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Para-fascism

January 01, 1970

Para-fascism refers to authoritarian conservative movements and regimes that adopt characteristics associated with fascism such as personality cults, paramilitary organizations, symbols and rhetoric, but it diverges from conventional fascist tenets such as palingenetic ultranationalism, modernism, and populism.[1][2] It often emerges in response to the need for a facade of popular support in an age of mass politics, without a genuine commitment to revolutionary nationalism, instead focusing on maintaining tradition, religion, and culture. Para-fascist regimes may co-opt or neutralize genuine fascist movements.[3] Examples of para-fascism include the regimes and movements of Austrofascism in Austria,[4] Metaxism in Greece,[5] the “New State” of Salazars’ Portugal,[6] and Francoism in Spain.

Leaders commonly referred to as para-fascist, from top left: Engelbert Dollfuss, Ioannis Metaxas, Francisco Franco, and António de Oliveira Salazar

Austria edit

Main article: Fatherland Front (Austria)

The Fatherland Front was an Austrian right-wing conservative, nationalist, and corporatist political organization founded in 1933 by Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. It aimed to unite Austrians across political and social divides,[7] emphasizing Austrian nationalism and independence from Germany while protecting the Catholic religious identity. The Front absorbed various anti-Marxist groups, establishing an authoritarian and corporatist regime known as the Ständestaat.[8][9] It banned and persecuted political opponents, including Communists, Social Democrats, and Austrian Nazis.[10] Dollfuss was assassinated by the Nazis in 1934, and he was succeeded by Kurt Schuschnigg. The Fatherland Front's role in Austrian history remains a subject of debate, with some viewing it as a form of "Austrofascism" responsible for the decline of liberal democracy, while others credit it for defending independence and opposing Nazism.[11]

Greece edit

Main article: Metaxism

Metaxism is an authoritarian nationalist ideology linked to Ioannis Metaxas in Greece.[12] It aimed for the revitalization of the Greek nation and the establishment of a modern, culturally unified Greece. This ideology criticized liberalism, prioritizing the interests of the nation over individual concerns, and sought to mobilize the Greek populace as a disciplined collective in the pursuit of a "new Greece."[13]

Metaxas proclaimed his 4th of August Regime (1936–1941) as the embodiment of a "Third Greek Civilization," aspiring to create a culturally refined Greek nation drawing from ancient Macedonian and Spartan militaristic societies, representing the "First Greek Civilization," as well as the Orthodox Christian values of the Byzantine Empire, seen as the "Second Greek Civilization." The regime maintained that authentic Greeks were both ethnically Greek and adherents of Orthodox Christianity, explicitly excluding Albanians, Slavs, and Turks in Greece from Greek citizenship.[13]

While the Metaxas government and its official doctrines are sometimes labeled as fascist, scholarly consensus characterizes it as a traditional authoritarian-conservative administration akin to the regimes of Francisco Franco in Spain or António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal.[14][15] The Metaxist government drew its authority from the conservative establishment, staunchly supporting traditional institutions like the Greek Orthodox Church and the Greek Monarchy. It leaned towards a reactionary stance and lacked the radical theoretical elements associated with ideologies like Italian Fascism and German Nazism.[16][15] Notably, the regime did not espouse antisemitism, considering it to be "distasteful."[17]

Portugal edit

Main article: National Union (Portugal)

The National Union was the exclusive legal party of Portugal's Estado Novo regime, established in 1930 under the influence of António de Oliveira Salazar.

Unlike most of the one-party states during its time, it operated more as a political extension of the government rather than holding direct authority. Its membership primarily consisted of local elites like landowners, professionals, businessmen, and individuals with Catholic, monarchist, or conservative republican affiliations.[18]

The National Union did not actively engage in militant activities. Under Salazar's leadership, it became the sole legally permitted party, but he emphasized that it should not function as a conventional political party. Instead, it served as a platform for conservatism rather than a revolutionary force.[19]

The party's ideology centered around corporatism, drawing inspiration from Catholic encyclicals and Mussolini's corporate state.[20] Unlike other ruling Fascist parties, it played a more limited role in governance, primarily focused on controlling and managing public opinion rather than mobilizing it.

Scholarly opinions vary on whether the Estado Novo and the National Union should be classified as fascist or not, with Salazar himself highlighting significant differences between fascism and the Catholic corporatism of the Estado Novo. Some scholars lean towards categorizing it as a conservative authoritarian regime, while others argue for its classification as fascist.[21]

Spain edit

Main article: FET y de las JONS

The Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista, commonly known as FET y de las JONS or simply "FET," was the exclusive legal political party of the Francoist regime in Spain. Established by General Francisco Franco in 1937, it was a fusion of the fascist Falange Española de las JONS (FE de las JONS) with the monarchist neo-absolutist and integralist Catholic Traditionalist Communion associated with the Carlist movement. Despite the amalgamation, FET largely retained the platform of FE de las JONS, preserving 26 out of its original 27 points, as well as a similar internal structure.[22] This party remained in effect until April 1977, after which it was rebranded as the Movimiento Nacional in 1958 which caused it to transform into an Authoritarian Conservative movement.[22][23] Some academics considered the pre-merge FE de las JONS to be Fascist and that the merger with the Traditionalist Communion caused it to lose its Fascist characteristics and thus become para-fascist.[24]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Griffin, Roger (1993). The Nature of Fascism. Routledge. pp. 120–124, 240. ISBN 978-0415096614.
  2. ^ Freeden, Michael; Sargent, Lyman; Stears, Marc (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford. pp. 294–297. ISBN 978-0-19-958597-7.
  3. ^ Griffin, Roger (1993). The Nature of Fascism. Routledge. p. 124. ISBN 978-0415096614.
  4. ^ Griffin, Roger (1993). The Nature of Fascism. Routledge. pp. 124–126. ISBN 978-0415096614.
  5. ^ Griffin, Roger (1993). The Nature of Fascism. Routledge. p. 122. ISBN 978-0415096614.
  6. ^ Griffin, Roger (1993). The Nature of Fascism. Routledge. pp. 122–123. ISBN 978-0415096614.
  7. ^ Thuswaldner, Gregor (2006). "Dollfuss, Engelbert (1892–1934)". In Domenico, Roy Palmer; Hanley, Mark Y. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Politics. Greenwood Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0313323621.
  8. ^ Pyrah, Robert (2007). "Enacting Encyclicals? Cultural Politics and 'Clerical Fascism' in Austria, 1933–1938". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 8: 162 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  9. ^ Binder, Dieter A. (2002). The Christian Corporatist State: Austria from 1934 to 1938. Routledge. p. 75. ISBN 9781351315203.
  10. ^ Binder, Dieter A. (2009). The Christian Corporatist State. Routledge. p. 73. ISBN 9781351315203.
  11. ^ Tálos, Emmerich; Neugebauer, Wolfgang (2014). Austrofaschismus: Politik, Ökonomie, Kultur, 1933-1938 (in German) (7th ed.). Lit Verlag. pp. 1–2.
  12. ^ Payne, Stanley G (1995). A History of Fascism, 1914–45. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-14874-2.
  13. ^ a b Sørensen, Gert; Mallett, Robert (2002). International Fascism,1919-45 (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 159. ISBN 978-0714682624.
  14. ^ Payne, Stanley G (1995). A History of Fascism, 1914–45. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-14874-2.
  15. ^ a b Lee, Stephen J. 2000. European Dictatorships, 1918–1945 Routledge; 2 ed. ISBN 0415230462.
  16. ^ Payne, Stanley G (1995). A History of Fascism, 1914–45. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-14874-2.
  17. ^ Fleming, K. E. (2010). Greece – a Jewish History. Princeton University Press. p. 101. doi:10.1515/9781400834013. ISBN 978-1-4008-3401-3.
  18. ^ Lewis, Paul H (2002). Latin fascist elites: the Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar regimes. Praeger. p. 143. ISBN 978-0275978808.
  19. ^ Gallagher, Tom (2020). Salazar : the dictator who refused to die. C Hurst & Co Publishers. pp. 43–44. ISBN 9781787383883.
  20. ^ Lewis, Paul H (2002). Latin fascist elites : the Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar regimes. Praeger. p. 185. ISBN 978-0275978808.
  21. ^ Fernando Rosas (2019). Salazar e os Fascismos: Ensaio Breve de História Comparada (in Portuguese). Edições Tinta-da-China.
  22. ^ a b Cyprian P. Blamires (editor). World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006. pp. 219–220.
  23. ^ Martin Blinkhorn. Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe. Reprinted edition. Oxon, England: Routledge, 1990, 2001. p. 10
  24. ^ Stanley G. Payne. Fascism in Spain, 1923–1977. Madison: Wisconsin University Press, 1999. pp. 77–102.

Further reading edit

  • El-Ojeili, Chamsy. "Reflecting on post-fascism: Utopia and fear." Critical sociology 45.7-8 (2019): 1149-1166.
  • Griffin, Roger, and Rita Almeida de Carvalho. "Editorial Introduction: Architectural Projections of a ‘New Order’ in Fascist and Para-Fascist Interwar Dictatorships." Fascism 7.2 (2018): 133-140. online
  • Kallis, Aristotle A. "Fascism', 'Para-Fascism' and 'Fascistization': On the Similarities of Three Conceptual Categories." European History Quarterly 33.2 (2003): 219-249. online
  • Kallis, Aristotle. "Working Across Bounded Entities: Fascism,‘Para-Fascism’, and Ideational Mobilities in Interwar Europe." in Beyond the Fascist Century: Essays in Honour of Roger Griffin (2020): 73-99. online
  • Newman, John Paul. "War Veterans, Fascism, and Para-Fascist Departures in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, 1918–1941." Fascism 6.1 (2017): 42-74. online
  • Pinto, António Costa, and Aristotle Kallis, eds. Rethinking fascism and dictatorship in Europe (Springer, 2014) online
  • Tamás, Gáspár Miklós. "On post-fascism." East European Constitutional Review 9 (2000): 48+ online.
  • Trajano Filho, Francisco Sales. "The Many Faces of a Para-Fascist Culture: Architecture, Politics and Power in Vargas’ Regime (1930–1945)." Fascism 7.2 (2018): 175-212. online

January 01, 1970
para, fascism, refers, authoritarian, conservative, movements, regimes, that, adopt, characteristics, associated, with, fascism, such, personality, cults, paramilitary, organizations, symbols, rhetoric, diverges, from, conventional, fascist, tenets, such, pali. Para fascism refers to authoritarian conservative movements and regimes that adopt characteristics associated with fascism such as personality cults paramilitary organizations symbols and rhetoric but it diverges from conventional fascist tenets such as palingenetic ultranationalism modernism and populism 1 2 It often emerges in response to the need for a facade of popular support in an age of mass politics without a genuine commitment to revolutionary nationalism instead focusing on maintaining tradition religion and culture Para fascist regimes may co opt or neutralize genuine fascist movements 3 Examples of para fascism include the regimes and movements of Austrofascism in Austria 4 Metaxism in Greece 5 the New State of Salazars Portugal 6 and Francoism in Spain Leaders commonly referred to as para fascist from top left Engelbert Dollfuss Ioannis Metaxas Francisco Franco and Antonio de Oliveira Salazar Contents 1 Austria 2 Greece 3 Portugal 4 Spain 5 See also 6 References 7 Further readingAustria editMain article Fatherland Front Austria The Fatherland Front was an Austrian right wing conservative nationalist and corporatist political organization founded in 1933 by Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss It aimed to unite Austrians across political and social divides 7 emphasizing Austrian nationalism and independence from Germany while protecting the Catholic religious identity The Front absorbed various anti Marxist groups establishing an authoritarian and corporatist regime known as the Standestaat 8 9 It banned and persecuted political opponents including Communists Social Democrats and Austrian Nazis 10 Dollfuss was assassinated by the Nazis in 1934 and he was succeeded by Kurt Schuschnigg The Fatherland Front s role in Austrian history remains a subject of debate with some viewing it as a form of Austrofascism responsible for the decline of liberal democracy while others credit it for defending independence and opposing Nazism 11 Greece editMain article Metaxism Metaxism is an authoritarian nationalist ideology linked to Ioannis Metaxas in Greece 12 It aimed for the revitalization of the Greek nation and the establishment of a modern culturally unified Greece This ideology criticized liberalism prioritizing the interests of the nation over individual concerns and sought to mobilize the Greek populace as a disciplined collective in the pursuit of a new Greece 13 Metaxas proclaimed his 4th of August Regime 1936 1941 as the embodiment of a Third Greek Civilization aspiring to create a culturally refined Greek nation drawing from ancient Macedonian and Spartan militaristic societies representing the First Greek Civilization as well as the Orthodox Christian values of the Byzantine Empire seen as the Second Greek Civilization The regime maintained that authentic Greeks were both ethnically Greek and adherents of Orthodox Christianity explicitly excluding Albanians Slavs and Turks in Greece from Greek citizenship 13 While the Metaxas government and its official doctrines are sometimes labeled as fascist scholarly consensus characterizes it as a traditional authoritarian conservative administration akin to the regimes of Francisco Franco in Spain or Antonio de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal 14 15 The Metaxist government drew its authority from the conservative establishment staunchly supporting traditional institutions like the Greek Orthodox Church and the Greek Monarchy It leaned towards a reactionary stance and lacked the radical theoretical elements associated with ideologies like Italian Fascism and German Nazism 16 15 Notably the regime did not espouse antisemitism considering it to be distasteful 17 Portugal editMain article National Union Portugal The National Union was the exclusive legal party of Portugal s Estado Novo regime established in 1930 under the influence of Antonio de Oliveira Salazar Unlike most of the one party states during its time it operated more as a political extension of the government rather than holding direct authority Its membership primarily consisted of local elites like landowners professionals businessmen and individuals with Catholic monarchist or conservative republican affiliations 18 The National Union did not actively engage in militant activities Under Salazar s leadership it became the sole legally permitted party but he emphasized that it should not function as a conventional political party Instead it served as a platform for conservatism rather than a revolutionary force 19 The party s ideology centered around corporatism drawing inspiration from Catholic encyclicals and Mussolini s corporate state 20 Unlike other ruling Fascist parties it played a more limited role in governance primarily focused on controlling and managing public opinion rather than mobilizing it Scholarly opinions vary on whether the Estado Novo and the National Union should be classified as fascist or not with Salazar himself highlighting significant differences between fascism and the Catholic corporatism of the Estado Novo Some scholars lean towards categorizing it as a conservative authoritarian regime while others argue for its classification as fascist 21 Spain editMain article FET y de las JONS The Falange Espanola Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista commonly known as FET y de las JONS or simply FET was the exclusive legal political party of the Francoist regime in Spain Established by General Francisco Franco in 1937 it was a fusion of the fascist Falange Espanola de las JONS FE de las JONS with the monarchist neo absolutist and integralist Catholic Traditionalist Communion associated with the Carlist movement Despite the amalgamation FET largely retained the platform of FE de las JONS preserving 26 out of its original 27 points as well as a similar internal structure 22 This party remained in effect until April 1977 after which it was rebranded as the Movimiento Nacional in 1958 which caused it to transform into an Authoritarian Conservative movement 22 23 Some academics considered the pre merge FE de las JONS to be Fascist and that the merger with the Traditionalist Communion caused it to lose its Fascist characteristics and thus become para fascist 24 See also editFascism Far right politics National conservatismReferences edit Griffin Roger 1993 The Nature of Fascism Routledge pp 120 124 240 ISBN 978 0415096614 Freeden Michael Sargent Lyman Stears Marc 2013 The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies Oxford pp 294 297 ISBN 978 0 19 958597 7 Griffin Roger 1993 The Nature of Fascism Routledge p 124 ISBN 978 0415096614 Griffin Roger 1993 The Nature of Fascism Routledge pp 124 126 ISBN 978 0415096614 Griffin Roger 1993 The Nature of Fascism Routledge p 122 ISBN 978 0415096614 Griffin Roger 1993 The Nature of Fascism Routledge pp 122 123 ISBN 978 0415096614 Thuswaldner Gregor 2006 Dollfuss Engelbert 1892 1934 In Domenico Roy Palmer Hanley Mark Y eds Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Politics Greenwood Press p 174 ISBN 978 0313323621 Pyrah Robert 2007 Enacting Encyclicals Cultural Politics and Clerical Fascism in Austria 1933 1938 Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 8 162 via Taylor amp Francis Online Binder Dieter A 2002 The Christian Corporatist State Austria from 1934 to 1938 Routledge p 75 ISBN 9781351315203 Binder Dieter A 2009 The Christian Corporatist State Routledge p 73 ISBN 9781351315203 Talos Emmerich Neugebauer Wolfgang 2014 Austrofaschismus Politik Okonomie Kultur 1933 1938 in German 7th ed Lit Verlag pp 1 2 Payne Stanley G 1995 A History of Fascism 1914 45 University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0 299 14874 2 a b Sorensen Gert Mallett Robert 2002 International Fascism 1919 45 1st ed Routledge p 159 ISBN 978 0714682624 Payne Stanley G 1995 A History of Fascism 1914 45 University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0 299 14874 2 a b Lee Stephen J 2000 European Dictatorships 1918 1945 Routledge 2 ed ISBN 0415230462 Payne Stanley G 1995 A History of Fascism 1914 45 University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0 299 14874 2 Fleming K E 2010 Greece a Jewish History Princeton University Press p 101 doi 10 1515 9781400834013 ISBN 978 1 4008 3401 3 Lewis Paul H 2002 Latin fascist elites the Mussolini Franco and Salazar regimes Praeger p 143 ISBN 978 0275978808 Gallagher Tom 2020 Salazar the dictator who refused to die C Hurst amp Co Publishers pp 43 44 ISBN 9781787383883 Lewis Paul H 2002 Latin fascist elites the Mussolini Franco and Salazar regimes Praeger p 185 ISBN 978 0275978808 Fernando Rosas 2019 Salazar e os Fascismos Ensaio Breve de Historia Comparada in Portuguese Edicoes Tinta da China a b Cyprian P Blamires editor World Fascism A Historical Encyclopedia Santa Barbara California ABC CLIO 2006 pp 219 220 Martin Blinkhorn Fascists and Conservatives The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth Century Europe Reprinted edition Oxon England Routledge 1990 2001 p 10 Stanley G Payne Fascism in Spain 1923 1977 Madison Wisconsin University Press 1999 pp 77 102 Further reading editEl Ojeili Chamsy Reflecting on post fascism Utopia and fear Critical sociology 45 7 8 2019 1149 1166 Griffin Roger and Rita Almeida de Carvalho Editorial Introduction Architectural Projections of a New Order in Fascist and Para Fascist Interwar Dictatorships Fascism 7 2 2018 133 140 online Kallis Aristotle A Fascism Para Fascism and Fascistization On the Similarities of Three Conceptual Categories European History Quarterly 33 2 2003 219 249 online Kallis Aristotle Working Across Bounded Entities Fascism Para Fascism and Ideational Mobilities in Interwar Europe in Beyond the Fascist Century Essays in Honour of Roger Griffin 2020 73 99 online Newman John Paul War Veterans Fascism and Para Fascist Departures in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia 1918 1941 Fascism 6 1 2017 42 74 online Pinto Antonio Costa and Aristotle Kallis eds Rethinking fascism and dictatorship in Europe Springer 2014 online Tamas Gaspar Miklos On post fascism East European Constitutional Review 9 2000 48 online Trajano Filho Francisco Sales The Many Faces of a Para Fascist Culture Architecture Politics and Power in Vargas Regime 1930 1945 Fascism 7 2 2018 175 212 online Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Para fascism amp oldid 1218404743, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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