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Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II

February 13, 2024

Japanese propaganda in the period just before and during World War II, was designed to assist the regime in governing during that time. Many of its elements were continuous with pre-war themes of Shōwa statism, including the principles of kokutai, hakkō ichiu, and bushido. New forms of propaganda were developed to persuade occupied countries of the benefits of the Greater Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, to undermine American troops' morale, to counteract claims of Japanese atrocities, and to present the war to the Japanese people as victorious. It started with the Second Sino-Japanese War, which merged into World War II. It used a large variety of media to send its messages.

Poster of Manchukuo promoting harmony between Japanese, Chinese, and Manchu. The caption says: "With the help of Japan, China, and Manchukuo, the world can be at peace." The flags shown are, left to right: the flag of Manchukuo; the flag of Japan; the "Five Races Under One Union" flag, a flag of China at the time.

Films edit

 
Screenshot from the film Momotaro: Sacred Sailors, where Monkey and Puppy are saying goodbye.

The Film Law of 1939 decreed a "healthy development of the industry" which abolished sexually frivolous films and social issues.[1] Instead, films were to elevate national consciousness, present the national and international situation appropriately, and otherwise aid the "public welfare."[2]

The use of propaganda in World War II was extensive and far reaching but possibly the most effective form used by the Japanese government was film.[3] Japanese films were produced for a far wider range of audiences than American films of the same period.[4] From the 1920s onward, Japanese film studios produced films legitimizing the colonial project that were set in its colonies of Taiwan, Korea, and on the Chinese mainland.[5] By 1945 propaganda film production under the Japanese had expanded throughout the majority of their empire including Manchuria, Shanghai, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia.[5]

In China, Japan's use of propaganda films was extensive. After Japan's invasion of China, movie houses were among the first establishments to be reopened.[3] Most of the materials being shown were war news reels, Japanese motion pictures, or propaganda shorts paired with traditional Chinese films.[3] Movies were also used in other conquered Asian countries usually with the theme of Japan as Asia's savior against the Western tyrants or spoke of the history of friendly relations between the countries with films such as, The Japan You Don't Know.[6][7]

China's rich history and exotic locations made it a favorite topic of Japanese film makers for over a decade before the outbreak of the second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945).[5][6] Of particular note were a popular trio of "continental goodwill films" (大陸親善映画) set throughout the Chinese continent and starring Hasegawa Kazuo as the Japanese male romantic lead with Ri Kōran (Yoshiko Yamaguchi) as his Chinese love interest.[5] Among these films, Song of the White Orchid (1939, 白蘭の歌), China Nights (1940, 支那の夜), and Vow in the Desert (1940, 熱砂の誓い) mixed romantic melodrama with propaganda in order to represent a figurative and literal blending of the two cultures onscreen.[8]

‘National policy films’ or propaganda pictures used in World War II included combat films such as Mud and Soldiers (1939, 土と兵隊) and Five Scouts (1938, 五人の斥候兵), spy films such as The Spy isn't Dead (1942, 間諜未だ死せず) and They're After You (1942, あなたは狙われている) and lavish period pictures such as The Monkey King (1940, 孫悟空) and Genghis Khan (1943, 成吉斯汗).[5] In the early stages of the war with China, so-called "Humanistic war films" such as The Five Scouts attempted to depict the war without nationalism. But with Pearl Harbor, the Home Ministry demanded more patriotism and "national polity themes" – or war themes.[9] Japanese directors of war films set in China had to refrain from explicit anti-Chinese rhetoric. The risk of alienating the same cultures that the Japanese ostensibly were "liberating" from the yoke of Western colonial oppression was a powerful deterrent in addition to government pressure.[5] Even so, as the war in China worsened for Japan, action films such as The Tiger of Malay (1943, マライの虎) and espionage dramas like The Man From Chungking (1943, 重慶から来た男) more overtly criminalized Chinese as enemies of the Empire.[5] In contrast to its representations of China as antiquated and inflexible, Western nations were often portrayed as overindulgent and decadent.[10] Such negative stereotypes had to be adjusted when Japanese film makers were asked to collaborate with Nazi film crews on a number of Axis co-productions that followed the conclusion of the Tripartite Pact.[11]

As Westerners increasingly fought in the Pacific Theater, the Japanese directed their prejudices towards them too. In Fire on That Flag! (1944, あの旗を撃て！) the cowardice of the fleeing American military is juxtaposed with the moral supremacy of the imperial Japanese army during the occupation of the Philippines. Japan's first full-length animated feature film Momotarō: Divine Soldiers of the Sea (1945, 桃太郎海の神兵) similarly portrays the Americans and British in Singapore as morally decadent and physically weak "devils".[5] A sub-category of the costume picture is the samurai movie.[6] Themes used within these films include self-sacrifice and honor to the emperor.[10] Japanese films often did not shy away from the use of suffering, often portraying its troops as the underdog. This had the effect of making Japan look as though it was the victim inciting greater sympathy from its audience.[4] The propaganda pieces also often illustrated the Japanese people as pure and virtuous depicting them as superior both racially and morally.[10] The war is portrayed as continuous and is usually not adequately explained.[10]

Some other examples of propaganda films include Momotarō no Umiwashi and The Most Beautiful.

Magazines and newspapers edit

Magazines supported the war from its beginnings as the Second Sino-Japanese War with stories of heroism, tales of war widows, and advice on making do.[12]

 
Government censors at work

After the attack on Pearl Harbor, control tightened, aided by the patriotism of many reporters.[13] Magazines were told that the cause of the war was the enemy's egoistic desire to rule the world, and ordered, under the guise of requests, to promote anti-American and anti-British sentiment.[14] When Jun'ichirō Tanizaki began to serialize his novel Sasameyuki, a nostalgic account of pre-war family life, the editors of Chūōkōron were warned it did not contribute to the needed war spirit.[15] Despite Tanizaki's history of treating Westernization and modernization as corrupting, a "sentimental" tale of "bouregeoise family life" was not acceptable.[16] Fearful of losing supplies of paper, it cut off the serialization.[15] A year later Chūōkōron and Kaizō were forced to "voluntarily" dissolve after police beat confessions out of "Communist" staffers.[16]

Newspapers added columnists to whip up martial fervor.[17] Magazines were ordered to print militaristic slogans.[18] An article "Americanism as the Enemy" said that the Japanese should study American dynamism, stemming from its social structure, which was taken as praise despite the editor's having added "as the Enemy" to the title, and resulted in the withdrawal of the issue.[19]

Cartoons edit

 
Japanese propaganda in Jawi script found in the town of Kuching, Sarawak after the capture of the town by the Australian forces.
 
A caricature of Chiang Kai-shek put up in Ginza, Tokyo after the fall of Nanking.

Cartoonists formed a patriotic association to promote fighting spirit, stir up hatred of the enemy, and encourage people to economize.[20] A notable example was the Norakuro manga, which began pre-war as humorous episodes of anthropomorphic dogs in the army, but eventually developed into propaganda tales of military exploits against the "pigs army" on the "continent" - a thinly-veiled reference to the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Cartoons were also used to create informational papers, to instruct occupied populations, and also soldiers about the countries they occupied.[5][21]

Kamishibai edit

A form of propaganda unique to Japan was war themed Kamishibai "paper plays": a street performer uses Emakimono "picture scrolls" to convey the story of the play. Audiences typically included children who would buy candy from the street performer providing his source of income. Unlike American propaganda that often focused on the enemy, Japanese wartime "National Policy" Kamishibai usually focused on themes of self-sacrifice for the nation, the heroism of martyrs, or instructional messages such as how to respond to an air-raid warning.[22]

Books edit

The Shinmin no Michi or Path of Subjects described what the Japanese should aspire to be, and depicted Western culture as corrupt.[23]

The booklet Read This and the War is Won, printed for distribution to the army, not only discussed tropical fighting conditions but also why the army fought.[23] Colonialism was presented as a tiny group of colonists living in luxury by placing burdens on Asians; because ties of blood connected them to the Japanese, and Asians had been weakened by colonialism, it was Japan's place to "make men of them again."[24]

Textbooks edit

The Ministry of Education, led by a general, sent out propagandistic textbooks.[25] Military oversight of education was intense, with officers arriving at any time to inspect classes and sometimes rebuke the instructor before the class.[26]

Similarly, textbooks were revised in occupied China to instruct Chinese children in heroic Japanese figures.[27]

Education edit

Even prior to the war, military education treated science as a way to teach that the Japanese were a morally superior race, and history as teaching pride in Japan, with Japan not being only the most splendid nation, but the only splendid one.[28]

After the attack on Pearl Harbor, elementary schools were renamed "National Schools" and charged to produce "children of the Emperor" who would sacrifice themselves for the nation.[29] Children were marched to school where half their time was spent on indoctrination on loyalty to the emperor, and frugality, obedience, honesty, and diligence.[30] Teachers were instructed to teach "Japanese science" based on the "Imperial Way", which precluded evolution in view of their claims to divine descent.[31] Students were given more physical education and required to perform community service.[32] Compositions, drawings, calligraphy, and pageants were based on military themes.[33] Those who left school after completing six years were required to attend night school for Japanese history and ethics, military training for boys, and home economics for girls.[32]

As the war went on, teachers lay more emphasis on the children's destiny as warriors; when one child grew airsick on a swing, a teacher told him he would not be a good fighter pilot.[34] Pupils were shown caricatures of Americans and British to instruct them about their enemy.[34]

Girls graduating on Okinawa heard a speech by their principal on how they must work hard to avoid shaming the school before they were inducted into the Student Corps to act as nurses.[35]

Radio edit

 
Correspondents interview "Tokyo Rose" Iva Toguri, American-born Japanese, September 1945

News reports were required to be official state announcements, read exactly, and as the war in China went on, even entertainment programs addressed wartime conditions.[36]

The announcement of the war was made by radio, soon followed by an address from Tojo, who informed the people that in order to annihilate the enemy and ensure a stable Asia, a long war had to be anticipated.[37]

To take advantage of the radio's adaptability to events, "Morning Addresses" were made twice a month for schools.[26]

Short wave radios were used to broadcast anti-European propaganda to Southeast Asia even before the war.[38] Japan, fearful of foreign propaganda, had banned such receivers for Japanese, but built broadcasters for all the occupied countries to extol the benefits of Japanese rule and attack Europeans.[39] "Singing towers" or "singing trees" had loudspeakers on them to spread the broadcasts.[40]

Broadcasts to India urged revolt.[41]

Tokyo Rose's broadcasts were aimed at American troops.[41]

Negro propaganda operations edit

In an effort to exacerbate racial tensions in the United States, the Japanese enacted what was titled, "Negro Propaganda Operations."[42] This plan, created by Yasuichi Hikida, the director of Japanese propaganda for Black Americans, consisted of three areas.[42] First was gathering information pertaining to Black Americans and their struggles in America, second was the use of Black prisoners of war in the propaganda, and third was the use of short-wave radio broadcasts.[42] Through shortwave radio broadcasts, Japanese used their own radio announcers and African American POWs to spread propaganda to the United States. Broadcasts focused on U.S. news stories involving racial tension, such as the Detroit Race riots and lynchings.[43][44] For example, one broadcast commented, "notorious lynchings are a rare practice even among the most savage specimens of the human race."[42] In an effort to gain more listeners, POWs would be allowed to address family members back home.[43] The Japanese believed propaganda would be the most effective if they used African American POWs to communicate to African Americans back home. Using programs titled "Conversations about Real Black POW Experiences" and "Humanity Calls", POWs would speak on the conditions of war, and their treatment in the military. POWs with artistic strengths were used in plays and or songs that were broadcast back home.[42] The success of this propaganda is much debated, as only a small minority of people in America had shortwave radios.[43] Even so, some scholars believe that the Negro Propaganda Operations, "evoked a variety of responses within the Black community and the sum total of these reactions forced America’s government to improve conditions for Blacks in the military and society."[42] Even the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) saw the propaganda as, "...a media tool in the struggle against racial discrimination".[42] Despite these debates both sides agree that these programs were particularly dangerous because of their foundation in truth.[42][43][44]

Leaflets edit

 
Japanese propaganda leaflet distributed during the Battle of the Philippines

Leaflets in China asked why they were not better defended after all the money they had spent.[45]

Leaflets were dropped by airplane on the Philippines, Malaya, and Indonesia, urging them to surrender as the Japanese would be better than the Europeans.[46] They were also dropped in India to encourage a revolt against British rule now that Great Britain was distracted.[41]

Slogans edit

Slogans were used throughout Japan for propaganda purpose.[47] They were used as patriotic exortion – "National Unity", "One Hundred Million With One Spirit" – and to urge frugality – "Away with frivolous entertainment!".[48]

Themes edit

Kokutai edit

Kokutai, meaning the uniqueness of the Japanese people in having a leader with spiritual origins, was officially promulgated by the government, including a text book sent about by the Ministry of Education.[25] The purpose of this instruction was to ensure that every child regarded himself first of all as a Japanese and was grateful for the "family polity" structure of government, with its apex in the emperor.[49] Indeed, little effort was made during the course of the war to explain to the Japanese people what it was fought for; instead, it was presented as a chance to rally about the emperor.[50]

 
Leaping Patriotic Autumn: Promotion of patriotism

In 1937, the pamphlet Kokutai no Hongi was written to explain the principle.[51] It clearly stated its purpose: to overcome social unrest and to develop a new Japan.[52] From this pamphlet, pupils were taught to put the nation before the self, and that they were part of the state and not separate from it.[53] The Ministry of Education promulgated it throughout the school system.[51]

In 1939, Taisei Yokusankai (Imperial Rule Assistance Association) was founded by the prime minister to "restore the spirit and virtues of old Japan".[54] When the number of patriotic associations during the war worried the government, they were folded into the IRAA, which used them to mobilize the nation and promote unity.[55]

In 1941, Shinmin no Michi was written to instruct the Japanese what to aspire to.[56] Ancient texts set forth the central precepts of loyalty and filial piety, which would throw aside selfishness and allow them to complete their "holy task."[57] It called for them to become "one hundred million hearts beating as one" – a call that would reappear in American anti-Japanese propaganda, though Shinmin no Michi explicitly said that many Japanese "failed" to act in this manner.[58] The obedience called for was to be blind and absolute.[59] The war would be a purifying experience to draw them back to the "pure and cloudless heart" of their inherent character that they had strayed from.[60] Their natural racial purity should be reflected in their unity.[61] Patriotic war songs seldom mentioned the enemy, and then only generically; the tone was elegiac, and the topic was purity and transcendence, often compared to cherry blossom.[62]

The final letters of kamikaze pilots expressed, above all, that their motivations were gratitude to Japan and to its Emperor as the embodiment of kokutai.[63] One letter, after praising Japanese history and the way of life their ancestors had passed down to them, and the Imperial family as the crystallization of Japan's splendour, concluded, "It is an honor to be able to give my life in defense of these beautiful and lofty things."[64]

 
"Luxury is our Enemy" banner by the National Spiritual Mobilization Movement

Intellectuals at an "overcoming modernity" conference proclaimed that prior to the Meiji Restoration, Japan had been a classless society under a benevolent emperor, but the restoration had plunged the nation into Western materialism (an argument that ignored commercialism and ribald culture in the Tokugawa era), which had caused people to forget their nature, which the war would enable them to reclaim.[65]

Baseball, jazz, and other Western profligate ways were singled out in government propaganda to be abandoned for a pure spirit of sacrifice.[65]

This Yamato spirit would allow them to overcome the vast disproportion in fighting material.[66] This belief was so well indoctrinated that even as Allied victories overwhelmed the ability of the Japanese government to cover them up with lies, many Japanese refused to believe that "God's country" could be defeated.[67] The military government likewise fought on hopes that the casualty lists would undermine the Allied will to fight.[68] General Ushijami, addressing his troops in Okinawa, told them their greatest strength lay in moral superiority.[69] Even as American forces proceeded from victory to victory, Japanese propaganda claimed military superiority.[70] The attack on Iwo Jima was announced by the "Home and Empire" broadcast with uncommon praise of the American commanders but also the confident declaration that they must not leave the island alive.[71] The dying words of President Roosevelt were altered to "I have made a terrible mistake" and some editorials proclaimed it a punishment of Heaven.[72] American interrogators of prisoners found that they were unshakable in their conviction of Japan's sacred mission.[73] After the war, one Japanese doctor explained to American interrogators that the people of Japan had foolishly believed that the gods would indeed help them out of their predicament.[74]

 
1939 Recruitment poster for the Tank School of the Imperial Japanese Army

This also gave them a sense of racial superiority to the Asian peoples they claimed to liberate, which did much to undermine Japanese propaganda for racial unity.[75] Their "bright and strong" souls made them the superior race, and therefore their proper place was in the leadership of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.[76] Anyone not Japanese was an enemy – devilish, animalistic – including other Asian peoples such as the Chinese.[77] Strict racial segregation was maintained in conquered regions, and they were encouraged to think of themselves as "the world's foremost people."[78]

This race was, indeed, to be further improved with physical fitness and social-welfare programs, and population policies to increase their number.[79] A campaign to promote fertility, in order to produce future citizens, continued through 1942, and no efforts were made to recruit women to war work for this reason.[64] The slogan "Be fruitful and multiply" was used in campaigns.[80]

Rural life edit

Despite its military strength being dependent on industrialization, the regime glorified rural life.[81] The traditional rural and agricultural life was opposed to the modern city; proposals were made to fight the atomizing effects of cities by locating schools and factories in the countryside, to maintain the rural population.[79] Agrarianist rhetoric exulted village harmony, even while tenants and landlords were pitted against each other by war needs.[82]

Spiritual mobilization edit

The National Spiritual Mobilization Movement was formed from 74 organizations to rally the nation for a total war effort. It carried out such tasks as instructing schoolchildren on the "Holy war in China", and having women roll bandages for the war effort.[83]

Production edit

 
Electric Power is Military Power!

Even prior to the war, the organization Sanpo existed to explain the need to meet production quotas, even if sacrifices were needed; it did so with rallies, lectures, and panel discussion, and also set up programs to assist workers' lives to attract membership.[16]

Among the early victories was one that secured an oil field, giving Japan its own source for the first time; propaganda exulted that Japan was no longer a "have-not" nation.[84]

In 1943, as the American industrial juggernaut produced material superiority for the American forces, calls were made for a more war-like footing on part of the population, in particular in calls for increases in war materials.[85] The emphasis on training soldiers rather than arming them had left the armed forces dangerously ill-supplied after the heavy attrition.[86] Morning assemblies at factories had officers address the workers and enjoin them to meet their quotas.[87] The production levels were kept up, albeit at the price of extraordinary sacrifice.[88]

Privation edit

 
Cartoon of Hideki Tōjō encouraging oil rationing

The government urged Japanese people to do without basic necessities (privation). For example, magazines gave advice on economizing on food and clothing as soon as war broke out with China.[12]

After the outbreak of war with the United States, early suggestions that the people enjoyed the victories too much and were not prepared for the long war ahead were not taken, and so early propaganda did not contain warnings.[89]

In 1944, propaganda endeavoured to warn the Japanese people of disasters to come, and install in them a spirit as in Saipan, to accept more privation for the war.[90] Articles were written claiming the Americans could not stage air-raids from Saipan, although since they could from China, they clearly could from Saipan; the purpose was to subtly warn of the dangers to come.[91] The actual bombing raids brought new meaning to the slogan "We are all equal."[92] Early songs proclaiming that the cities had iron defenses and it was an honor to defend the homeland quickly lost their luster.[93] Still, continued calls to sacrifice were honored; neighborhood association helped, as no one wanted to be seen quitting first.[94]

Accounts of self-sacrificing privation were common in the press: a teacher dressed in tatters who refused to wear a new shirt because all his friends are likewise tattered, and officers and governmental officials who made do without any form of heating.[95] This reflected the privation actually in society, where clothing was at premium and the work week was seven days long, with schooling cut to a minimum so that children could work.[96]

Hakkō ichiu edit

 
Prewar 10-sen Japanese stamp, illustrating the Hakkō ichiu and the 2600th anniversary of the Empire.

Like Nazi Germany's demands for Lebensraum, Japanese propaganda complained of being kept trapped in its own home waters.[25] Hakkō ichiu, "to bring the eight corners of the world under one roof", added a religious overtone to the theme.[25] It was based on the story of Emperor Jimmu, who had founded Japan, and finding five races on it, had made them all as "brothers of one family."[97] In 1940, the Japan Times and Mail recounted the story of Jimmu on the 2600 anniversary.[97]

The news of Hitler's success in Europe, followed by Mussolini's joining in the conflict, produced the slogan "Don't miss the bus!" as the European war gave them the opportunity to conquer Southeast Asia for its resources.[98]

On the outbreak of war, Tojo declared that as long as there remains a spirit of loyalty and patriotism under this policy, there was nothing to fear.[99]

An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus explicitly called for such expansion; although a secret document for use of the policy-makers, it laid out explicitly what is elsewhere hinted at in.[100] It explicitly laid out that the superior position of Japan in the Greater Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, showing the subordination of other nations was not forced by the war, but part of explicit policy.[101]

This was also justified on the grounds that the resource-poor Japanese could not count on any sources of raw material that they did not control themselves.[102] Propaganda stated that Japan was being strangled by "ABCD" – America, Britain, China, and Dutch East Indies—through trade embargoes and boycotts.[103] Even in preparation of the war, the newspapers reported that unless negotiations improved, Japan would be forced to engage in self-defense measures.[104]

Bushido edit

The samurai code bushido was pressed into service for indoctrination in militarism.[105] This was used to present war as purifying, and death a duty.[106] This worked to prevent surrenders, both of those who adhered to it, and of those who feared disgrace if they did not die.[106] This was presented as revitalizing traditional values and "transcending the modern."[107] War was presented as a purifying experience, albeit only for the Japanese.[108] Bushido would provide a spiritual shield to let soldiers fight to the end.[109] All soldiers were expected to adhere to it, although historically it had been the duty of higher ranked samurai and not common soldiers.[110]

 
The submariners who died in the Pearl Harbor attack

As taught, it produced a reckless indifference to the technological side of warfare. Japan's production was a fraction of America's, making equipment difficult.[111] Officers declared themselves indifferent to radar, because they had perfectly good eyes.[112] The blue-eyed Americans would necessarily be inferior to the dark-eyed Japanese at night attacks.[113] At Imphal, the commander declared to his troops that it was a battle between their spiritual strength and the British material strength, a command which became famous as rubric of Japanese spirit.[114]

Soldiers were told that the bayonet was their central weapon, and many kept them affixed at all times.[115] Guns were treated as symbolic representations of martial spirit and loyalty, so any negligence regarding them was severely punished.[116]

As early as the Shanghai Incident, the principles of victory or death were already implemented, and much was made of a captured Japanese soldier who returned to the site of his capture to commit seppuku.[117] Three troopers who had blown themselves up on a section of barbed wire were lauded as "three human bombs" and featured in no less than six films, even though they may have died only because their fuses were too short.[118] Tojo himself, in a 1940 booklet, urged the spirit of self-sacrifice on soldiers, to not consider death.[119] It unquestionably contributed to the maltreatment of prisoners of war, who had performed the disgraceful act of surrender.[120] Another consequence was that nothing was done to train soldiers for captivity, with the result that Americans found Japanese prisoners much easier to get information from than the Japanese found American prisoners.[121]

In 1932, Akiko Yosano's poetry urged Japanese soldiers to endure sufferings in China and compared the dead soldiers to cherry blossoms, a traditional image that would be put to great use throughout the war.[12]

The emphasis on this tradition and the lack of a comparable military tradition in the United States led to an underestimating of American fighting spirit, which surprised Japanese forces at Midway, Bataan, and other Pacific War battles.[122] It also emphasized attack at the expense of defense.[123] Bushido argued for bold advances in the face of common sense, which was urged on the troops.[124]

 
Yasukuni Shrine, for the dead

The dead were treated as "war gods", starting with the nine submariners who died at Pearl Harbor (with the tenth, taken prisoner, never being mentioned in Japanese press).[125] The burials of and memorials for "hero gods" who had fallen in battle provided the Japanese public with news of battle that had not been otherwise released, as when a submarine attack on Sydney was revealed through burial of four who died; this propaganda frequently clashed with propaganda on victory.[126] Even years before the war, children had been instructed in school that dying for the emperor transformed one into a deity.[127] As the war turned, the spirit of bushido was invoked to urge that all depended on the firm and united soul of the nation.[128] Media were filled with stories of samurai, old and new.[129] Newspapers printed bidan, beautiful stories, about dead soldiers with their photographs and having a family member speak of them; before Pearl Harbor and the crushing casualties of the Pacific War, they endeavoured to get such a story for every fallen soldier.[130] While fighting in China, the casualties were low enough that individual cases were glorified.[118] Letters from "fallen heroes" became a staple of Japanese newspapers by 1944.[131]

Defeats were treated chiefly in terms of resistance to death. The Time magazine article on Saipan and the mass civilian suicides there was widely reported with the "awe-filled" enemy reports treated as evidence of the glory of sacrifice and the pride of Japanese women.[132] When the Battle of Attu was lost, attempts were made to make the more than two thousand Japanese deaths an inspirational epic for the fighting spirit of the nation.[133] Suicidal rushes were glorified as showing the Japanese spirit.[134] Arguments that the plans for the Battle of Leyte Gulf, involving all Japanese ships, would expose Japan to serious danger if they failed, were countered with the plea that the Navy be permitted to "bloom as flowers of death."[135] The last message of the forces on Peleliu was "Sakura, Sakura" – cherry blossoms.[136]

The first proposals of organized suicide attacks met resistance because while bushido called for a warrior to be always aware of death, he was not to view it as the sole end.[137] The Japanese Imperial Navy had not ordered any attacks it was impossible to survive; even with the midget submarines in the Pearl Harbor attack, plans had been made for rejoining the mother ship, if feasible.[138] The desperate straits brought about acceptance.[137] Propagandists immediately set about ennobling such deaths.[139] Such attacks were acclaimed as the true spirit of bushido,[140] and became an integral part of strategy with Okinawa.[141]

 
Cherry blossoms before Mount Fuji: symbols of heroic death

Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi addressed the first kamikaze (suicide attack) unit, telling them that their nobility of spirit would keep the homeland from ruin even in defeat.[142] The names of four sub-units within the Kamikaze Special Attack Force were Unit Shikishima, Unit Yamato, Unit Asahi, and Unit Yamazakura.[143] These names were taken from a patriotic poem (waka or tanka), Shikishima no Yamato-gokoro wo hito towaba, asahi ni niou yamazakura bana by the Japanese classical scholar, Motoori Norinaga.[144]

If someone asks about the Yamato spirit [Spirit of Old/True Japan] of Shikishima [a poetic name for Japan]—it is the flowers of yamazakura [mountain cherry blossom] that are fragrant in the Asahi [rising sun].

This also drew upon popular symbolism in Japan of the fall of the cherry blossom as a symbol of mortality.[145] These, and other kamikaze attackers, were acclaimed as national heroes.[146] Divers, prepared for such work in the event of the invasion of Japan, were given individual ensigns, to indicate they could replace an entire ship, and carefully separated so that they would die from their own handiwork rather than another's.[147]

The propaganda urging such deaths, and resistance to death, was issued in hopes that the bitter resistance would induce the Americans to offer terms.[148] When Togo made approaches to the Soviet Union, these were interpreted as asking for peace, which the newspapers instantly repudiated—they would not seek peace but win the war—a view enforced by the kempeitai, who arrested for any hint of "defeatism."[149] The army's manual on defending the homeland called for the slaughter of any Japanese who impeded the defense.[150]

Japanese propaganda of "fighting to the bitter end" and "the hundred-year war", indeed, led many Americans, beyond questions of hatred and racism, to conclude that a war of extermination might be the only possibility of victory, the question being whether the Japanese would surrender before such extermination was complete.[151]

Even after the atomic attacks and the Emperor's insistence that they surrender, Inaba Masao issued a statement urging the Army to fight to the bitter end; when other colonels informed him of a proclamation made to hint of the prospect of surrender to the population, they rushed to ensure Inaba's was broadcast, to create conflicting messages.[152] This caused consternation in the government for fear of American reaction, and to prevent delay, the surrender was sent out as a news story, in English and Morse code to prevent military censors from halting it.[153]

Intelligence edit

Early training for intelligence agents tried to infuse the service with the traditional mystery of spying in Japan, citing the spirit of the ninja.[154]

In China edit

 
Japanese propaganda poster “Heaven and Hell”, demonising China under the Nationalist Government

In occupied China, textbooks were revised to omit tales of Japanese atrocities and instead focus on heroic Japanese figures, including one officer who divorced his wife before going to China, so that he could focus on the war, and she would be free of the burden of filial piety toward his parents, since he would certainly die.[27]

Against atrocity claims edit

Tight government censorship prevented the Japanese population from hearing of atrocities in China.[155]

When news of atrocities reached Western countries, Japan launched propaganda to combat it, both denying it and interviewing prisoners to counter it.[156] They were, it was proclaimed, being well-treated by virtue of bushido generosity.[157] The interviews were also described as being not propaganda but out of sympathy with the enemy, such sympathy as only bushido could inspire.[158] The effect on Americans was tempered by subtle messages imbedded by the prisoners, including such comments as the declaration they were allowed to continue to wear the clothes they had been captured in.[158]

As early as the Bataan Death March, the Japanese had The Manila Times claim that the prisoners were treated humanely and their death rate had to be attributed to the intransigence of the American commanders who did not surrender until their men were on the verge of death.[159] After the torture and execution of several of the Doolittle Raiders, the Nippon Times proclaimed the humane treatment of American and British prisoners of war in order to declare that British forces were treating German prisoners inhumanely.[160]

Anti-Western edit

 
Tōhōkai poster urging Asians to shoot on the British

The United States and Great Britain were attacked years before the war, with any Western idea conflicting with Japanese practice being labeled "dangerous thoughts."[38] They were attacked as materialistic and soulless, both in Japan and in short-wave broadcasts to Southeast Asia.[38] Not only were such thoughts censored through strict control of publishing, the government used various popular organizations to foment hostility to them.[161] Great Britain was attacked with particular fervor owing to its many colonies, and blamed for the continued stalemate in China.[162] Chiang Kai-shek was denounced as a Western puppet,[163] supplied through British and American exploitation of Southeast Asian colonies.[164] Militarists, hating the arms control treaties that allowed Japan only 3 ships for British and American 5, used "5-5-3" as a nationalistic slogan.[165] Furthermore, they wished to escape an international capitalist system dominated by British and American interests.[166]

Newspapers, in the days leading up to Pearl Harbor, kept up an ominous repetition of intransigence on the part of the United States.[167]

The news of the attack on Pearl Harbor resulted in newspapers staging a "Rally to Crush the United States and Great Britain."[168] When the government found the war songs too abstract and elegiac, it staged a nationwide competition for a song to a march tune with the title "Down with Britain and America."[169]

After such atrocities as the Bataan Death March, cruel treatment of prisoners of war was justified on the grounds they had sacrificed other people's lives but surrendered to save their own, and had acted with utmost selfishness throughout their campaign.[120]

The pamphlet The Psychology of the American Individual, addressed to soldiers, informed them that Americans had no thought of the glory of their ancestors, their posterity, or their family name, they were daredevils in search of publicity, they feared death and did not care what happened after it, they were liars and easily taken in by flattery and propaganda, and being materialistic, they relied on material superiority rather than spiritual incentive in battle.[170]

 
Caricature of Franklin Delano Roosevelt on the cover of Manga, August 1943

Praise of the enemy was treated as treason, and no newspaper could print anything mentioning the enemy favorably, no matter how much the Japanese forces found enemy combat spirit and effectiveness praiseworthy.[171]

Intellectuals promulgated anti-Western views with particular fervor.[172] A conference on "overcoming modernity" proclaimed the "world historical meaning" of the war was resistance to the Western cultural ideas imposed on Japan.[172] The Meiji Restoration had plunged the nation into Western materialism (an argument that ignored commercialism and ribald culture in the Tokugawa era), which had caused people to forget they were a classless society under a benevolent emperor, but the war would shake off these notions.[65] The government likewise urged the abandonment of Western ways—such as baseball and jazz—for a pure spirit of sacrifice.[65]

Officially, Japan did not present itself as completely anti-Western, because of the alliance with Italy and Germany, and to some policymakers, because such a claim was incompatible with Japan's high moral purpose. But as the alliance was both secure and solely of expedience, much antiwhite rhetoric was promulgated.[173] A propagandistic account of Germans in Java depicted them as grateful to be now under Japanese protection.[174] In the United States, Elmer Davis of the Office of War Information argued that this propaganda could be combated by deeds that counteracted this, but was unable to get support.[175]

Weakness edit

 
Japanese propaganda poster featuring Japanese agrarian immigrants in Manchukuo, designed for a Westerner audience.

The Allies were also attacked as weak and effete, unable to sustain a long war, a view at first supported by a string of victories.[176] The lack of a warrior tradition such as bushido reinforced this belief.[177] The armed forces were told that American forces would not come to fight them, that Americans could not fight in the jungle and indeed could not stand warfare.[178] Accounts of prisoners of war depicted the Americans as cowardly and willing to do anything to gain favor.[179] Subordinates were actively encouraged to treat prisoners contemptuously, to foster feelings of superiority toward them.[180]

Both Americans and British were presented as figures of fun, resulting in serious weakness when complacency induced by propaganda met the actual enemy strength.[181]

Shortly prior to the Doolittle Raid, Radio Tokyo jeered at a foreign report of bombing on the grounds it was impossible.[182] The Doolittle Raid itself was minimized, reporting little damage, and concluding, correctly, that it had been carried out for American morale.[183]

Many Japanese pilots believed that their strength and American softness would result in their victory.[184] The ferocity and self-sacrificing attacks of American pilots at the Battle of Midway undermined the propaganda, as did the fighting at the Battle of Bataan and other Pacific battlefields.[122]

The surrender terms offered by the United States were scorned by the newspapers as ludicrous, urging that the government remain silent about them, which indeed, the government did, a traditional Japanese technique for dealing with the unacceptable.[185]

Against American morale edit

 
What are you fighting for?: holding out the folly of starving on Corregidor

Most propaganda attacks against the American troops were aimed at morale.[56] Tokyo Rose gave sentimental broadcasts, designed to arouse homesickness.[41] She would also taunt the troops as suckers, with the prospect of their wives and sweethearts taking up with new men while they fought.[186] There were also broadcasts of prisoners of war speaking on the radio, to assure that they were being treated well; these were sandwiched between news reports of varying lengths, so that the entire broadcast had to be heard to be sure of hearing the prisoner.[187]

 
Leaflet warning landing American soldiers of their impending death.

These programs were not well designed, as they assumed that the Americans did not want to fight, underestimating the psychological effect of Pearl Harbor, and that hostility to Roosevelt's domestic policies translated into hostility to his foreign policy.[188] Indeed, they believed that the Pearl Harbor attack would be regarded as a defensive act, forced on them by "Roosevelt and his clique".[188] American forces were less wed to the notion of "decisive battle" than Japanese were, and so the opening string of victories had less impact on them than expected.[189]

Furthermore, the prisoners who spoke often included subtle messages that undermined the anti-atrocity propaganda, stating they had been "allowed" the clothing they had worn when captured to make it clear that they had been given no new clothes.[158]

A pamphlet dropped on the forces on Okinawa declared that President Roosevelt's death had been caused by the extensive damage the Japanese had inflicted on American ships, which would continue until the ships were all sunk, and the American forces thus orphaned.[190] One soldier, reading it while the ships were bombarding the shore, asked where they thought the gunfire was coming from.[190]

Anti-communist edit

Communism was enumerated among the Western dangerous ideas. However, during the invasion of China, Japanese propaganda to the United States played on American anti-communism to win support.[191] It[clarification needed] was also offered to the Japanese people as a way of forging a bulwark against communism.[163] Propaganda was also used to demonise the Chinese Communist Party.

Allied atrocities edit

 
Drawing of an ogre with a necklace of skulls removing a Roosevelt-faced mask, October 1944

Shinmin no Michi, the Path of the Subject, discussed American historical atrocities[56] and presented Western history as brutal wars, exploitation, and destructive values.[23] Its colonialism was based on its destructive individualism, materialism, utilitarianism, and liberalism, all which allowed the strong to prey on the weak.[192]

While minimizing the effect of the Doolittle Raid, propaganda also depicted the raiders as inhuman demons attacking civilians.[193] Shortly after those of the raiders who had been captured had been tortured, and some executed, the Nippon Times denounced British treatment of German prisoners of war, claiming that American and British prisoners held by Japan were being treated in accordance with international law.[160]

Allied war purposes were presented as annihilation.[194] Japanese civilians were told that the Americans would commit rape, torture, and murder and they therefore were to kill themselves rather than surrender; on Saipan and Okinawa, large majorities of the civilian population did commit suicide or kill each other before the American victory.[195] Those captured on Saipan were often terrified of their captors, particularly of the black soldiers, although this was not solely due to propaganda, but because many had never seen blacks before.[196] The demand for unconditional surrender was heavily exploited.[197] Interrogated prisoners reported that this propaganda was widely believed and therefore people would resist to the death.[34]

Accounts of American soldiers murdering German prisoners of war were also told, regardless of accuracy.[198]

Much play was made of American soldiers desecrating the bodies of the dead, omitting that such acts were condemned by both military authorities and from America pulpits.[199] That President Roosevelt was presented with a gift from a Japanese soldier's forearm was reported, but not that he refused it and argued for a decent burial.[200]

In American propaganda, much was made of Japanese calls to devotion to death.[201] Some soldiers attacked civilians, on the grounds they would not surrender, and which in turn served as grist for Japanese propaganda about American atrocities.[202]

Even before the American pamphlets warning of the great power of atomic explosions, newspapers commenting on the atomic attacks reported that the bombs could not be taken lightly; The Nippon Times reported that it was clearly intended to kill many innocent people, to end the war quickly, and others proclaimed it a moral outrage.[203]

To the occupied countries edit

 
Fragment of Japanese propaganda booklet published by the Tokyo Conference (1943), depicting scenes of everyday life in Greater East Asia
 
Japanese propaganda leaflet depicting Allied leaders such as Roosevelt, Churchill, and Chiang trying to push or pull an Indian into the fight against the Japanese, 1943

Extensive use of posters was made in China, to endeavour to convince the Chinese that the Europeans were enemies, especially the Americans and British.[204] Much was made of the opium trade.[204]

Similarly, the Philippines were propagandized about "American exploitation," "American Imperialism," and "American tyranny," and blame was laid on the United States for starting the war.[56] They were assured that they were not Japan's enemies, and that the American forces would not return.[5][56] The effect of this was considerably undermined by the actions of the Japanese Army, and the Filipinos soon wanted the Americans to return to free them from the Japanese.[56] Black propaganda posed as American instructions to avoid venereal disease by having sexual intercourse with wives or other respectable Filipina women rather than prostitutes.[56]

After the fall of Singapore, American and British were sent as prisoners to Korea to eradicate Korean admiration for them.[205] Ragged prisoners of war, brought to Korea as forced labor, were also marched through the streets, to show how the European forces had fallen.[206]

In the occupied countries short-wave radios attacked Europeans, particularly "White Australia", which, broadcasts claimed, could support 100 million instead of the current 7 million, if the industrious Asians were allowed to make it bloom.[39]

Broadcasts and leaflets urged India to revolt against British rule now that Great Britain was distracted.[41] Other leaflets and posters, aimed at Allied forces of different nationalities, attempted to drive a wedge between them by attacking other Allied countries.[56]

Antisemitic edit

This Western hegemony was presented, sometimes, as being masterminded by Jews.[60] Especially in the early years of the war, a spate of anti-Jewish propaganda was produced, which appears to be the effect of the Nazi alliance.[207]

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere edit

 
Fragment of Japanese propaganda booklet published by the Tokyo Conference, depicting East Asia freed from Anglo-American presence
 
Fragment of Japanese propaganda booklet published by the Tokyo Conference, depicting the different peoples of East Asia

During the war, "Asia for the Asians" was a widespread slogan, though undermined by brutal Japanese treatment in occupied countries.[208] This was in service of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, where the new Japanese empire was presented as an Asian equivalent of the Monroe Doctrine.[5][209] The regions of Asia, it was argued, were as essential to Japan as Latin America was to the United States.[210]

This was initially, while plausible, very popular among the occupied nations.[5][211] Japanese victories were initially cheered in support of this aim.[212] Many Japanese remained convinced, throughout the war, that the Sphere was idealistic, offering slogans in a newspaper competition, praising the sphere for constructive efforts and peace.[213]

 
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere map

During the war with China, the prime minister announced on radio they were seeking only a new order to ensure the stability of East Asia, unfortunately prevented because Chiang Kai-shek was a Western puppet.[163] The failure to win the Second Sino-Japanese War was blamed on British and American exploitation of Southeast Asian colonies to supply the Chinese, even though the Chinese received far more assistance from the Soviet Union.[164]

Later, pamphlets were dropped by airplane on the Philippines, Malaya, and Indonesia, urging them to join this movement.[46] Mutual cultural societies were founded in all conquered nations to ingratiate with the natives and try to supplant English with Japanese as the commonly used language.[214] Multi-lingual pamphlets depicted many Asians marching or working together in happy unity, with the flags of all the nations and a map depicting the intended sphere.[215] Others proclaimed that they had given independent governments to the countries they occupied, a claim undermined by the lack of power given these puppet governments.[56] In Thailand, a street was built to demonstrate it, to be filled with modern buildings and shops, but nine-tenths of it consisted of false fronts.[216]

The Greater East Asia Conference was highly publicized.[217] Tojo greeted them with a speech praising the "spiritual essence" of Asia, as opposed to the "materialistic civilization" of the West.[218] At it Ba Maw declared that his Asian blood had always called out to other Asians, and that it was not time to think with minds, but with blood, and many other Asian leaders supported Japan in terms of an East vs. West conflict of bloods.[217] Japanese oppression and racial pretensions slowly undermined this dream.[219]

The booklet Read This and the War is Won was intended for the Japanese army.[23] It presented colonialism as a tiny group of colonists living in luxury by burdening Asians; because ties of blood connect them to Japanese, and Asians had been weakened by colonialism, it was Japan's place to "make men of them again."[24]

China edit

 
Propaganda posters of the Concordia Association in Manchukuo.

In China, leaflets were dropped arguing that the "mandate of heaven" had clearly been lost, so that authority moved to the new leaders.[56] Propaganda also spoke of the benefits of the "kingly way" (王道 wang tao or, in Japanese odo) as a solution to both nationalism and radicalism.[220]

Philippines edit

The Philippines were their first target after Pearl Harbor, and instructions to propagandists called for rousing "the spirit of the Far East" and inspiring them with militarism to fight beside the Japanese.[56] "Surrender cards" were dropped to allow soldiers to surrender safely by handing over a card.[56] Jorge B. Vargas, the Chairman of the Executive Committee, Provisional Philippine Council of State, signed one leaflet that was dropped urging surrender.[56]

Korea edit

Korea was annexed in 1910. The Governor-General of Korea[which?] said that the colony's economic progress in the ensuing 30 years was because its Japanese administrators had devoted themselves to its benefit.[221]
The Japanese attempted to co-opt the Koreans, urging them to view themselves as part of one "imperial race" with Japan, and even presenting themselves as rescuing a nation too long under the shadow of China.[222]
[better source needed] However, native Koreans lost their estate, society and position, which encouraged resistance.[223]

India edit

See also: Propaganda and India in World War II

The Battle of Imphal was fought, in part, to show the Indian National Army to the Indians, in hopes of provoking a revolt against the Raj.[224]

Self-defense edit

Propaganda declared that the war had been forced on them in self-defense. As early as the Manchurian Incident, the mass media uncriticially spread the report that the Chinese had caused the explosion, attacking Japan's rights and interests, and therefore the Japanese must defend their rights, even at great sacrifice.[225] This argument was made even to the League of Nations: they were only trying to prevent anti-Japanese activities by the Guomindang.[226]

Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, newspapers reported that unless negotiations improved, Japan would be forced to engage in self-defense measures.[104] Indeed, after the attack, propaganda to American forces operated on the assumption that Americans would regard Pearl Harbor as a defensive act, forced on them by "Roosevelt and his clique".[188]

Victories edit

For propaganda purposes, defeats were presented at home as great victories.[50] Much was made of Japan's 2,600-year history without defeats.[227] The wars of 1895 and 1904 were presented by historians as overwhelming triumphs instead of narrowly won.[228] For a long time, the armed forces held to the belief that a string of victories would demoralize the Americans sufficiently for a negotiated peace.[229]

 
The English-language Japan Times & Advertiser depicts Uncle Sam and Winston Churchill erecting grave markers for ships that the Imperial Japanese Navy claimed to have sunk.

This began with the claims about the war in China.[230] It continued with newspaper exultation over the attack on Pearl Harbor.[231] and continued with the string of early Japanese successes.[232] This produced an exuberance in the people that did not brace them for a long war, but suggestions that it be tempered were not accepted.[89] Even in the early stages, exaggerated claims were made, such as that Hawaii was in danger of starvation even though the Japanese submarines were not raiding commerce, as would have been needed to bring this about.[233] The capture of Singapore was triumphantly declared as deciding the general situation of the war.[234] The Doolittle Raid produced considerable shock and efforts to counter the impact were made.[235] The army, after some victories, clearly began to believe its own propaganda.[236] Very few statements even hinted that more was needed prior to victory.[237]

The prolonged resistance at Bataan was in part enabled by orders that required a spectacular victory for propaganda points, resulting in Japanese forces taking Manila while American forces entrenched.[238] Dogged American resistance at Corregidor resulted in occasional declarations that its defeat was near, followed by weeks of silence.[239] The Battle of Coral Sea was presented as a victory rather than inconclusive, exaggerating American losses and understating Japanese ones.[240] Indeed, it was presented as a sweeping triumph, rather than the marginal tactical victory that could reasonably be claimed.[241] Declarations were made that the battle had rendered the Americans panic-stricken, when in fact, they had also proclaimed it a victory.[242]

The attack on Midway was rendered crucial by the Doolittle Raid, which had sneaked through the defensive perimeter at that point and, while not causing serious damage, had caused humiliation and propaganda difficulties.[243] The clear defeat at the Battle of Midway continued this pattern.[50] Newspapers were informed only of American damage, with the Japanese losses entirely omitted.[244] The survivors of the lost ships were sworn to silence and packed off to distant fronts to prevent the truth becoming known.[245] Even Tojo was not informed of the truth until a month after the battle.[246]

The word "retreat" was never used, even to the troops.[247] In 1943, the army invented a new verb tenshin, to march elsewhere, to avoid referring to their forces as retreating.[50] Japanese who used the term "strategic retreat" were warned against doing so.[248] One reason for the execution of captured American aircrew was to hide their presence, evidence that the Japanese forces were falling back.[249]

By the time of the Guadalcanal Campaign newspapers were no longer covering their first pages with victories but adding stories about the battles in Europe and the Prosperity Sphere, but some battles had to be presented as victories.[250] Reporters wrote articles as if they were winning.[251] Japanese authorities published accounts boasting of the casualties inflicted before withdrawal.[252] The Battle of the Eastern Solomons was reported not only exaggerating American damage, but claiming that the carrier Hornet had been sunk, thus taking revenge for its part in the Doolittle Raid, when in fact Hornet had not been in the battle.[253] The Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, while a Japanese tactical victory, gained time for the Americans on Guadalcanal and inflicted heavy losses on Japanese aircraft; it was considered so momentous that it was praised in an imperial rescript.[254]

 
Let's win the Greater East Asia War

However, by 1943, the Japanese population was aware of the stark difference between the crude propaganda and the facts.[255] The death of Isoroku Yamamoto inflicted a severe blow.[133] It was followed by defeat at the Battle of Attu, which propaganda could not make inspirational.[133]

Accounts of the battle at Saipan concentrated on the fighting spirit and the heavy American casualties, but familiarity with geography would demonstrate that the battles slowly progressed northwards as the American forces advanced, and the reports stopped with the final battle, which was not reported.[256] Reports of "annihilation" did not prevent American forces from continuing to fight.[257] Furthermore, newspapers were allowed to speculate about the future of the war as long as they did not predict defeat or otherwise evince disloyalty; the truth could be discerned from their presuppositions.[258]

After Saipan had led to the resignation of Tojo as prime minister, an accurate account of the fall of Saipan was published by the army and navy, including the nearly total loss of all Japanese soldiers and civilians on the island, and the use of "human bullets", leading many to conclude that the war was lost.[259] This was the first uncensored war news they had issued since 1938, during the war with China.[83] The simultaneous and disastrous Battle of Philippine Sea was still obfuscated in the old manner.[259] A battle off Formosa was declared a victory, and a holiday declared, when in fact Americans had inflicted heavy damage and drawn off planes needed to defend the Philippines.[260] Inexperienced pilots reported crippling attacks on the ships of United States Third Fleet shortly prior to the Battle of Leyte, which were accepted at face value when the pilots had in fact not sunk a single ship.[261] The first suicide attacks were likewise presented as successful in causing damage, in contradiction of the facts.[262]

A shot-down B-29 was displayed along with the boast that it was one of hundreds.[91]

Peace edit

When the offer to surrender had been made, Kōichi Kido showed the Emperor the American pamphlets telling of the offer and stated that uninformed soldiers might start an uprising if this fell into their hands.[263] The Cabinet agreed that the proclamation had to come from the emperor himself, although in concession to his position it was decided to make it a recording rather than a live broadcast.[264] The Kyūjō Incident, attempting to prevent the broadcast, failed.[265]

See also edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to World War II posters from Japan.

References edit

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  2. ^ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 442 ISBN 0-393-04156-5
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  4. ^ a b [1], Navarro, Anthony V. "A Critical Comparison Between Japanese and American Propaganda During World War II." Retrieved 2011-02-04.
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  71. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 655 Random House New York 1970
  72. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 701 Random House New York 1970
  73. ^ Marius B. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan p 655 ISBN 0-674-00334-9
  74. ^ Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won, p 302 ISBN 0-393-03925-0
  75. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p46 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  76. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p211 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  77. ^ Max Hastings, Retribution: The Battle for Japan 1944-45 p 32 ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3
  78. ^ Max Hastings, Retribution: The Battle for Japan 1944-45 p 37 ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3
  79. ^ a b John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p271 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  80. ^ Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F. Cook, Japan At War: An Oral History p173 ISBN 1-56584-014-3
  81. ^ Michael Burleigh, Moral Combat: Good And Evil In World War II, p 13 ISBN 978-0-06-058097-1
  82. ^ Andrew Gordon, A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa to the Present, p215, ISBN 0-19-511060-9, OCLC 49704795
  83. ^ a b Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 257 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  84. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 247 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  85. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 332 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  86. ^ Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won, p 222-3 ISBN 0-393-03925-0
  87. ^ Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F. Cook, Japan At War: An Oral History p190 ISBN 1-56584-014-3
  88. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 523 Random House New York 1970
  89. ^ a b John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 258 Random House New York 1970
  90. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 362 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  91. ^ a b Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 363 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  92. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 670 Random House New York 1970
  93. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 745 Random House New York 1970
  94. ^ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 509 ISBN 0-393-04156-5
  95. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 371-2 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  96. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 523-4 Random House New York 1970
  97. ^ a b John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p223 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  98. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 60 Random House New York 1970
  99. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 231 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  100. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p262-3 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  101. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p263-4 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  102. ^ Piers Brendon, The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s, p438 ISBN 0-375-40881-9
  103. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 215 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  104. ^ a b Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 219 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  105. ^ "No Surrender: Background History"
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  108. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p216 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  109. ^ Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won p 6 ISBN 0-393-03925-0
  110. ^ Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F. Cook, Japan At War: An Oral History p264 ISBN 1-56584-014-3
  111. ^ Max Hastings, Retribution: The Battle for Japan 1944-45 p35 ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3
  112. ^ Max Hastings, Retribution: The Battle for Japan 1944-45 p47 ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3
  113. ^ Masanori Ito, The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p25 New York W.W. Norton & Company 1956
  114. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 413 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  115. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 350 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  116. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 350-1 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  117. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 100-1 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
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  121. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 382 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  122. ^ a b William L. O'Neill, A Democracy At War: America's Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II, p 125, 127 ISBN 0-02-923678-9
  123. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 386 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  124. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 428 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  125. ^ Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F. Cook, Japan At War: An Oral History p307 ISBN 1-56584-014-3
  126. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 317 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  127. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 258 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  128. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 334 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
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  130. ^ Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F. Cook, Japan At War: An Oral History p214 ISBN 1-56584-014-3
  131. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 369-70 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  132. ^ Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F. Cook, Japan At War: An Oral History p339 ISBN 1-56584-014-3
  133. ^ a b c John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 444 Random House New York 1970
  134. ^ Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F. Cook, Japan At War: An Oral History p263-4 ISBN 1-56584-014-3
  135. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 539 Random House New York 1970
  136. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 424 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  137. ^ a b Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 356 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  138. ^ Masanori Ito, The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p161-2 New York W.W. Norton & Company 1956
  139. ^ Max Hastings, Retribution: The Battle for Japan 1944-45 p167 ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3
  140. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 360 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  141. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 713 Random House New York 1970
  142. ^ Ivan Morris, The Nobility of Failure: Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan, p284 Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975
  143. ^ Ivan Morris, The Nobility of Failure: Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan, p289 Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975
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  145. ^ Ivan Morris, The Nobility of Failure: Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan, p290 Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975
  146. ^ Max Hastings, Retribution: The Battle for Japan 1944-45 p172 ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3
  147. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 389 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  148. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 396 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  149. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 397 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  150. ^ Max Hastings, Retribution: The Battle for Japan 1944-45 p439 ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3
  151. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p57 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  152. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 815-6 Random House New York 1970
  153. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 816 Random House New York 1970
  154. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 378 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  155. ^ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 449 ISBN 0-393-04156-5
  156. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 256-7 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  157. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 256 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  158. ^ a b c Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 257 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  159. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 300 Random House New York 1970
  160. ^ a b John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 598 Random House New York 1970
  161. ^ Beasley, William G.,The Rise of Modern Japan, p 185 ISBN 0-312-04077-6
  162. ^ Piers Brendon, The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s, p639 ISBN 0-375-40881-9
  163. ^ a b c James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 451 ISBN 0-393-04156-5
  164. ^ a b James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 471 ISBN 0-393-04156-5
  165. ^ William L. O'Neill, A Democracy At War: America's Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II, p 52 ISBN 0-02-923678-9
  166. ^ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 460 ISBN 0-393-04156-5
  167. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 189-90 Random House New York 1970
  168. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 243-4 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  169. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p214 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  170. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 651 Random House New York 1970
  171. ^ Masanori Ito, The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p125 New York W.W. Norton & Company 1956
  172. ^ a b Andrew Gordon, A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa to the Present, p219, ISBN 0-19-511060-9, OCLC 49704795
  173. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p206-7 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  174. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 259 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  175. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 453 Random House New York 1970
  176. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p36 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  177. ^ William L. O'Neill, A Democracy At War: America's Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II, p 125-6 ISBN 0-02-923678-9
  178. ^ Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won, p 317 ISBN 0-393-03925-0
  179. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 258 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  180. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 476 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  181. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 418 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  182. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 305 Random House New York 1970
  183. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 273-4 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  184. ^ William L. O'Neill, A Democracy At War: America's Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II, p 125 ISBN 0-02-923678-9
  185. ^ Max Hastings, Retribution: The Battle for Japan 1944-45 p471-2 ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3
  186. ^ Max Hastings, Retribution: The Battle for Japan 1944-45 p 12 ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3
  187. ^ Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II, p256-7 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
  188. ^ a b c Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II, p257 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
  189. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 394 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  190. ^ a b John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 702 Random House New York 1970
  191. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 165 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  192. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p26-7 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  193. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 310 Random House New York 1970
  194. ^ Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won, p 309-310 ISBN 0-393-03925-0
  195. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p45 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  196. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 515-6, 563 Random House New York 1970
  197. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 438 Random House New York 1970
  198. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 358-9 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  199. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 357 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  200. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 357-8 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  201. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p52-3 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  202. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 391 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  203. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 799 Random House New York 1970
  204. ^ a b Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II, p244 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
  205. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 309 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
  206. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 255 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  207. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p258 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  208. ^ Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II, p248 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
  209. ^ Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II, p252-3 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
  210. ^ William L. O'Neill, A Democracy At War: America's Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II, p 53 ISBN 0-02-923678-9
  211. ^ Andrew Gordon, A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa to the Present, p211, ISBN 0-19-511060-9, OCLC 49704795
  212. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 245 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  213. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 449 Random House New York 1970
  214. ^ Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II, p254 1976, Chelsea House Publishers, New York
  215. ^ "Japanese Propaganda Booklet from World War II"
  216. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 326 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  217. ^ a b John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p6 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  218. ^ W. G. Beasley, The Rise of Modern Japan, p 204 ISBN 0-312-04077-6
  219. ^ John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p7 ISBN 0-394-50030-X
  220. ^ Marius B. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan p 588-9 ISBN 0-674-00334-9
  221. ^ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 463 ISBN 0-393-04156-5
  222. ^ B. R. Myers, The Cleanest Race: How North Koreans See Themselves and Why It Matters, p 26-7 ISBN 978-1-933633-91-6
  223. ^ Korean National Commission for UNESCO, "Korean History: Discovery of Its Characteristics and Development", ISBN 978-1-56591-177-2
  224. ^ Max Hastings, Retribution: The Battle for Japan 1944-45 p 67 ISBN 978-0-307-26351-3
  225. ^ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 410 ISBN 0-393-04156-5
  226. ^ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History p 450 ISBN 0-393-04156-5
  227. ^ Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won, p 299-300 ISBN 0-393-03925-0
  228. ^ Mitsuo Fuchida and Masatake Okumiya, Midway: The Battle that Doomed Japan, the Japanese Navy's Story, p17 United States Naval Institute 1955
  229. ^ Masanori Ito, The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p70 New York W.W. Norton & Company 1956
  230. ^ Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F. Cook, Japan At War: An Oral History p46 ISBN 1-56584-014-3
  231. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 243 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
  232. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 247-8 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
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  234. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 277 Random House New York 1970
  235. ^ Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 396-7 ISBN 0-394-56935-0
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  239. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 268-9 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
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  242. ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 324 Random House New York 1970
  243. ^ William L. O'Neill, A Democracy At War: America's Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II, p 119 ISBN 0-02-923678-9
  244. ^ Masanori Ito, The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p68 New York W.W. Norton & Company 1956
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  248. ^ Masanori Ito, The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p83 New York W.W. Norton & Company 1956
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  251. ^ Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F. Cook, Japan At War: An Oral History p210 ISBN 1-56584-014-3
  252. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 327 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
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  262. ^ Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War, p 355 ISBN 0-07-030612-5
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External links edit

  • Article on Japanese Propaganda in China during WWII from Japanese Press Translations

February 13, 2024
propaganda, japan, during, second, sino, japanese, world, this, article, multiple, issues, please, help, improve, discuss, these, issues, talk, page, learn, when, remove, these, template, messages, this, article, need, reorganization, comply, with, wikipedia, . This article has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This article may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia s layout guidelines Please help by editing the article to make improvements to the overall structure June 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message The neutrality of this article is disputed Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met June 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message This article is written like a personal reflection personal essay or argumentative essay that states a Wikipedia editor s personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style June 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message This article needs more complete citations for verification Please help add missing citation information so that sources are clearly identifiable June 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message Learn how and when to remove this template message Japanese propaganda in the period just before and during World War II was designed to assist the regime in governing during that time Many of its elements were continuous with pre war themes of Shōwa statism including the principles of kokutai hakkō ichiu and bushido New forms of propaganda were developed to persuade occupied countries of the benefits of the Greater Asia Co Prosperity Sphere to undermine American troops morale to counteract claims of Japanese atrocities and to present the war to the Japanese people as victorious It started with the Second Sino Japanese War which merged into World War II It used a large variety of media to send its messages Poster of Manchukuo promoting harmony between Japanese Chinese and Manchu The caption says With the help of Japan China and Manchukuo the world can be at peace The flags shown are left to right the flag of Manchukuo the flag of Japan the Five Races Under One Union flag a flag of China at the time Contents 1 Films 2 Magazines and newspapers 3 Cartoons 4 Kamishibai 5 Books 5 1 Textbooks 5 2 Education 5 3 Radio 5 3 1 Negro propaganda operations 5 4 Leaflets 5 5 Slogans 6 Themes 6 1 Kokutai 6 1 1 Rural life 6 1 2 Spiritual mobilization 6 1 3 Production 6 1 4 Privation 6 2 Hakkō ichiu 6 3 Bushido 6 3 1 Intelligence 6 3 2 In China 6 4 Against atrocity claims 6 5 Anti Western 6 5 1 Weakness 6 5 2 Against American morale 6 5 3 Anti communist 6 5 4 Allied atrocities 6 5 5 To the occupied countries 6 5 6 Antisemitic 6 6 Greater East Asia Co Prosperity Sphere 6 6 1 China 6 6 2 Philippines 6 6 3 Korea 6 6 4 India 6 7 Self defense 6 8 Victories 7 Peace 8 See also 9 References 10 External linksFilms edit nbsp Screenshot from the film Momotaro Sacred Sailors where Monkey and Puppy are saying goodbye The Film Law of 1939 decreed a healthy development of the industry which abolished sexually frivolous films and social issues 1 Instead films were to elevate national consciousness present the national and international situation appropriately and otherwise aid the public welfare 2 The use of propaganda in World War II was extensive and far reaching but possibly the most effective form used by the Japanese government was film 3 Japanese films were produced for a far wider range of audiences than American films of the same period 4 From the 1920s onward Japanese film studios produced films legitimizing the colonial project that were set in its colonies of Taiwan Korea and on the Chinese mainland 5 By 1945 propaganda film production under the Japanese had expanded throughout the majority of their empire including Manchuria Shanghai Korea Taiwan Singapore Malaysia the Philippines and Indonesia 5 In China Japan s use of propaganda films was extensive After Japan s invasion of China movie houses were among the first establishments to be reopened 3 Most of the materials being shown were war news reels Japanese motion pictures or propaganda shorts paired with traditional Chinese films 3 Movies were also used in other conquered Asian countries usually with the theme of Japan as Asia s savior against the Western tyrants or spoke of the history of friendly relations between the countries with films such as The Japan You Don t Know 6 7 China s rich history and exotic locations made it a favorite topic of Japanese film makers for over a decade before the outbreak of the second Sino Japanese War 1937 1945 5 6 Of particular note were a popular trio of continental goodwill films 大陸親善映画 set throughout the Chinese continent and starring Hasegawa Kazuo as the Japanese male romantic lead with Ri Kōran Yoshiko Yamaguchi as his Chinese love interest 5 Among these films Song of the White Orchid 1939 白蘭の歌 China Nights 1940 支那の夜 and Vow in the Desert 1940 熱砂の誓い mixed romantic melodrama with propaganda in order to represent a figurative and literal blending of the two cultures onscreen 8 National policy films or propaganda pictures used in World War II included combat films such as Mud and Soldiers 1939 土と兵隊 and Five Scouts 1938 五人の斥候兵 spy films such as The Spy isn t Dead 1942 間諜未だ死せず and They re After You 1942 あなたは狙われている and lavish period pictures such as The Monkey King 1940 孫悟空 and Genghis Khan 1943 成吉斯汗 5 In the early stages of the war with China so called Humanistic war films such as The Five Scouts attempted to depict the war without nationalism But with Pearl Harbor the Home Ministry demanded more patriotism and national polity themes or war themes 9 Japanese directors of war films set in China had to refrain from explicit anti Chinese rhetoric The risk of alienating the same cultures that the Japanese ostensibly were liberating from the yoke of Western colonial oppression was a powerful deterrent in addition to government pressure 5 Even so as the war in China worsened for Japan action films such as The Tiger of Malay 1943 マライの虎 and espionage dramas like The Man From Chungking 1943 重慶から来た男 more overtly criminalized Chinese as enemies of the Empire 5 In contrast to its representations of China as antiquated and inflexible Western nations were often portrayed as overindulgent and decadent 10 Such negative stereotypes had to be adjusted when Japanese film makers were asked to collaborate with Nazi film crews on a number of Axis co productions that followed the conclusion of the Tripartite Pact 11 As Westerners increasingly fought in the Pacific Theater the Japanese directed their prejudices towards them too In Fire on That Flag 1944 あの旗を撃て the cowardice of the fleeing American military is juxtaposed with the moral supremacy of the imperial Japanese army during the occupation of the Philippines Japan s first full length animated feature film Momotarō Divine Soldiers of the Sea 1945 桃太郎海の神兵 similarly portrays the Americans and British in Singapore as morally decadent and physically weak devils 5 A sub category of the costume picture is the samurai movie 6 Themes used within these films include self sacrifice and honor to the emperor 10 Japanese films often did not shy away from the use of suffering often portraying its troops as the underdog This had the effect of making Japan look as though it was the victim inciting greater sympathy from its audience 4 The propaganda pieces also often illustrated the Japanese people as pure and virtuous depicting them as superior both racially and morally 10 The war is portrayed as continuous and is usually not adequately explained 10 Some other examples of propaganda films include Momotarō no Umiwashi and The Most Beautiful Magazines and newspapers editMagazines supported the war from its beginnings as the Second Sino Japanese War with stories of heroism tales of war widows and advice on making do 12 nbsp Government censors at workAfter the attack on Pearl Harbor control tightened aided by the patriotism of many reporters 13 Magazines were told that the cause of the war was the enemy s egoistic desire to rule the world and ordered under the guise of requests to promote anti American and anti British sentiment 14 When Jun ichirō Tanizaki began to serialize his novel Sasameyuki a nostalgic account of pre war family life the editors of Chuōkōron were warned it did not contribute to the needed war spirit 15 Despite Tanizaki s history of treating Westernization and modernization as corrupting a sentimental tale of bouregeoise family life was not acceptable 16 Fearful of losing supplies of paper it cut off the serialization 15 A year later Chuōkōron and Kaizō were forced to voluntarily dissolve after police beat confessions out of Communist staffers 16 Newspapers added columnists to whip up martial fervor 17 Magazines were ordered to print militaristic slogans 18 An article Americanism as the Enemy said that the Japanese should study American dynamism stemming from its social structure which was taken as praise despite the editor s having added as the Enemy to the title and resulted in the withdrawal of the issue 19 Cartoons edit nbsp Japanese propaganda in Jawi script found in the town of Kuching Sarawak after the capture of the town by the Australian forces nbsp A caricature of Chiang Kai shek put up in Ginza Tokyo after the fall of Nanking Cartoonists formed a patriotic association to promote fighting spirit stir up hatred of the enemy and encourage people to economize 20 A notable example was the Norakuro manga which began pre war as humorous episodes of anthropomorphic dogs in the army but eventually developed into propaganda tales of military exploits against the pigs army on the continent a thinly veiled reference to the Second Sino Japanese War Cartoons were also used to create informational papers to instruct occupied populations and also soldiers about the countries they occupied 5 21 Kamishibai editA form of propaganda unique to Japan was war themed Kamishibai paper plays a street performer uses Emakimono picture scrolls to convey the story of the play Audiences typically included children who would buy candy from the street performer providing his source of income Unlike American propaganda that often focused on the enemy Japanese wartime National Policy Kamishibai usually focused on themes of self sacrifice for the nation the heroism of martyrs or instructional messages such as how to respond to an air raid warning 22 Books editThe Shinmin no Michi or Path of Subjects described what the Japanese should aspire to be and depicted Western culture as corrupt 23 The booklet Read This and the War is Won printed for distribution to the army not only discussed tropical fighting conditions but also why the army fought 23 Colonialism was presented as a tiny group of colonists living in luxury by placing burdens on Asians because ties of blood connected them to the Japanese and Asians had been weakened by colonialism it was Japan s place to make men of them again 24 Textbooks edit The Ministry of Education led by a general sent out propagandistic textbooks 25 Military oversight of education was intense with officers arriving at any time to inspect classes and sometimes rebuke the instructor before the class 26 Similarly textbooks were revised in occupied China to instruct Chinese children in heroic Japanese figures 27 Education edit Even prior to the war military education treated science as a way to teach that the Japanese were a morally superior race and history as teaching pride in Japan with Japan not being only the most splendid nation but the only splendid one 28 After the attack on Pearl Harbor elementary schools were renamed National Schools and charged to produce children of the Emperor who would sacrifice themselves for the nation 29 Children were marched to school where half their time was spent on indoctrination on loyalty to the emperor and frugality obedience honesty and diligence 30 Teachers were instructed to teach Japanese science based on the Imperial Way which precluded evolution in view of their claims to divine descent 31 Students were given more physical education and required to perform community service 32 Compositions drawings calligraphy and pageants were based on military themes 33 Those who left school after completing six years were required to attend night school for Japanese history and ethics military training for boys and home economics for girls 32 As the war went on teachers lay more emphasis on the children s destiny as warriors when one child grew airsick on a swing a teacher told him he would not be a good fighter pilot 34 Pupils were shown caricatures of Americans and British to instruct them about their enemy 34 Girls graduating on Okinawa heard a speech by their principal on how they must work hard to avoid shaming the school before they were inducted into the Student Corps to act as nurses 35 Radio edit nbsp Correspondents interview Tokyo Rose Iva Toguri American born Japanese September 1945News reports were required to be official state announcements read exactly and as the war in China went on even entertainment programs addressed wartime conditions 36 The announcement of the war was made by radio soon followed by an address from Tojo who informed the people that in order to annihilate the enemy and ensure a stable Asia a long war had to be anticipated 37 To take advantage of the radio s adaptability to events Morning Addresses were made twice a month for schools 26 Short wave radios were used to broadcast anti European propaganda to Southeast Asia even before the war 38 Japan fearful of foreign propaganda had banned such receivers for Japanese but built broadcasters for all the occupied countries to extol the benefits of Japanese rule and attack Europeans 39 Singing towers or singing trees had loudspeakers on them to spread the broadcasts 40 Broadcasts to India urged revolt 41 Tokyo Rose s broadcasts were aimed at American troops 41 Negro propaganda operations edit In an effort to exacerbate racial tensions in the United States the Japanese enacted what was titled Negro Propaganda Operations 42 This plan created by Yasuichi Hikida the director of Japanese propaganda for Black Americans consisted of three areas 42 First was gathering information pertaining to Black Americans and their struggles in America second was the use of Black prisoners of war in the propaganda and third was the use of short wave radio broadcasts 42 Through shortwave radio broadcasts Japanese used their own radio announcers and African American POWs to spread propaganda to the United States Broadcasts focused on U S news stories involving racial tension such as the Detroit Race riots and lynchings 43 44 For example one broadcast commented notorious lynchings are a rare practice even among the most savage specimens of the human race 42 In an effort to gain more listeners POWs would be allowed to address family members back home 43 The Japanese believed propaganda would be the most effective if they used African American POWs to communicate to African Americans back home Using programs titled Conversations about Real Black POW Experiences and Humanity Calls POWs would speak on the conditions of war and their treatment in the military POWs with artistic strengths were used in plays and or songs that were broadcast back home 42 The success of this propaganda is much debated as only a small minority of people in America had shortwave radios 43 Even so some scholars believe that the Negro Propaganda Operations evoked a variety of responses within the Black community and the sum total of these reactions forced America s government to improve conditions for Blacks in the military and society 42 Even the NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People saw the propaganda as a media tool in the struggle against racial discrimination 42 Despite these debates both sides agree that these programs were particularly dangerous because of their foundation in truth 42 43 44 Leaflets edit nbsp Japanese propaganda leaflet distributed during the Battle of the PhilippinesLeaflets in China asked why they were not better defended after all the money they had spent 45 Leaflets were dropped by airplane on the Philippines Malaya and Indonesia urging them to surrender as the Japanese would be better than the Europeans 46 They were also dropped in India to encourage a revolt against British rule now that Great Britain was distracted 41 Slogans edit Slogans were used throughout Japan for propaganda purpose 47 They were used as patriotic exortion National Unity One Hundred Million With One Spirit and to urge frugality Away with frivolous entertainment 48 Themes editKokutai edit Kokutai meaning the uniqueness of the Japanese people in having a leader with spiritual origins was officially promulgated by the government including a text book sent about by the Ministry of Education 25 The purpose of this instruction was to ensure that every child regarded himself first of all as a Japanese and was grateful for the family polity structure of government with its apex in the emperor 49 Indeed little effort was made during the course of the war to explain to the Japanese people what it was fought for instead it was presented as a chance to rally about the emperor 50 nbsp Leaping Patriotic Autumn Promotion of patriotismIn 1937 the pamphlet Kokutai no Hongi was written to explain the principle 51 It clearly stated its purpose to overcome social unrest and to develop a new Japan 52 From this pamphlet pupils were taught to put the nation before the self and that they were part of the state and not separate from it 53 The Ministry of Education promulgated it throughout the school system 51 In 1939 Taisei Yokusankai Imperial Rule Assistance Association was founded by the prime minister to restore the spirit and virtues of old Japan 54 When the number of patriotic associations during the war worried the government they were folded into the IRAA which used them to mobilize the nation and promote unity 55 In 1941 Shinmin no Michi was written to instruct the Japanese what to aspire to 56 Ancient texts set forth the central precepts of loyalty and filial piety which would throw aside selfishness and allow them to complete their holy task 57 It called for them to become one hundred million hearts beating as one a call that would reappear in American anti Japanese propaganda though Shinmin no Michi explicitly said that many Japanese failed to act in this manner 58 The obedience called for was to be blind and absolute 59 The war would be a purifying experience to draw them back to the pure and cloudless heart of their inherent character that they had strayed from 60 Their natural racial purity should be reflected in their unity 61 Patriotic war songs seldom mentioned the enemy and then only generically the tone was elegiac and the topic was purity and transcendence often compared to cherry blossom 62 The final letters of kamikaze pilots expressed above all that their motivations were gratitude to Japan and to its Emperor as the embodiment of kokutai 63 One letter after praising Japanese history and the way of life their ancestors had passed down to them and the Imperial family as the crystallization of Japan s splendour concluded It is an honor to be able to give my life in defense of these beautiful and lofty things 64 nbsp Luxury is our Enemy banner by the National Spiritual Mobilization MovementIntellectuals at an overcoming modernity conference proclaimed that prior to the Meiji Restoration Japan had been a classless society under a benevolent emperor but the restoration had plunged the nation into Western materialism an argument that ignored commercialism and ribald culture in the Tokugawa era which had caused people to forget their nature which the war would enable them to reclaim 65 Baseball jazz and other Western profligate ways were singled out in government propaganda to be abandoned for a pure spirit of sacrifice 65 This Yamato spirit would allow them to overcome the vast disproportion in fighting material 66 This belief was so well indoctrinated that even as Allied victories overwhelmed the ability of the Japanese government to cover them up with lies many Japanese refused to believe that God s country could be defeated 67 The military government likewise fought on hopes that the casualty lists would undermine the Allied will to fight 68 General Ushijami addressing his troops in Okinawa told them their greatest strength lay in moral superiority 69 Even as American forces proceeded from victory to victory Japanese propaganda claimed military superiority 70 The attack on Iwo Jima was announced by the Home and Empire broadcast with uncommon praise of the American commanders but also the confident declaration that they must not leave the island alive 71 The dying words of President Roosevelt were altered to I have made a terrible mistake and some editorials proclaimed it a punishment of Heaven 72 American interrogators of prisoners found that they were unshakable in their conviction of Japan s sacred mission 73 After the war one Japanese doctor explained to American interrogators that the people of Japan had foolishly believed that the gods would indeed help them out of their predicament 74 nbsp 1939 Recruitment poster for the Tank School of the Imperial Japanese ArmyThis also gave them a sense of racial superiority to the Asian peoples they claimed to liberate which did much to undermine Japanese propaganda for racial unity 75 Their bright and strong souls made them the superior race and therefore their proper place was in the leadership of the Greater East Asia Co Prosperity Sphere 76 Anyone not Japanese was an enemy devilish animalistic including other Asian peoples such as the Chinese 77 Strict racial segregation was maintained in conquered regions and they were encouraged to think of themselves as the world s foremost people 78 This race was indeed to be further improved with physical fitness and social welfare programs and population policies to increase their number 79 A campaign to promote fertility in order to produce future citizens continued through 1942 and no efforts were made to recruit women to war work for this reason 64 The slogan Be fruitful and multiply was used in campaigns 80 Rural life edit Despite its military strength being dependent on industrialization the regime glorified rural life 81 The traditional rural and agricultural life was opposed to the modern city proposals were made to fight the atomizing effects of cities by locating schools and factories in the countryside to maintain the rural population 79 Agrarianist rhetoric exulted village harmony even while tenants and landlords were pitted against each other by war needs 82 Spiritual mobilization edit The National Spiritual Mobilization Movement was formed from 74 organizations to rally the nation for a total war effort It carried out such tasks as instructing schoolchildren on the Holy war in China and having women roll bandages for the war effort 83 Production edit nbsp Electric Power is Military Power Even prior to the war the organization Sanpo existed to explain the need to meet production quotas even if sacrifices were needed it did so with rallies lectures and panel discussion and also set up programs to assist workers lives to attract membership 16 Among the early victories was one that secured an oil field giving Japan its own source for the first time propaganda exulted that Japan was no longer a have not nation 84 In 1943 as the American industrial juggernaut produced material superiority for the American forces calls were made for a more war like footing on part of the population in particular in calls for increases in war materials 85 The emphasis on training soldiers rather than arming them had left the armed forces dangerously ill supplied after the heavy attrition 86 Morning assemblies at factories had officers address the workers and enjoin them to meet their quotas 87 The production levels were kept up albeit at the price of extraordinary sacrifice 88 Privation edit nbsp Cartoon of Hideki Tōjō encouraging oil rationingThe government urged Japanese people to do without basic necessities privation For example magazines gave advice on economizing on food and clothing as soon as war broke out with China 12 After the outbreak of war with the United States early suggestions that the people enjoyed the victories too much and were not prepared for the long war ahead were not taken and so early propaganda did not contain warnings 89 In 1944 propaganda endeavoured to warn the Japanese people of disasters to come and install in them a spirit as in Saipan to accept more privation for the war 90 Articles were written claiming the Americans could not stage air raids from Saipan although since they could from China they clearly could from Saipan the purpose was to subtly warn of the dangers to come 91 The actual bombing raids brought new meaning to the slogan We are all equal 92 Early songs proclaiming that the cities had iron defenses and it was an honor to defend the homeland quickly lost their luster 93 Still continued calls to sacrifice were honored neighborhood association helped as no one wanted to be seen quitting first 94 Accounts of self sacrificing privation were common in the press a teacher dressed in tatters who refused to wear a new shirt because all his friends are likewise tattered and officers and governmental officials who made do without any form of heating 95 This reflected the privation actually in society where clothing was at premium and the work week was seven days long with schooling cut to a minimum so that children could work 96 Hakkō ichiu edit nbsp Prewar 10 sen Japanese stamp illustrating the Hakkō ichiu and the 2600th anniversary of the Empire Like Nazi Germany s demands for Lebensraum Japanese propaganda complained of being kept trapped in its own home waters 25 Hakkō ichiu to bring the eight corners of the world under one roof added a religious overtone to the theme 25 It was based on the story of Emperor Jimmu who had founded Japan and finding five races on it had made them all as brothers of one family 97 In 1940 the Japan Times and Mail recounted the story of Jimmu on the 2600 anniversary 97 The news of Hitler s success in Europe followed by Mussolini s joining in the conflict produced the slogan Don t miss the bus as the European war gave them the opportunity to conquer Southeast Asia for its resources 98 On the outbreak of war Tojo declared that as long as there remains a spirit of loyalty and patriotism under this policy there was nothing to fear 99 An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus explicitly called for such expansion although a secret document for use of the policy makers it laid out explicitly what is elsewhere hinted at in 100 It explicitly laid out that the superior position of Japan in the Greater Asia Co Prosperity Sphere showing the subordination of other nations was not forced by the war but part of explicit policy 101 This was also justified on the grounds that the resource poor Japanese could not count on any sources of raw material that they did not control themselves 102 Propaganda stated that Japan was being strangled by ABCD America Britain China and Dutch East Indies through trade embargoes and boycotts 103 Even in preparation of the war the newspapers reported that unless negotiations improved Japan would be forced to engage in self defense measures 104 Bushido edit The samurai code bushido was pressed into service for indoctrination in militarism 105 This was used to present war as purifying and death a duty 106 This worked to prevent surrenders both of those who adhered to it and of those who feared disgrace if they did not die 106 This was presented as revitalizing traditional values and transcending the modern 107 War was presented as a purifying experience albeit only for the Japanese 108 Bushido would provide a spiritual shield to let soldiers fight to the end 109 All soldiers were expected to adhere to it although historically it had been the duty of higher ranked samurai and not common soldiers 110 nbsp The submariners who died in the Pearl Harbor attackAs taught it produced a reckless indifference to the technological side of warfare Japan s production was a fraction of America s making equipment difficult 111 Officers declared themselves indifferent to radar because they had perfectly good eyes 112 The blue eyed Americans would necessarily be inferior to the dark eyed Japanese at night attacks 113 At Imphal the commander declared to his troops that it was a battle between their spiritual strength and the British material strength a command which became famous as rubric of Japanese spirit 114 Soldiers were told that the bayonet was their central weapon and many kept them affixed at all times 115 Guns were treated as symbolic representations of martial spirit and loyalty so any negligence regarding them was severely punished 116 As early as the Shanghai Incident the principles of victory or death were already implemented and much was made of a captured Japanese soldier who returned to the site of his capture to commit seppuku 117 Three troopers who had blown themselves up on a section of barbed wire were lauded as three human bombs and featured in no less than six films even though they may have died only because their fuses were too short 118 Tojo himself in a 1940 booklet urged the spirit of self sacrifice on soldiers to not consider death 119 It unquestionably contributed to the maltreatment of prisoners of war who had performed the disgraceful act of surrender 120 Another consequence was that nothing was done to train soldiers for captivity with the result that Americans found Japanese prisoners much easier to get information from than the Japanese found American prisoners 121 In 1932 Akiko Yosano s poetry urged Japanese soldiers to endure sufferings in China and compared the dead soldiers to cherry blossoms a traditional image that would be put to great use throughout the war 12 The emphasis on this tradition and the lack of a comparable military tradition in the United States led to an underestimating of American fighting spirit which surprised Japanese forces at Midway Bataan and other Pacific War battles 122 It also emphasized attack at the expense of defense 123 Bushido argued for bold advances in the face of common sense which was urged on the troops 124 nbsp Yasukuni Shrine for the deadThe dead were treated as war gods starting with the nine submariners who died at Pearl Harbor with the tenth taken prisoner never being mentioned in Japanese press 125 The burials of and memorials for hero gods who had fallen in battle provided the Japanese public with news of battle that had not been otherwise released as when a submarine attack on Sydney was revealed through burial of four who died this propaganda frequently clashed with propaganda on victory 126 Even years before the war children had been instructed in school that dying for the emperor transformed one into a deity 127 As the war turned the spirit of bushido was invoked to urge that all depended on the firm and united soul of the nation 128 Media were filled with stories of samurai old and new 129 Newspapers printed bidan beautiful stories about dead soldiers with their photographs and having a family member speak of them before Pearl Harbor and the crushing casualties of the Pacific War they endeavoured to get such a story for every fallen soldier 130 While fighting in China the casualties were low enough that individual cases were glorified 118 Letters from fallen heroes became a staple of Japanese newspapers by 1944 131 Defeats were treated chiefly in terms of resistance to death The Time magazine article on Saipan and the mass civilian suicides there was widely reported with the awe filled enemy reports treated as evidence of the glory of sacrifice and the pride of Japanese women 132 When the Battle of Attu was lost attempts were made to make the more than two thousand Japanese deaths an inspirational epic for the fighting spirit of the nation 133 Suicidal rushes were glorified as showing the Japanese spirit 134 Arguments that the plans for the Battle of Leyte Gulf involving all Japanese ships would expose Japan to serious danger if they failed were countered with the plea that the Navy be permitted to bloom as flowers of death 135 The last message of the forces on Peleliu was Sakura Sakura cherry blossoms 136 The first proposals of organized suicide attacks met resistance because while bushido called for a warrior to be always aware of death he was not to view it as the sole end 137 The Japanese Imperial Navy had not ordered any attacks it was impossible to survive even with the midget submarines in the Pearl Harbor attack plans had been made for rejoining the mother ship if feasible 138 The desperate straits brought about acceptance 137 Propagandists immediately set about ennobling such deaths 139 Such attacks were acclaimed as the true spirit of bushido 140 and became an integral part of strategy with Okinawa 141 nbsp Cherry blossoms before Mount Fuji symbols of heroic deathVice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi addressed the first kamikaze suicide attack unit telling them that their nobility of spirit would keep the homeland from ruin even in defeat 142 The names of four sub units within the Kamikaze Special Attack Force were Unit Shikishima Unit Yamato Unit Asahi and Unit Yamazakura 143 These names were taken from a patriotic poem waka or tanka Shikishima no Yamato gokoro wo hito towaba asahi ni niou yamazakura bana by the Japanese classical scholar Motoori Norinaga 144 If someone asks about the Yamato spirit Spirit of Old True Japan of Shikishima a poetic name for Japan it is the flowers of yamazakura mountain cherry blossom that are fragrant in the Asahi rising sun This also drew upon popular symbolism in Japan of the fall of the cherry blossom as a symbol of mortality 145 These and other kamikaze attackers were acclaimed as national heroes 146 Divers prepared for such work in the event of the invasion of Japan were given individual ensigns to indicate they could replace an entire ship and carefully separated so that they would die from their own handiwork rather than another s 147 The propaganda urging such deaths and resistance to death was issued in hopes that the bitter resistance would induce the Americans to offer terms 148 When Togo made approaches to the Soviet Union these were interpreted as asking for peace which the newspapers instantly repudiated they would not seek peace but win the war a view enforced by the kempeitai who arrested for any hint of defeatism 149 The army s manual on defending the homeland called for the slaughter of any Japanese who impeded the defense 150 Japanese propaganda of fighting to the bitter end and the hundred year war indeed led many Americans beyond questions of hatred and racism to conclude that a war of extermination might be the only possibility of victory the question being whether the Japanese would surrender before such extermination was complete 151 Even after the atomic attacks and the Emperor s insistence that they surrender Inaba Masao issued a statement urging the Army to fight to the bitter end when other colonels informed him of a proclamation made to hint of the prospect of surrender to the population they rushed to ensure Inaba s was broadcast to create conflicting messages 152 This caused consternation in the government for fear of American reaction and to prevent delay the surrender was sent out as a news story in English and Morse code to prevent military censors from halting it 153 Intelligence edit Early training for intelligence agents tried to infuse the service with the traditional mystery of spying in Japan citing the spirit of the ninja 154 In China edit nbsp Japanese propaganda poster Heaven and Hell demonising China under the Nationalist GovernmentIn occupied China textbooks were revised to omit tales of Japanese atrocities and instead focus on heroic Japanese figures including one officer who divorced his wife before going to China so that he could focus on the war and she would be free of the burden of filial piety toward his parents since he would certainly die 27 Against atrocity claims edit Tight government censorship prevented the Japanese population from hearing of atrocities in China 155 When news of atrocities reached Western countries Japan launched propaganda to combat it both denying it and interviewing prisoners to counter it 156 They were it was proclaimed being well treated by virtue of bushido generosity 157 The interviews were also described as being not propaganda but out of sympathy with the enemy such sympathy as only bushido could inspire 158 The effect on Americans was tempered by subtle messages imbedded by the prisoners including such comments as the declaration they were allowed to continue to wear the clothes they had been captured in 158 As early as the Bataan Death March the Japanese had The Manila Times claim that the prisoners were treated humanely and their death rate had to be attributed to the intransigence of the American commanders who did not surrender until their men were on the verge of death 159 After the torture and execution of several of the Doolittle Raiders the Nippon Times proclaimed the humane treatment of American and British prisoners of war in order to declare that British forces were treating German prisoners inhumanely 160 Anti Western edit nbsp Tōhōkai poster urging Asians to shoot on the BritishThe United States and Great Britain were attacked years before the war with any Western idea conflicting with Japanese practice being labeled dangerous thoughts 38 They were attacked as materialistic and soulless both in Japan and in short wave broadcasts to Southeast Asia 38 Not only were such thoughts censored through strict control of publishing the government used various popular organizations to foment hostility to them 161 Great Britain was attacked with particular fervor owing to its many colonies and blamed for the continued stalemate in China 162 Chiang Kai shek was denounced as a Western puppet 163 supplied through British and American exploitation of Southeast Asian colonies 164 Militarists hating the arms control treaties that allowed Japan only 3 ships for British and American 5 used 5 5 3 as a nationalistic slogan 165 Furthermore they wished to escape an international capitalist system dominated by British and American interests 166 Newspapers in the days leading up to Pearl Harbor kept up an ominous repetition of intransigence on the part of the United States 167 The news of the attack on Pearl Harbor resulted in newspapers staging a Rally to Crush the United States and Great Britain 168 When the government found the war songs too abstract and elegiac it staged a nationwide competition for a song to a march tune with the title Down with Britain and America 169 After such atrocities as the Bataan Death March cruel treatment of prisoners of war was justified on the grounds they had sacrificed other people s lives but surrendered to save their own and had acted with utmost selfishness throughout their campaign 120 The pamphlet The Psychology of the American Individual addressed to soldiers informed them that Americans had no thought of the glory of their ancestors their posterity or their family name they were daredevils in search of publicity they feared death and did not care what happened after it they were liars and easily taken in by flattery and propaganda and being materialistic they relied on material superiority rather than spiritual incentive in battle 170 nbsp Caricature of Franklin Delano Roosevelt on the cover of Manga August 1943Praise of the enemy was treated as treason and no newspaper could print anything mentioning the enemy favorably no matter how much the Japanese forces found enemy combat spirit and effectiveness praiseworthy 171 Intellectuals promulgated anti Western views with particular fervor 172 A conference on overcoming modernity proclaimed the world historical meaning of the war was resistance to the Western cultural ideas imposed on Japan 172 The Meiji Restoration had plunged the nation into Western materialism an argument that ignored commercialism and ribald culture in the Tokugawa era which had caused people to forget they were a classless society under a benevolent emperor but the war would shake off these notions 65 The government likewise urged the abandonment of Western ways such as baseball and jazz for a pure spirit of sacrifice 65 Officially Japan did not present itself as completely anti Western because of the alliance with Italy and Germany and to some policymakers because such a claim was incompatible with Japan s high moral purpose But as the alliance was both secure and solely of expedience much antiwhite rhetoric was promulgated 173 A propagandistic account of Germans in Java depicted them as grateful to be now under Japanese protection 174 In the United States Elmer Davis of the Office of War Information argued that this propaganda could be combated by deeds that counteracted this but was unable to get support 175 Weakness edit nbsp Japanese propaganda poster featuring Japanese agrarian immigrants in Manchukuo designed for a Westerner audience The Allies were also attacked as weak and effete unable to sustain a long war a view at first supported by a string of victories 176 The lack of a warrior tradition such as bushido reinforced this belief 177 The armed forces were told that American forces would not come to fight them that Americans could not fight in the jungle and indeed could not stand warfare 178 Accounts of prisoners of war depicted the Americans as cowardly and willing to do anything to gain favor 179 Subordinates were actively encouraged to treat prisoners contemptuously to foster feelings of superiority toward them 180 Both Americans and British were presented as figures of fun resulting in serious weakness when complacency induced by propaganda met the actual enemy strength 181 Shortly prior to the Doolittle Raid Radio Tokyo jeered at a foreign report of bombing on the grounds it was impossible 182 The Doolittle Raid itself was minimized reporting little damage and concluding correctly that it had been carried out for American morale 183 Many Japanese pilots believed that their strength and American softness would result in their victory 184 The ferocity and self sacrificing attacks of American pilots at the Battle of Midway undermined the propaganda as did the fighting at the Battle of Bataan and other Pacific battlefields 122 The surrender terms offered by the United States were scorned by the newspapers as ludicrous urging that the government remain silent about them which indeed the government did a traditional Japanese technique for dealing with the unacceptable 185 Against American morale edit nbsp What are you fighting for holding out the folly of starving on CorregidorMost propaganda attacks against the American troops were aimed at morale 56 Tokyo Rose gave sentimental broadcasts designed to arouse homesickness 41 She would also taunt the troops as suckers with the prospect of their wives and sweethearts taking up with new men while they fought 186 There were also broadcasts of prisoners of war speaking on the radio to assure that they were being treated well these were sandwiched between news reports of varying lengths so that the entire broadcast had to be heard to be sure of hearing the prisoner 187 nbsp Leaflet warning landing American soldiers of their impending death These programs were not well designed as they assumed that the Americans did not want to fight underestimating the psychological effect of Pearl Harbor and that hostility to Roosevelt s domestic policies translated into hostility to his foreign policy 188 Indeed they believed that the Pearl Harbor attack would be regarded as a defensive act forced on them by Roosevelt and his clique 188 American forces were less wed to the notion of decisive battle than Japanese were and so the opening string of victories had less impact on them than expected 189 Furthermore the prisoners who spoke often included subtle messages that undermined the anti atrocity propaganda stating they had been allowed the clothing they had worn when captured to make it clear that they had been given no new clothes 158 A pamphlet dropped on the forces on Okinawa declared that President Roosevelt s death had been caused by the extensive damage the Japanese had inflicted on American ships which would continue until the ships were all sunk and the American forces thus orphaned 190 One soldier reading it while the ships were bombarding the shore asked where they thought the gunfire was coming from 190 Anti communist edit Communism was enumerated among the Western dangerous ideas However during the invasion of China Japanese propaganda to the United States played on American anti communism to win support 191 It clarification needed was also offered to the Japanese people as a way of forging a bulwark against communism 163 Propaganda was also used to demonise the Chinese Communist Party Allied atrocities edit nbsp Drawing of an ogre with a necklace of skulls removing a Roosevelt faced mask October 1944Shinmin no Michi the Path of the Subject discussed American historical atrocities 56 and presented Western history as brutal wars exploitation and destructive values 23 Its colonialism was based on its destructive individualism materialism utilitarianism and liberalism all which allowed the strong to prey on the weak 192 While minimizing the effect of the Doolittle Raid propaganda also depicted the raiders as inhuman demons attacking civilians 193 Shortly after those of the raiders who had been captured had been tortured and some executed the Nippon Times denounced British treatment of German prisoners of war claiming that American and British prisoners held by Japan were being treated in accordance with international law 160 Allied war purposes were presented as annihilation 194 Japanese civilians were told that the Americans would commit rape torture and murder and they therefore were to kill themselves rather than surrender on Saipan and Okinawa large majorities of the civilian population did commit suicide or kill each other before the American victory 195 Those captured on Saipan were often terrified of their captors particularly of the black soldiers although this was not solely due to propaganda but because many had never seen blacks before 196 The demand for unconditional surrender was heavily exploited 197 Interrogated prisoners reported that this propaganda was widely believed and therefore people would resist to the death 34 Accounts of American soldiers murdering German prisoners of war were also told regardless of accuracy 198 Much play was made of American soldiers desecrating the bodies of the dead omitting that such acts were condemned by both military authorities and from America pulpits 199 That President Roosevelt was presented with a gift from a Japanese soldier s forearm was reported but not that he refused it and argued for a decent burial 200 In American propaganda much was made of Japanese calls to devotion to death 201 Some soldiers attacked civilians on the grounds they would not surrender and which in turn served as grist for Japanese propaganda about American atrocities 202 Even before the American pamphlets warning of the great power of atomic explosions newspapers commenting on the atomic attacks reported that the bombs could not be taken lightly The Nippon Times reported that it was clearly intended to kill many innocent people to end the war quickly and others proclaimed it a moral outrage 203 To the occupied countries edit nbsp Fragment of Japanese propaganda booklet published by the Tokyo Conference 1943 depicting scenes of everyday life in Greater East Asia nbsp Japanese propaganda leaflet depicting Allied leaders such as Roosevelt Churchill and Chiang trying to push or pull an Indian into the fight against the Japanese 1943Extensive use of posters was made in China to endeavour to convince the Chinese that the Europeans were enemies especially the Americans and British 204 Much was made of the opium trade 204 Similarly the Philippines were propagandized about American exploitation American Imperialism and American tyranny and blame was laid on the United States for starting the war 56 They were assured that they were not Japan s enemies and that the American forces would not return 5 56 The effect of this was considerably undermined by the actions of the Japanese Army and the Filipinos soon wanted the Americans to return to free them from the Japanese 56 Black propaganda posed as American instructions to avoid venereal disease by having sexual intercourse with wives or other respectable Filipina women rather than prostitutes 56 After the fall of Singapore American and British were sent as prisoners to Korea to eradicate Korean admiration for them 205 Ragged prisoners of war brought to Korea as forced labor were also marched through the streets to show how the European forces had fallen 206 In the occupied countries short wave radios attacked Europeans particularly White Australia which broadcasts claimed could support 100 million instead of the current 7 million if the industrious Asians were allowed to make it bloom 39 Broadcasts and leaflets urged India to revolt against British rule now that Great Britain was distracted 41 Other leaflets and posters aimed at Allied forces of different nationalities attempted to drive a wedge between them by attacking other Allied countries 56 Antisemitic edit This Western hegemony was presented sometimes as being masterminded by Jews 60 Especially in the early years of the war a spate of anti Jewish propaganda was produced which appears to be the effect of the Nazi alliance 207 Greater East Asia Co Prosperity Sphere edit nbsp Fragment of Japanese propaganda booklet published by the Tokyo Conference depicting East Asia freed from Anglo American presence nbsp Fragment of Japanese propaganda booklet published by the Tokyo Conference depicting the different peoples of East AsiaDuring the war Asia for the Asians was a widespread slogan though undermined by brutal Japanese treatment in occupied countries 208 This was in service of the Greater East Asia Co Prosperity Sphere where the new Japanese empire was presented as an Asian equivalent of the Monroe Doctrine 5 209 The regions of Asia it was argued were as essential to Japan as Latin America was to the United States 210 This was initially while plausible very popular among the occupied nations 5 211 Japanese victories were initially cheered in support of this aim 212 Many Japanese remained convinced throughout the war that the Sphere was idealistic offering slogans in a newspaper competition praising the sphere for constructive efforts and peace 213 nbsp Greater East Asia Co Prosperity Sphere mapDuring the war with China the prime minister announced on radio they were seeking only a new order to ensure the stability of East Asia unfortunately prevented because Chiang Kai shek was a Western puppet 163 The failure to win the Second Sino Japanese War was blamed on British and American exploitation of Southeast Asian colonies to supply the Chinese even though the Chinese received far more assistance from the Soviet Union 164 Later pamphlets were dropped by airplane on the Philippines Malaya and Indonesia urging them to join this movement 46 Mutual cultural societies were founded in all conquered nations to ingratiate with the natives and try to supplant English with Japanese as the commonly used language 214 Multi lingual pamphlets depicted many Asians marching or working together in happy unity with the flags of all the nations and a map depicting the intended sphere 215 Others proclaimed that they had given independent governments to the countries they occupied a claim undermined by the lack of power given these puppet governments 56 In Thailand a street was built to demonstrate it to be filled with modern buildings and shops but nine tenths of it consisted of false fronts 216 The Greater East Asia Conference was highly publicized 217 Tojo greeted them with a speech praising the spiritual essence of Asia as opposed to the materialistic civilization of the West 218 At it Ba Maw declared that his Asian blood had always called out to other Asians and that it was not time to think with minds but with blood and many other Asian leaders supported Japan in terms of an East vs West conflict of bloods 217 Japanese oppression and racial pretensions slowly undermined this dream 219 The booklet Read This and the War is Won was intended for the Japanese army 23 It presented colonialism as a tiny group of colonists living in luxury by burdening Asians because ties of blood connect them to Japanese and Asians had been weakened by colonialism it was Japan s place to make men of them again 24 China edit nbsp Propaganda posters of the Concordia Association in Manchukuo In China leaflets were dropped arguing that the mandate of heaven had clearly been lost so that authority moved to the new leaders 56 Propaganda also spoke of the benefits of the kingly way 王道 wang tao or in Japanese odo as a solution to both nationalism and radicalism 220 Philippines edit The Philippines were their first target after Pearl Harbor and instructions to propagandists called for rousing the spirit of the Far East and inspiring them with militarism to fight beside the Japanese 56 Surrender cards were dropped to allow soldiers to surrender safely by handing over a card 56 Jorge B Vargas the Chairman of the Executive Committee Provisional Philippine Council of State signed one leaflet that was dropped urging surrender 56 Korea edit Korea was annexed in 1910 The Governor General of Korea which said that the colony s economic progress in the ensuing 30 years was because its Japanese administrators had devoted themselves to its benefit 221 The Japanese attempted to co opt the Koreans urging them to view themselves as part of one imperial race with Japan and even presenting themselves as rescuing a nation too long under the shadow of China 222 better source needed However native Koreans lost their estate society and position which encouraged resistance 223 India edit See also Propaganda and India in World War II The Battle of Imphal was fought in part to show the Indian National Army to the Indians in hopes of provoking a revolt against the Raj 224 Self defense edit Propaganda declared that the war had been forced on them in self defense As early as the Manchurian Incident the mass media uncriticially spread the report that the Chinese had caused the explosion attacking Japan s rights and interests and therefore the Japanese must defend their rights even at great sacrifice 225 This argument was made even to the League of Nations they were only trying to prevent anti Japanese activities by the Guomindang 226 Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor newspapers reported that unless negotiations improved Japan would be forced to engage in self defense measures 104 Indeed after the attack propaganda to American forces operated on the assumption that Americans would regard Pearl Harbor as a defensive act forced on them by Roosevelt and his clique 188 Victories edit For propaganda purposes defeats were presented at home as great victories 50 Much was made of Japan s 2 600 year history without defeats 227 The wars of 1895 and 1904 were presented by historians as overwhelming triumphs instead of narrowly won 228 For a long time the armed forces held to the belief that a string of victories would demoralize the Americans sufficiently for a negotiated peace 229 nbsp The English language Japan Times amp Advertiser depicts Uncle Sam and Winston Churchill erecting grave markers for ships that the Imperial Japanese Navy claimed to have sunk This began with the claims about the war in China 230 It continued with newspaper exultation over the attack on Pearl Harbor 231 and continued with the string of early Japanese successes 232 This produced an exuberance in the people that did not brace them for a long war but suggestions that it be tempered were not accepted 89 Even in the early stages exaggerated claims were made such as that Hawaii was in danger of starvation even though the Japanese submarines were not raiding commerce as would have been needed to bring this about 233 The capture of Singapore was triumphantly declared as deciding the general situation of the war 234 The Doolittle Raid produced considerable shock and efforts to counter the impact were made 235 The army after some victories clearly began to believe its own propaganda 236 Very few statements even hinted that more was needed prior to victory 237 The prolonged resistance at Bataan was in part enabled by orders that required a spectacular victory for propaganda points resulting in Japanese forces taking Manila while American forces entrenched 238 Dogged American resistance at Corregidor resulted in occasional declarations that its defeat was near followed by weeks of silence 239 The Battle of Coral Sea was presented as a victory rather than inconclusive exaggerating American losses and understating Japanese ones 240 Indeed it was presented as a sweeping triumph rather than the marginal tactical victory that could reasonably be claimed 241 Declarations were made that the battle had rendered the Americans panic stricken when in fact they had also proclaimed it a victory 242 The attack on Midway was rendered crucial by the Doolittle Raid which had sneaked through the defensive perimeter at that point and while not causing serious damage had caused humiliation and propaganda difficulties 243 The clear defeat at the Battle of Midway continued this pattern 50 Newspapers were informed only of American damage with the Japanese losses entirely omitted 244 The survivors of the lost ships were sworn to silence and packed off to distant fronts to prevent the truth becoming known 245 Even Tojo was not informed of the truth until a month after the battle 246 The word retreat was never used even to the troops 247 In 1943 the army invented a new verb tenshin to march elsewhere to avoid referring to their forces as retreating 50 Japanese who used the term strategic retreat were warned against doing so 248 One reason for the execution of captured American aircrew was to hide their presence evidence that the Japanese forces were falling back 249 By the time of the Guadalcanal Campaign newspapers were no longer covering their first pages with victories but adding stories about the battles in Europe and the Prosperity Sphere but some battles had to be presented as victories 250 Reporters wrote articles as if they were winning 251 Japanese authorities published accounts boasting of the casualties inflicted before withdrawal 252 The Battle of the Eastern Solomons was reported not only exaggerating American damage but claiming that the carrier Hornet had been sunk thus taking revenge for its part in the Doolittle Raid when in fact Hornet had not been in the battle 253 The Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands while a Japanese tactical victory gained time for the Americans on Guadalcanal and inflicted heavy losses on Japanese aircraft it was considered so momentous that it was praised in an imperial rescript 254 nbsp Let s win the Greater East Asia WarHowever by 1943 the Japanese population was aware of the stark difference between the crude propaganda and the facts 255 The death of Isoroku Yamamoto inflicted a severe blow 133 It was followed by defeat at the Battle of Attu which propaganda could not make inspirational 133 Accounts of the battle at Saipan concentrated on the fighting spirit and the heavy American casualties but familiarity with geography would demonstrate that the battles slowly progressed northwards as the American forces advanced and the reports stopped with the final battle which was not reported 256 Reports of annihilation did not prevent American forces from continuing to fight 257 Furthermore newspapers were allowed to speculate about the future of the war as long as they did not predict defeat or otherwise evince disloyalty the truth could be discerned from their presuppositions 258 After Saipan had led to the resignation of Tojo as prime minister an accurate account of the fall of Saipan was published by the army and navy including the nearly total loss of all Japanese soldiers and civilians on the island and the use of human bullets leading many to conclude that the war was lost 259 This was the first uncensored war news they had issued since 1938 during the war with China 83 The simultaneous and disastrous Battle of Philippine Sea was still obfuscated in the old manner 259 A battle off Formosa was declared a victory and a holiday declared when in fact Americans had inflicted heavy damage and drawn off planes needed to defend the Philippines 260 Inexperienced pilots reported crippling attacks on the ships of United States Third Fleet shortly prior to the Battle of Leyte which were accepted at face value when the pilots had in fact not sunk a single ship 261 The first suicide attacks were likewise presented as successful in causing damage in contradiction of the facts 262 A shot down B 29 was displayed along with the boast that it was one of hundreds 91 Peace editWhen the offer to surrender had been made Kōichi Kido showed the Emperor the American pamphlets telling of the offer and stated that uninformed soldiers might start an uprising if this fell into their hands 263 The Cabinet agreed that the proclamation had to come from the emperor himself although in concession to his position it was decided to make it a recording rather than a live broadcast 264 The Kyujō Incident attempting to prevent the broadcast failed 265 See also edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to World War II posters from Japan American propaganda during World War II British propaganda during World War II Jikyoku Iinkai Nazi propaganda Propaganda of Fascist ItalyReferences edit James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 441 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 442 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 a b c Ward Robert Spencer 1945 Asia for the Asiatics The Techniques of Japanese Occupation Chicago University of Chicago Press a b 1 Navarro Anthony V A Critical Comparison Between Japanese and American Propaganda During World War II Retrieved 2011 02 04 a b c d e f g h i j k l Baskett Michael 2008 The Attractive Empire Transnational Film Culture in Imperial Japan Honolulu University of Hawai i Press a b c Desser D 1995 From the opium war to the pacific war Japanese propaganda films of world war II Film History 7 1 32 48 Kushner Barak 2006 The Thought War Japanese Imperial Propaganda Honolulu University of Hawaii Press Baskett Michael 2005 Rediscovering and remembering Manchukuo in Japanese Goodwill Films in Crossed Histories Manchuria in the Age of Empire ed Mariko Tamanoi Honolulu University of Hawaii Press 120 134 Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p250 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York a b c d Brcak N amp Pavia J R 1994 Racism in japanese and U S wartime propaganda Historian 56 4 671 Baskett Michael 2009 All Beautiful Fascists Axis Film Culture in Imperial Japan in The Culture of Japanese Fascismed Alan Tansman Duke University Press a b c James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 427 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 490 1 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p66 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 a b Marius B Jansen The Making of Modern Japan p 643 ISBN 0 674 00334 9 a b c James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 491 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 Marius B Jansen The Making of Modern Japan p 644 ISBN 0 674 00334 9 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p67 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p68 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p95 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p96 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Die for Japan Wartime Propaganda Kamishibai paper plays 国策紙芝居 Dym Sensei Archived from the original on 2021 12 21 a b c d John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p24 ISBN 0 394 50030 X a b John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p24 5 ISBN 0 394 50030 X a b c d Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p246 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York a b Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p246 248 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York a b Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 156 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 173 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p172 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 257 8 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Piers Brendon The Dark Valley A Panorama of the 1930s p635 ISBN 0 375 40881 9 a b James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 466 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p343 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 a b c Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p41 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p355 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 467 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 228 Random House New York 1970 a b c Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p249 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York a b Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p255 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p255 6 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York a b c d e Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p256 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York a b c d e f g h Masaharu Sato and Barak Kushner 1999 Negro propaganda operations Japan s short wave radio broadcasts for world war II black Americans Historical Journal of Film Radio and Television 19 1 5 26 a b c d Menefee Selden C 1943 Japan s psychological war Social Forces 21 4 425 436 a b Padover Saul K 1943 Japanese race propaganda The Public Opinion Quarterly 7 2 191 204 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 239 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 a b Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p253 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p174 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Piers Brendon The Dark Valley A Panorama of the 1930s p633 ISBN 0 375 40881 9 Marius B Jansen The Making of Modern Japan p 600 1 ISBN 0 674 00334 9 a b c d Richard Overy Why the Allies Won p 299 ISBN 0 393 03925 0 a b Andrew Gordon A Modern History of Japan From Tokugawa to the Present p199 ISBN 0 19 511060 9 OCLC 49704795 James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 465 6 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 W G Beasley The Rise of Modern Japan p 187 ISBN 0 312 04077 6 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 189 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 493 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 a b c d e f g h i j k l m JAPANESE PSYOP DURING WWII John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p27 ISBN 0 394 50030 X John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p30 1 ISBN 0 394 50030 X Zen and the Art of Divebombing a b John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p225 ISBN 0 394 50030 X Piers Brendon The Dark Valley A Panorama of the 1930s p439 40 ISBN 0 375 40881 9 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p213 4 ISBN 0 394 50030 X Ivan Morris The Nobility of Failure Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan p309 Holt Rinehart and Winston 1975 a b James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 505 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 a b c d Andrew Gordon A Modern History of Japan From Tokugawa to the Present p219 20 ISBN 0 19 511060 9 OCLC 49704795 Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p 34 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p262 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York Japan in World War II Archived 2010 12 04 at the Wayback Machine Ivan Morris The Nobility of Failure Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan p285 Holt Rinehart and Winston 1975 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 368 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 655 Random House New York 1970 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 701 Random House New York 1970 Marius B Jansen The Making of Modern Japan p 655 ISBN 0 674 00334 9 Richard Overy Why the Allies Won p 302 ISBN 0 393 03925 0 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p46 ISBN 0 394 50030 X John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p211 ISBN 0 394 50030 X Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p 32 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p 37 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 a b John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p271 ISBN 0 394 50030 X Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p173 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Michael Burleigh Moral Combat Good And Evil In World War II p 13 ISBN 978 0 06 058097 1 Andrew Gordon A Modern History of Japan From Tokugawa to the Present p215 ISBN 0 19 511060 9 OCLC 49704795 a b Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 257 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 247 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 332 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Richard Overy Why the Allies Won p 222 3 ISBN 0 393 03925 0 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p190 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 523 Random House New York 1970 a b John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 258 Random House New York 1970 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 362 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 a b Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 363 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 670 Random House New York 1970 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 745 Random House New York 1970 James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 509 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 371 2 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 523 4 Random House New York 1970 a b John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p223 ISBN 0 394 50030 X John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 60 Random House New York 1970 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 231 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p262 3 ISBN 0 394 50030 X John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p263 4 ISBN 0 394 50030 X Piers Brendon The Dark Valley A Panorama of the 1930s p438 ISBN 0 375 40881 9 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 215 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 a b Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 219 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 No Surrender Background History a b David Powers Japan No Surrender in World War Two John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p1 ISBN 0 394 50030 X John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p216 ISBN 0 394 50030 X Richard Overy Why the Allies Won p 6 ISBN 0 393 03925 0 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p264 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p35 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p47 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 Masanori Ito The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p25 New York W W Norton amp Company 1956 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 413 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 350 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 350 1 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 100 1 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 a b Michael Burleigh Moral Combat Good And Evil In World War II p 16 ISBN 978 0 06 058097 1 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 198 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 a b John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 301 Random House New York 1970 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 382 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 a b William L O Neill A Democracy At War America s Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II p 125 127 ISBN 0 02 923678 9 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 386 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 428 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p307 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 317 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 258 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 334 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 334 5 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p214 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 369 70 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p339 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 a b c John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 444 Random House New York 1970 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p263 4 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 539 Random House New York 1970 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 424 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 a b Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 356 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Masanori Ito The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p161 2 New York W W Norton amp Company 1956 Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p167 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 360 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 713 Random House New York 1970 Ivan Morris The Nobility of Failure Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan p284 Holt Rinehart and Winston 1975 Ivan Morris The Nobility of Failure Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan p289 Holt Rinehart and Winston 1975 Ivan Morris The Nobility of Failure Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan p289 90 Holt Rinehart and Winston 1975 Ivan Morris The Nobility of Failure Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan p290 Holt Rinehart and Winston 1975 Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p172 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 389 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 396 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 397 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p439 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p57 ISBN 0 394 50030 X John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 815 6 Random House New York 1970 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 816 Random House New York 1970 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 378 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 449 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 256 7 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 256 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 a b c Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 257 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 300 Random House New York 1970 a b John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 598 Random House New York 1970 Beasley William G The Rise of Modern Japan p 185 ISBN 0 312 04077 6 Piers Brendon The Dark Valley A Panorama of the 1930s p639 ISBN 0 375 40881 9 a b c James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 451 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 a b James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 471 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 William L O Neill A Democracy At War America s Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II p 52 ISBN 0 02 923678 9 James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 460 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 189 90 Random House New York 1970 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 243 4 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p214 ISBN 0 394 50030 X John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 651 Random House New York 1970 Masanori Ito The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p125 New York W W Norton amp Company 1956 a b Andrew Gordon A Modern History of Japan From Tokugawa to the Present p219 ISBN 0 19 511060 9 OCLC 49704795 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p206 7 ISBN 0 394 50030 X Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 259 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 453 Random House New York 1970 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p36 ISBN 0 394 50030 X William L O Neill A Democracy At War America s Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II p 125 6 ISBN 0 02 923678 9 Richard Overy Why the Allies Won p 317 ISBN 0 393 03925 0 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 258 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 476 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 418 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 305 Random House New York 1970 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 273 4 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 William L O Neill A Democracy At War America s Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II p 125 ISBN 0 02 923678 9 Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p471 2 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p 12 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p256 7 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York a b c Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p257 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 394 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 a b John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 702 Random House New York 1970 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 165 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p26 7 ISBN 0 394 50030 X John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 310 Random House New York 1970 Richard Overy Why the Allies Won p 309 310 ISBN 0 393 03925 0 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p45 ISBN 0 394 50030 X John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 515 6 563 Random House New York 1970 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 438 Random House New York 1970 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 358 9 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 357 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 357 8 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p52 3 ISBN 0 394 50030 X Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 391 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 799 Random House New York 1970 a b Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p244 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 309 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 255 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p258 ISBN 0 394 50030 X Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p248 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p252 3 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York William L O Neill A Democracy At War America s Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II p 53 ISBN 0 02 923678 9 Andrew Gordon A Modern History of Japan From Tokugawa to the Present p211 ISBN 0 19 511060 9 OCLC 49704795 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 245 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 449 Random House New York 1970 Anthony Rhodes Propaganda The art of persuasion World War II p254 1976 Chelsea House Publishers New York Japanese Propaganda Booklet from World War II Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 326 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 a b John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p6 ISBN 0 394 50030 X W G Beasley The Rise of Modern Japan p 204 ISBN 0 312 04077 6 John W Dower War Without Mercy Race amp Power in the Pacific War p7 ISBN 0 394 50030 X Marius B Jansen The Making of Modern Japan p 588 9 ISBN 0 674 00334 9 James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 463 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 B R Myers The Cleanest Race How North Koreans See Themselves and Why It Matters p 26 7 ISBN 978 1 933633 91 6 Korean National Commission for UNESCO Korean History Discovery of Its Characteristics and Development ISBN 978 1 56591 177 2 Max Hastings Retribution The Battle for Japan 1944 45 p 67 ISBN 978 0 307 26351 3 James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 410 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 James L McClain Japan A Modern History p 450 ISBN 0 393 04156 5 Richard Overy Why the Allies Won p 299 300 ISBN 0 393 03925 0 Mitsuo Fuchida and Masatake Okumiya Midway The Battle that Doomed Japan the Japanese Navy s Story p17 United States Naval Institute 1955 Masanori Ito The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p70 New York W W Norton amp Company 1956 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p46 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 243 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 247 8 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 249 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 277 Random House New York 1970 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 396 7 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 265 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 266 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 314 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 268 9 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 283 4 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Mitsuo Fuchida and Masatake Okumiya Midway The Battle that Doomed Japan the Japanese Navy s Story p105 United States Naval Institute 1955 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 324 Random House New York 1970 William L O Neill A Democracy At War America s Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II p 119 ISBN 0 02 923678 9 Masanori Ito The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p68 New York W W Norton amp Company 1956 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 301 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 303 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 403 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 Masanori Ito The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy p83 New York W W Norton amp Company 1956 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p111 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 314 5 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Haruko Taya Cook and Theodore F Cook Japan At War An Oral History p210 ISBN 1 56584 014 3 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 327 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 370 Random House New York 1970 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 410 Random House New York 1970 Richard Overy Why the Allies Won p 301 ISBN 0 393 03925 0 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 348 9 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 318 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 338 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 a b Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 352 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Meirion and Susie Harries Soldiers of the Sun The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 433 4 ISBN 0 394 56935 0 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 538 Random House New York 1970 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 355 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 829 Random House New York 1970 John Toland The Rising Sun The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 1945 p 833 Random House New York 1970 Edwin P Hoyt Japan s War p 411 ISBN 0 07 030612 5 Jansen Marius B 2002 The Making of Modern Japan Cambridge Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 00991 2 OCLC 52086912External links editArticle on Japanese Propaganda in China during WWII from Japanese Press Translations Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino Japanese War and World War II amp oldid 1206864675, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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