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Parthini

May 04, 2023

The Parthini, Partini or Partheni were an Illyrian tribe that lived in the inlands of southern Illyria (modern Albania). They likely were located in the Shkumbin valley controlling the important route between the Adriatic Sea and Macedonia, which corresponded to the Via Egnatia of Roman times. Consequently, their neighbours to the west were the Taulantii and to the east the Dassaretii in the region of Lychnidus.[1]

Name

The Parthini often appears in ancient accounts describing the Illyrian Wars and Macedonian Wars. Their name was written in Ancient Greek as Παρθῖνοι, Parthînoi, Παρθηνοι, Parthenoi, Παρθεηνᾶται Partheēnâtai and in Latin as Parthini or Partheni. They are mentioned by Livy, Caesar, Strabo vii.; Appian, Illyr. 1; Dion Cass. xli. 49; Cic. in Pis. 40; Pomp. Mela, ii. 3. § 11; Plin. iii. 26.[2]

According to a mythological tradition reported by Appian (2nd century AD), the Parthini were among the South-Illyrian tribes that took their names from the first generation of the descendants of Illyrius, the eponymous ancestor of all the Illyrian peoples.[3][4][5]

Geography

 
View of Shkumbin; it constituted an important route between the Adriatic Sea and Macedonia. The first part of the Via Egnatia retraced it as a land route.

The Parthini most likely inhabited the area between the hinterland of Dyrrhachium at the Tirana plane in the north, and the hinterland of Apollonia at the Apsus river (Seman) in the south.[2] Their territory likely included the Shkumbin valley, hence they controlled the important route between the Adriatic Sea and Macedonia, which corresponded to the Via Egnatia of Roman times.[1] Initially, the Parthini may have held the lands around Epidamnus-Dyrrhachium, but later they were probably pushed more inland by the Taulantii losing their coastal holdings.[6]

A walled city built in the 4th century BC at the latest has been found on the Gradishtë plateau near Belsh. It developed from an early 7th century BC hilltop settlement, and was located on the route leading from Apollonia along the Apsus river to the Shkumbin. Its ancient name is not known, but it can be assumed to have been the chief settlement of the Parthini. It existed until late antiquity, and was destroyed by the Slavic invasion.[7]

The Illyrian stronghold of Dimale was situated in the vicinity or within the territory of the Parthini.[8] Parthus was a settlement of the Parthini.[9]

Culture

Language

See also: Illyrian language

The idiom spoken by the Parthini is included in the southern Illyrian onomastic province in modern linguistics.[10][11] The territory they inhabited belongs to the area that is considered in current scholarship as the linguistic core of Illyrian.[12]

Religion

See also: Illyrian religion

The Parthini worshiped a supreme god recognized through interpretatio romana as 'Jupiter Parthinus'.[13] It is attested in Latin epigraphic material as I(upiter) O(ptimus) M(aximus) Partinus.[14]

History

The Parthini are often mentioned in the course of the Roman wars in Illyria and Macedonia, 229 BCE, but as friends rather than foes of the Romans, having submitted at an early period to their arms. (Polyb. ii. 11; Livy xxix. 12.) After the death of Philip, king of Macedon, they appear to have been added to the dominions of Pleuratus, an Illyrian prince allied to the Romans. (Polyb. xviii. 30; Liv. xxx. 34, xliv. 30.) Their principal town was Parthus (Πάρθος, Steph. B. s. v.), which was taken by Caesar in the course of his campaign with Pompeius. (Caes. B.C. iii. 41.) The double-hilled Dimallum, the strongest among the Illyrian places, with two citadels on two heights, connected by a wall (Polyb. iii. 18, vii. 9), was within their territory. There is no indication, however, of its precise situation, which was probably between Lissus and Epidamnus. Livy mentions (xxix. 12) two other fortresses: Eugenium and Bargulum.

Economy

 
The ancient Via Egnatia in Librazhd, Albania. The first part of the road crossed Illyricum mainly in Parthinian territory.

Located in the inlands of southern Illyria, the Parthini controlled the important route between the Adriatic Sea and Macedonia, which corresponded to the Via Egnatia of Roman times.[1]

Ancient historical sources testify agricultural economy among the Parthini, who were attested to have cultivated corn in Roman times.[15] During the Great Roman Civil War the Parthini were obliged to deliver their corn supply for Pompey's troops. The situation changed with Caesar's arrival in Illyria. Once he had landed in Palaeste on the Ceraunian Mountains, the Illyrian communities, which were garrisoned by Pompey and the Senate, welcomed Caesar.[16]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Cabanes 2007, p. 579: "Parthini (Partini, Partheni, Παρθῖνοι/Parthînoi, Παρθεηνᾶται/Partheēnâtai). Illyrian tribe (Str. 7,7,8; App. Ill. 2) near → Dyrrhachium (App. B Civ. 5,320). It is likely that they lived in the Shkumbi valley (in modern Albania) and controlled the important link between → Ionios Kolpos and → Macedonia, equivalent to the later → via Egnatia. Their neighbours to the east were the Dassaretae (Dassaretia) in the region of the modern Ohrid, and to the west the Taulantii (Thuc. 1,24; Diod. Sic. 12,30-40)."
  2. ^ a b Jaupaj 2019, p. 70.
  3. ^ Papazoglu 1978, p. 213: "The tribes which took their names from the first generation of Illyrius' descendants belong mostly to the group of the so-called South-Illyrian tribes: the Taulantii, the Parthini, the Enchelei, the Dassaretii".
  4. ^ Šašel Kos 2004, p. 502.
  5. ^ Mesihović & Šačić 2015, pp. 23–24.
  6. ^ Stocker 2009, p. 217
  7. ^ Lippert & Matzinger 2021, p. 102.
  8. ^ Šašel Kos 2005, p. 406.
  9. ^ Šašel Kos 2005, p. 282.
  10. ^ Polomé 1983, p. 537: "The old kingdom of Illyria, south of Lissos, covered the territory of several tribes who shared a common language, apparently of Indo-European stock: the Taulantii, on the coast, south of Dyrrachium; the Parthini, north of this town; the Dassaretae, inland, near Lake Lychnidos and in the Drin valley; north of them were the Penestae; in the mountains, an older group, the Enchelei, lingered on." [footnote 84:] "In the oldest sources, the term 'Illyrian' appears to be restricted to the tribes of the Illyricum regnum (PAPAZOGLU, 1965). Linguistically, it can only legitimately be applied to the southeastern part of the expanded Roman Illyricum; the Delmatae and the Pannonii to the northwest mus have constituted an ethnically and linguistically distinct group (KATIČIĆ, 1968: 367-8)."
  11. ^ Šašel Kos 2002, p. 117: "The Illyrian peoples, mentioned in the sources in which the events concerning the Illyrian kingdom are narrated – to name the most outstanding – are the Taulantii, Atintani, Parthini, Enchelei, Penestae, Dassaretii, Ardiaei, Labeates, and the Daorsi. All of these peoples were conceivably more or less closely related in terms of culture, institutions and language. Many of them may have had their own kings, some of whom attained great power and actively took part in the struggle for power in the Hellenistic world. The name “Illyrian” must have carried enough prestige at the time of the rise of the Ardiaean dynasty within the Illyrian kingdom that it was imposed at a later date, when the Romans conquered Illyria and the rest of the Balkans, as the official name of the future provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia."
  12. ^ Haebler 2002, p. 475: "To be cautious, only that language, which was spread along the south-eastern Adriatic coast northward and southward from Dyrrhachium (today Durrës) and inland to Lake Lychnidos (today Ohrid) in the settlement area of the Illyrian tribes of the Parthini, Taulanti, Dassaretae and Penestae, must be considered as Illyrian at present."
  13. ^ Miraj 1992, p. 145.
  14. ^ Ceka 2001, p. 5.
  15. ^ Shpuza 2009, p. 92.
  16. ^ Nicols 1992, p. 145.

Bibliography

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  • Cabanes, Pierre (2002) [1988]. Dinko Čutura; Bruna Kuntić-Makvić (eds.). Iliri od Bardileja do Gencia (IV. – II. stoljeće prije Krista) [The Illyrians from Bardylis to Gentius (4th – 2nd century BC)] (in Croatian). Translated by Vesna Lisičić. Svitava. ISBN 953-98832-0-2.
  • Cabanes, Pierre (2007). "Parthini". In Hubert, Cancik; Schneider, Helmuth; Salazar, Christine F. (eds.). Brill's New Pauly, Antiquity, Volume 10 (Obl-phe). Brill's New Pauly. Vol. 7. Brill. ISBN 978-9004142152.
  • Ceka, Hasan (2001). "Ndikimi zotërues i kultit ilir mbi monetat antike të vendit tonë / The Influence of the Illyrian Cult on Ancient Coins from Albania". Iliria. 30 (1): 5–8. doi:10.3406/iliri.2001.1723.
  • Dzino, Danijel (2010). Illyricum in Roman Politics, 229 BC–AD 68. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19419-8.
  • Dzino, Danijel (2014). "'Illyrians' in ancient ethnographic discourse". Dialogues d'histoire ancienne. 40 (2): 45–65. doi:10.3917/dha.402.0045.
  • Eckstein, Arthur M. (2008). Rome Enters the Greek East From Anarchy to Hierarchy in the Hellenistic Mediterranean, 230–170 BC. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-6072-8.
  • Haebler, Claus (2002). "Palaeo-Balkanic languages". In Hubert, Cancik; Schneider, Helmuth; Salazar, Christine F.; Orton, David E. (eds.). Brill's New Pauly: Ark–Kas. Brill's New Pauly. Vol. 2. Brill. ISBN 9004122656.
  • Jaupaj, Lavdosh (2019). Etudes des interactions culturelles en aire Illyro-épirote du VII au III siècle av. J.-C (Thesis). Université de Lyon; Instituti i Arkeologjisë (Albanie).
  • Lippert, Andreas; Matzinger, Joachim (2021). Die Illyrer: Geschichte, Archäologie und Sprache. Kohlhammer Verlag. ISBN 9783170377103.
  • Mesihović, Salmedin; Šačić, Amra (2015). Historija Ilira [History of Illyrians] (in Bosnian). Sarajevo: Univerzitet u Sarajevu [University of Sarajevo]. ISBN 978-9958-600-65-4.
  • Miraj, Lida (1992). Stazio, Attilio; Ceccoli, Stefania (eds.). La Magna Grecia e i grandi santuari della madrepatria: atti del trentunesimo Convegno di studi sulla Magna Grecia. Atti del Convegno di studi sulla Magna Grecia (in Italian). Vol. 31. Istituto per la storia e l'archeologia della Magna Grecia. pp. 140–146.
  • Nicols, Marianne Schoenlin (1992). Appearance and Reality: A Study of the Clientele of Pompey the Great. Berkeley: University of California.
  • Papazoglu, Fanula (1978). The Central Balkan Tribes in pre-Roman Times: Triballi, Autariatae, Dardanians, Scordisci and Moesians. Amsterdam: Hakkert. ISBN 9789025607937.
  • Papazoglu, Fanula (1988). Les villes de Macédoine à l'époque romaine (in French). Greece: Ecole française d'Athènes. ISBN 9782869580145.
  • Polomé, Edgar C. (1983). "The Linguistic Situation in the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire". In Wolfgang Haase (ed.). Sprache und Literatur (Sprachen und Schriften [Forts.]). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 509–553. ISBN 3110847035.
  • Šašel Kos, Marjeta (2002). "Pyrrhus and Illyrian Kingdom(s?)". Greek Influence Along the East Adriatic Coast. Knjiga Mediterana. 26: 101–119. ISBN 9531631549.
  • Šašel Kos, Marjeta (2004). "Mythological stories concerning Illyria and its name". In P. Cabanes; J.-L. Lamboley (eds.). L'Illyrie méridionale et l'Epire dans l'Antiquité. Vol. 4. pp. 493–504.
  • Šašel Kos, Marjeta (2005). Appian and Illyricum. Narodni muzej Slovenije. ISBN 961616936X.
  • Shpuza, Saïmir (2009). "Aspekte të ekonomisë antike ilire dhe epirote / Aspects of Ancient Illyrian and Epirotic Economy". Iliria. 34: 91–110. doi:10.3406/iliri.2009.1083.
  • Stipčević, Alexander (1989). Iliri: povijest, život, kultura. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. ISBN 9788603991062.
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May 04, 2023
parthini, partini, partheni, were, illyrian, tribe, that, lived, inlands, southern, illyria, modern, albania, they, likely, were, located, shkumbin, valley, controlling, important, route, between, adriatic, macedonia, which, corresponded, egnatia, roman, times. The Parthini Partini or Partheni were an Illyrian tribe that lived in the inlands of southern Illyria modern Albania They likely were located in the Shkumbin valley controlling the important route between the Adriatic Sea and Macedonia which corresponded to the Via Egnatia of Roman times Consequently their neighbours to the west were the Taulantii and to the east the Dassaretii in the region of Lychnidus 1 Contents 1 Name 2 Geography 3 Culture 3 1 Language 3 2 Religion 4 History 5 Economy 6 See also 7 References 8 BibliographyName EditThe Parthini often appears in ancient accounts describing the Illyrian Wars and Macedonian Wars Their name was written in Ancient Greek as Par8ῖnoi Parthinoi Par8hnoi Parthenoi Par8ehnᾶtai Partheenatai and in Latin as Parthini or Partheni They are mentioned by Livy Caesar Strabo vii Appian Illyr 1 Dion Cass xli 49 Cic in Pis 40 Pomp Mela ii 3 11 Plin iii 26 2 According to a mythological tradition reported by Appian 2nd century AD the Parthini were among the South Illyrian tribes that took their names from the first generation of the descendants of Illyrius the eponymous ancestor of all the Illyrian peoples 3 4 5 Geography Edit View of Shkumbin it constituted an important route between the Adriatic Sea and Macedonia The first part of the Via Egnatia retraced it as a land route The Parthini most likely inhabited the area between the hinterland of Dyrrhachium at the Tirana plane in the north and the hinterland of Apollonia at the Apsus river Seman in the south 2 Their territory likely included the Shkumbin valley hence they controlled the important route between the Adriatic Sea and Macedonia which corresponded to the Via Egnatia of Roman times 1 Initially the Parthini may have held the lands around Epidamnus Dyrrhachium but later they were probably pushed more inland by the Taulantii losing their coastal holdings 6 A walled city built in the 4th century BC at the latest has been found on the Gradishte plateau near Belsh It developed from an early 7th century BC hilltop settlement and was located on the route leading from Apollonia along the Apsus river to the Shkumbin Its ancient name is not known but it can be assumed to have been the chief settlement of the Parthini It existed until late antiquity and was destroyed by the Slavic invasion 7 The Illyrian stronghold of Dimale was situated in the vicinity or within the territory of the Parthini 8 Parthus was a settlement of the Parthini 9 Culture EditLanguage Edit See also Illyrian language The idiom spoken by the Parthini is included in the southern Illyrian onomastic province in modern linguistics 10 11 The territory they inhabited belongs to the area that is considered in current scholarship as the linguistic core of Illyrian 12 Religion Edit See also Illyrian religion The Parthini worshiped a supreme god recognized through interpretatio romana as Jupiter Parthinus 13 It is attested in Latin epigraphic material as I upiter O ptimus M aximus Partinus 14 History Edit A R D I A E I D A R D A N I L A B E A T A E P E N E S T A E T A U L A N T I P A R T H I N I D A S S A R E T I BYLLIONES AMANTES Rhizon Meteon Doclea Buthoe Skodra Ulkinion Lissos Scupi Epidamnos Dyrrhachion Lychnidos Royal Tombs Apollonia Dimale Byllis Amantia Orikos Skardon Kandavia Tomaros Ceraunia Meropus Tsangon S o u t h e r n I l l y r i ai n t h e 3rd 2ndc e n t u r i e s B C E The Parthini are often mentioned in the course of the Roman wars in Illyria and Macedonia 229 BCE but as friends rather than foes of the Romans having submitted at an early period to their arms Polyb ii 11 Livy xxix 12 After the death of Philip king of Macedon they appear to have been added to the dominions of Pleuratus an Illyrian prince allied to the Romans Polyb xviii 30 Liv xxx 34 xliv 30 Their principal town was Parthus Par8os Steph B s v which was taken by Caesar in the course of his campaign with Pompeius Caes B C iii 41 The double hilled Dimallum the strongest among the Illyrian places with two citadels on two heights connected by a wall Polyb iii 18 vii 9 was within their territory There is no indication however of its precise situation which was probably between Lissus and Epidamnus Livy mentions xxix 12 two other fortresses Eugenium and Bargulum Economy Edit The ancient Via Egnatia in Librazhd Albania The first part of the road crossed Illyricum mainly in Parthinian territory Located in the inlands of southern Illyria the Parthini controlled the important route between the Adriatic Sea and Macedonia which corresponded to the Via Egnatia of Roman times 1 Ancient historical sources testify agricultural economy among the Parthini who were attested to have cultivated corn in Roman times 15 During the Great Roman Civil War the Parthini were obliged to deliver their corn supply for Pompey s troops The situation changed with Caesar s arrival in Illyria Once he had landed in Palaeste on the Ceraunian Mountains the Illyrian communities which were garrisoned by Pompey and the Senate welcomed Caesar 16 See also EditList of ancient Illyrian peoples and tribesReferences Edit a b c Cabanes 2007 p 579 Parthini Partini Partheni Par8ῖnoi Parthinoi Par8ehnᾶtai Partheenatai Illyrian tribe Str 7 7 8 App Ill 2 near Dyrrhachium App B Civ 5 320 It is likely that they lived in the Shkumbi valley in modern Albania and controlled the important link between Ionios Kolpos and Macedonia equivalent to the later via Egnatia Their neighbours to the east were the Dassaretae Dassaretia in the region of the modern Ohrid and to the west the Taulantii Thuc 1 24 Diod Sic 12 30 40 a b Jaupaj 2019 p 70 Papazoglu 1978 p 213 The tribes which took their names from the first generation of Illyrius descendants belong mostly to the group of the so called South Illyrian tribes the Taulantii the Parthini the Enchelei the Dassaretii Sasel Kos 2004 p 502 Mesihovic amp Sacic 2015 pp 23 24 Stocker 2009 p 217 Lippert amp Matzinger 2021 p 102 Sasel Kos 2005 p 406 Sasel Kos 2005 p 282 Polome 1983 p 537 The old kingdom of Illyria south of Lissos covered the territory of several tribes who shared a common language apparently of Indo European stock the Taulantii on the coast south of Dyrrachium the Parthini north of this town the Dassaretae inland near Lake Lychnidos and in the Drin valley north of them were the Penestae in the mountains an older group the Enchelei lingered on footnote 84 In the oldest sources the term Illyrian appears to be restricted to the tribes of the Illyricum regnum PAPAZOGLU 1965 Linguistically it can only legitimately be applied to the southeastern part of the expanded Roman Illyricum the Delmatae and the Pannonii to the northwest mus have constituted an ethnically and linguistically distinct group KATICIC 1968 367 8 Sasel Kos 2002 p 117 The Illyrian peoples mentioned in the sources in which the events concerning the Illyrian kingdom are narrated to name the most outstanding are the Taulantii Atintani Parthini Enchelei Penestae Dassaretii Ardiaei Labeates and the Daorsi All of these peoples were conceivably more or less closely related in terms of culture institutions and language Many of them may have had their own kings some of whom attained great power and actively took part in the struggle for power in the Hellenistic world The name Illyrian must have carried enough prestige at the time of the rise of the Ardiaean dynasty within the Illyrian kingdom that it was imposed at a later date when the Romans conquered Illyria and the rest of the Balkans as the official name of the future provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia Haebler 2002 p 475 To be cautious only that language which was spread along the south eastern Adriatic coast northward and southward from Dyrrhachium today Durres and inland to Lake Lychnidos today Ohrid in the settlement area of the Illyrian tribes of the Parthini Taulanti Dassaretae and Penestae must be considered as Illyrian at present Miraj 1992 p 145 Ceka 2001 p 5 Shpuza 2009 p 92 Nicols 1992 p 145 Bibliography EditBurton Paul J 2017 Rome and the Third Macedonian War Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 10444 0 Cabanes Pierre 2002 1988 Dinko Cutura Bruna Kuntic Makvic eds Iliri od Bardileja do Gencia IV II stoljece prije Krista The Illyrians from Bardylis to Gentius 4th 2nd century BC in Croatian Translated by Vesna Lisicic Svitava ISBN 953 98832 0 2 Cabanes Pierre 2007 Parthini In Hubert Cancik Schneider Helmuth Salazar Christine F eds Brill s New Pauly Antiquity Volume 10 Obl phe Brill s New Pauly Vol 7 Brill ISBN 978 9004142152 Ceka Hasan 2001 Ndikimi zoterues i kultit ilir mbi monetat antike te vendit tone The Influence of the Illyrian Cult on Ancient Coins from Albania Iliria 30 1 5 8 doi 10 3406 iliri 2001 1723 Dzino Danijel 2010 Illyricum in Roman Politics 229 BC AD 68 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 19419 8 Dzino Danijel 2014 Illyrians in ancient ethnographic discourse Dialogues d histoire ancienne 40 2 45 65 doi 10 3917 dha 402 0045 Eckstein Arthur M 2008 Rome Enters the Greek East From Anarchy to Hierarchy in the Hellenistic Mediterranean 230 170 BC Blackwell Publishing ISBN 978 1 4051 6072 8 Haebler Claus 2002 Palaeo Balkanic languages In Hubert Cancik Schneider Helmuth Salazar Christine F Orton David E eds Brill s New Pauly Ark Kas Brill s New Pauly Vol 2 Brill ISBN 9004122656 Jaupaj Lavdosh 2019 Etudes des interactions culturelles en aire Illyro epirote du VII au III siecle av J C Thesis Universite de Lyon Instituti i Arkeologjise Albanie Lippert Andreas Matzinger Joachim 2021 Die Illyrer Geschichte Archaologie und Sprache Kohlhammer Verlag ISBN 9783170377103 Mesihovic Salmedin Sacic Amra 2015 Historija Ilira History of Illyrians in Bosnian Sarajevo Univerzitet u Sarajevu University of Sarajevo ISBN 978 9958 600 65 4 Miraj Lida 1992 Stazio Attilio Ceccoli Stefania eds La Magna Grecia e i grandi santuari della madrepatria atti del trentunesimo Convegno di studi sulla Magna Grecia Atti del Convegno di studi sulla Magna Grecia in Italian Vol 31 Istituto per la storia e l archeologia della Magna Grecia pp 140 146 Nicols Marianne Schoenlin 1992 Appearance and Reality A Study of the Clientele of Pompey the Great Berkeley University of California Papazoglu Fanula 1978 The Central Balkan Tribes in pre Roman Times Triballi Autariatae Dardanians Scordisci and Moesians Amsterdam Hakkert ISBN 9789025607937 Papazoglu Fanula 1988 Les villes de Macedoine a l epoque romaine in French Greece Ecole francaise d Athenes ISBN 9782869580145 Polome Edgar C 1983 The Linguistic Situation in the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire In Wolfgang Haase ed Sprache und Literatur Sprachen und Schriften Forts Walter de Gruyter pp 509 553 ISBN 3110847035 Sasel Kos Marjeta 2002 Pyrrhus and Illyrian Kingdom s Greek Influence Along the East Adriatic Coast Knjiga Mediterana 26 101 119 ISBN 9531631549 Sasel Kos Marjeta 2004 Mythological stories concerning Illyria and its name In P Cabanes J L Lamboley eds L Illyrie meridionale et l Epire dans l Antiquite Vol 4 pp 493 504 Sasel Kos Marjeta 2005 Appian and Illyricum Narodni muzej Slovenije ISBN 961616936X Shpuza Saimir 2009 Aspekte te ekonomise antike ilire dhe epirote Aspects of Ancient Illyrian and Epirotic Economy Iliria 34 91 110 doi 10 3406 iliri 2009 1083 Stipcevic Alexander 1989 Iliri povijest zivot kultura Zagreb Skolska knjiga ISBN 9788603991062 Stocker Sharon R 2009 Illyrian Apollonia Toward a New Ktisis and Developmental History of the Colony Wilkes J J 1996 The Danubian and Balkan provinces In Alan K Bowman Edward Champlin Andrew Linto eds The Cambridge Ancient History The Augustan Empire 43 B C A D 69 Vol 10 Cambridge University Press pp 545 585 ISBN 0521264308 Winnifrith Tom J 2002 Badlands borderlands a history of Northern Epirus Southern Albania London Duckworth ISBN 0 7156 3201 9 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Parthini amp oldid 1152394211, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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