 1785 20140123 doi 10 1098 rspb 2014 0123 ISSN 0962 8452 PMC 4024287 PMID 24789895 Comeau S Gorsky G Jeffree R Teyssie J L Gattuso J P 2009 09 04 Impact of ocean acidification on a key Arctic pelagic mollusc Limacina helicina Biogeosciences 6 9 1877 1882 doi 10 5194 bg 6 1877 2009 ISSN 1726 4189 N Bednarsek J Mozina M Vogt C O Brien and G A Tarling 10 Dec 2012 The global distribution of pteropods and their contribution to carbonate and carbon biomass in the modern ocean Earth System Science Data 4 1 167 186 doi 10 5194 essd 4 167 2012 hdl 20 500 11850 60379 Retrieved 18 June 2018 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link External links EditWissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen Tiefsee Expedition auf dem Dampfer Valdivia 1898 1899 Part 9 Atlas by German planktologist Carl Chun Plankton Chronicles Short documentary films amp photos http www marinespecies org aphia php p taxdetails amp id 325345 Report of the Scientific results of the Voyage of the H M S Challenger 1873 1876 Zoology part LVIII 1887 Report on the Pteropoda by Paul Pelseneer Alice K Burridge Christine Hornlein Arie W Janssen Martin Hughes Stephanie L Bush Ferdinand Marletaz Rebeca Gasca Annelies C Pierrot Bults Ellinor Michel Jonathan A Todd Jeremy R Young Karen J Osborn Steph B J Menken Katja T C A Peijnenburg Time calibrated molecular phylogeny of pteropods PLOS ONE June 12 2017 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Pteropoda amp oldid 1136180166, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
