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Wikipedia

Optimism

November 16, 2023

Not to be confused with Idealism.
"Optimist" and "Optimistic" redirect here. For other uses, see Optimist (disambiguation), Optimistic (disambiguation), and Optimism (disambiguation).

Optimism is an attitude reflecting a belief or hope that the outcome of some specific endeavor, or outcomes in general, will be positive, favorable, and desirable. A common idiom used to illustrate optimism versus pessimism is a glass filled with water to the halfway point: an optimist is said to see the glass as half full, while a pessimist sees the glass as half empty.

Half a glass of water, illustration of two different mental attitudes, optimism (half full) and pessimism (half empty)

The term derives from the Latin optimum, meaning "best". To be optimistic, in the typical sense of the word, is to expect the best possible outcome from any given situation.[1] This is usually referred to in psychology as dispositional optimism. It reflects a belief that future conditions will work out for the best.[2] As a trait, it fosters resilience in the face of stress.[3]

Theories of optimism include dispositional models and models of explanatory style. Methods to measure optimism have been developed within both of these theoretical approaches, such as various forms of the Life Orientation Test for the original dispositional definition of optimism and the Attributional Style Questionnaire designed to test optimism in terms of explanatory style.

Variation in optimism between people is somewhat heritable[4] and reflects biological trait systems to some degree.[clarification needed][5] A person's optimism is also influenced by environmental factors, including family environment,[4] and may be learnable.[6][page needed] Optimism may also be linked to[vague] health.[7]

Psychological optimism edit

Dispositional optimism edit

 
An optimist and a pessimist, Vladimir Makovsky, 1893

Researchers operationalize the term "optimism" differently depending on their research. As with any trait characteristic, there are several ways to evaluate optimism, such as the Life Orientation Test (LOT), an eight-item scale developed in 1985 by Michael Scheier and Charles Carver.[8]

Dispositional optimism and pessimism are typically assessed by asking people whether they expect future outcomes to be beneficial or negative (see below).[9] The LOT returns separate optimism and pessimism scores for each individual. Behaviourally,[clarification needed] these two scores correlate around r=0.5. Optimistic scores on this scale predict better outcomes in relationships,[10] higher social status,[11] and reduced loss of well-being following adversity.[12][page needed] Health-preserving behaviors are associated with[vague] optimism while health-damaging behaviors are associated with pessimism.[13]

Some have argued that optimism is the opposite end of a single dimension with pessimism,[14][page needed] with any distinction between them reflecting factors such as social desirability. Confirmatory modelling, however, supports a two-dimensional model[15] and the two dimensions predict different outcomes[clarification needed].[16] Genetic modelling confirms this independence, showing that pessimism and optimism are inherited as independent traits, with the typical correlation between them emerging as a result of a general well-being factor and family environment influences.[4] Patients with high dispositional optimism appear to have stronger immune systems since optimism buffers against psychological stressors.[17] Optimists appear to live longer.[18]

Explanatory style edit

Explanatory style is distinct from dispositional theories of optimism. While related to life-orientation measures of optimism, attributional style[clarification needed] theory suggests that dispositional optimism and pessimism are reflections of the ways people explain events, i.e., that attributions cause these dispositions.[19] An optimist would view defeat as temporary, as something that does not apply to other cases, and as something that is not their fault.[20] Measures of attributional style distinguish three dimensions among explanations for events: Whether these explanations draw on internal versus external causes; whether the causes are viewed as stable versus unstable; and whether explanations apply globally versus being situationally specific. In addition, the measures distinguish attributions for positive and negative events.

Optimistic people attribute internal, stable, and global explanations to good things. Pessimistic explanations attribute these traits of stability, globality, and internality to negative events, such as relationship difficulty.[21] Models of optimistic and pessimistic attributions show that attributions themselves are a cognitive style – individuals who tend to focus on the global explanations do so for all types of events, and the styles correlate among each other. In addition, individuals vary in how optimistic their attributions are for good events and on how pessimistic their attributions are for bad events. Still, these two traits of optimism and pessimism are un-correlated.[22]

There is much debate about the relationship between explanatory style and optimism. Some researchers argue that optimism is simply the lay-term for what researchers know as explanatory style.[23] More commonly, it is found that explanatory style is distinct from dispositional optimism,[24] so the two should not be used interchangeably as they are marginally correlated at best. More research is required to "bridge" or further differentiate these concepts.[21]

Origins edit

 
Optimistic personality (modified from[4])

As with all psychological traits, differences in both dispositional optimism and pessimism[4] and in attributional style[25] are heritable. Both optimism and pessimism are strongly influenced by environmental factors, including the family environment.[4] Optimism may be indirectly inherited as a reflection of underlying heritable traits such as intelligence, temperament, and alcoholism.[25] Evidence from twin studies shows that the inherited component of the dispositional optimism is about 25 percent, making this trait a stable personality dimension[26][page needed] and a predictor of life outcomes.[27] Its genetic origin interacts with environmental influences and other risks, to determine the vulnerability to depression across the lifespan.[28] Many theories assume optimism can be learned,[6] and research supports a modest role of family-environment acting to raise (or lower) optimism and lower (or raise) neuroticism and pessimism.[4]

Work utilising brain imaging and biochemistry suggests that at a biological trait level, optimism and pessimism reflect brain systems specialised for the tasks of processing and incorporating beliefs regarding good and bad information respectively.[5]

Assessment edit

Life Orientation Test edit

The Life Orientation Test (LOT) was designed by Scheier and Carver (1985)[full citation needed] to assess dispositional optimism – expecting positive or negative outcomes.[21] It is one of the more popular tests of optimism and pessimism. It was often used in early studies examining these dispositions' effects in health-related domains.[29] Scheier and Carver's initial research, which surveyed college students, found that optimistic participants were less likely to show an increase in symptoms like dizziness, muscle soreness, fatigue, blurred vision, and other physical complaints than pessimistic respondents.[30]

There are eight items and four filler items in the test. Four are positive items (e.g. "In uncertain times, I usually expect the best") and four are negative items e.g. "If something can go wrong for me, it will."[31] The LOT has been revised twice—once by the original creators (LOT-R) and also by Chang, Maydeu-Olivares, and D'Zurilla as the Extended Life Orientation Test (ELOT). The Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) consists of six items, each scored on a five-point scale from "Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree" and four filler items.[32] Half of the coded items are phrased optimistically, the other half in a pessimistic way. Compared with its previous iteration, LOT-R offers good internal consistency over time despite item overlaps, making the correlation between the LOT and LOT-R extremely high.[29]

Attributional Style Questionnaire edit

The Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ)[33] is based on the explanatory style model of optimism. Subjects read a list of six positive and negative events (e.g. "you have been looking for a job unsuccessfully for some time"), and are asked to record a possible cause for the event. They then rate whether this is internal or external, stable or changeable, and global or local to the event.[33] There are several modified versions of the ASQ including the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire (EASQ), the Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations (CAVE), and the ASQ designed for testing the optimism of children.[21]

Associations with health edit

Optimism and health are correlated moderately.[34] Optimism explains between 5–10% of the variation in the likelihood of developing some health conditions (correlation coefficients between .20 and .30),[35] notably including cardiovascular disease,[36] stroke,[37] and depression.[38]

The relationship between optimism and health has also been studied with regard to physical symptoms, coping strategies, and negative effects for those suffering from rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, and fibromyalgia. Among individuals with these diseases, optimists are not more likely than pessimists to report pain alleviation due to coping strategies, despite differences in psychological well-being between the two groups.[39] A meta-analysis confirmed the assumption that optimism is related to psychological well-being: "Put simply, optimists emerge from difficult circumstances with less distress than do pessimists."[40] Furthermore, the correlation appears to be attributable to coping style: "That is, optimists seem intent on facing problems head-on, taking active and constructive steps to solve their problems; pessimists are more likely to abandon their effort to attain their goals."[40]

Optimists may respond better to stress: pessimists have shown higher levels of cortisol (the "stress hormone") and trouble regulating cortisol in response to stressors.[41] Another study by Scheier examined the recovery process for a number of patients that had undergone surgery.[42] The study showed that optimism was a strong predictor of the rate of recovery. Optimists achieved faster results in "behavioral milestones" such as sitting in bed, walking around, etc. They also were rated by staff as having a more favorable physical recovery. At a six-month follow-up, optimists were quicker to resume normal activities.

Optimism and well-being edit

A number of studies have been done on optimism and psychological well-being. One 30-year study undertaken by Lee et al. (2019)[full citation needed] assessed the overall optimism and longevity of cohorts of men from the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study and women from the Nurses' Health Study. The study found a positive correlation between higher levels of optimism and exceptional longevity, defined as a lifespan exceeding 85 years.

One study found older generations to be generally more positive, as well as more likely to assume the best in others.[43]

Another study conducted by Aspinwall and Taylor (1990)[full citation needed] assessed incoming freshmen on a range of personality factors such as optimism, self-esteem, locus of self-control, etc.[42] Freshmen who scored high on optimism before entering college had lower levels of psychological distress than their more pessimistic peers while controlling for the other personality factors. Over time, the more optimistic students were less stressed, less lonely, and less depressed than their pessimistic counterparts. This study suggests a strong link between optimism and psychological well-being.

Low optimism may help explain the association between caregivers' anger and reduced sense of vitality[clarification needed].[44]

A meta-analysis of optimism supported findings that optimism is positively correlated with life satisfaction, happiness,[45][better source needed] and psychological and physical well-being, and negatively correlated with depression and anxiety.[46]

Seeking to explain the correlation,[specify] researchers find that optimists choose healthier lifestyles. For example, optimists smoke less, are more physically active, consume more fruit, vegetables, and whole-grain bread, and are more moderate in alcohol consumption.[47]

Translating association into modifiability edit

Research to date has demonstrated that optimists are less likely to have certain diseases or develop certain diseases over time. Research has not yet been able to demonstrate the ability to change an individual's level of optimism through psychological interventions, and thereby perhaps alter the course of disease or likelihood for development of disease.[citation needed]

An article by Mayo Clinic argues that steps to change self-talk from negative to positive may shift individuals from a negative to a more positive/optimistic outlook.[48] Strategies claimed to be of value include surrounding oneself with positive people, identifying areas of change, practicing positive self-talk, being open to humor, and following a healthy lifestyle.[48]

There is also the notion of "learned optimism" in positive psychology, which holds that joy is a talent that can be cultivated and can be achieved through specific actions such as challenging negative self talk or overcoming "learned helplessness".[49] However, criticism against positive psychology argues that it places too much importance on "upbeat thinking, while shunting challenging and difficult experiences to the side"—threatening to become toxic positivity.[50]

A study involving twins found that optimism is largely inherited at birth.[51] Along with the recognition that childhood experiences determine an individual's outlook, such studies demonstrate the genetic basis for optimism reinforces the recognized difficulty in changing or manipulating the direction of an adult's disposition from pessimist to optimist.[51]

Philosophical optimism edit

One of the earliest forms of philosophical optimism was Socrates' theory of moral intellectualism, which formed part of his model of enlightenment through the process of self-improvement.[52] According to the philosopher, it is possible to live a virtuous life by attaining moral perfection through philosophical self-examination. He maintained that knowledge of moral truth is necessary and sufficient for leading a good life.[52] In his philosophical investigations, Socrates followed a model that did not merely focus on the intellect or reason but a balanced practice that also considered emotion as an important contributor to the richness of human experience.[53]

Distinct from a disposition to believe that things will work out, there is a philosophical idea that, perhaps in ways that may not be fully comprehended, the present moment is in an optimum state. This view that all of nature—past, present, and future—operates by laws of optimization along the lines of Hamilton's principle in the realm of physics is countered by views such as idealism, realism, and philosophical pessimism. Philosophers often link the concept of optimism with the name of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who held that we live in the best of all possible worlds (le meilleur des mondes possibles), or that God created a physical universe that applies the laws of physics[clarification needed]. The concept was also reflected in an aspect of Voltaire's early philosophy, one that was based on Isaac Newton's view that described a divinely ordered human condition.[54] This philosophy would also later emerge in Alexander Pope's Essay on Man.

Leibniz proposed that it was not God's power to create a perfect world, but he created the best among possible worlds.[55] In one of his writings, he responded to Blaise Pascal's philosophy of awe and desperation in the face of the infinite by claiming that infinity should be celebrated. While Pascal advocated for making man's rational aspirations more humble, Leibniz was optimistic about the capacity of human reason to extend itself further.[56]

This idea was mocked by Voltaire in his satirical novel Candide as baseless optimism of the sort exemplified by the beliefs of one of its characters, Dr. Pangloss, which are the opposite of his fellow traveller Martin's pessimism and emphasis on free will. The optimistic position is also called Panglossianism which became an term for excessive, even stupendous, optimism.[57] The phrase "panglossian pessimism" has been used[by whom?] to describe the pessimistic position that, since this is the best of all possible worlds, it is impossible for anything to get any better. Conversely, philosophical pessimism might be associated[by whom?] with an optimistic long-term view because it implies that no change for the worse is possible. Voltaire found it difficult to reconcile Leibniz's optimism with human suffering as demonstrated by the earthquake that devastated Lisbon in 1755 and the atrocities committed by the pre-revolutionary France against its people.[58]

Optimalism edit

As defined by Nicholas Rescher, philosophical optimalism holds that this universe exists because it is better than the alternatives.[59] While this philosophy does not exclude the possibility of a deity, it also does not require one, and is compatible with atheism.[60] Rescher explained that the concept can stand on its own feet, arguing that there is no necessity to seeing optimalism realization as divinely instituted because it is a naturalistic theory in principle.[61]

Psychological optimalism, as defined by the positive psychologist Tal Ben-Shahar, means willingness to accept failure while remaining confident that success will follow, a positive attitude he contrasts with negative perfectionism.[62] Perfectionism can be defined as a persistent compulsive drive toward unattainable goals and valuation based solely in terms of accomplishment.[63] Perfectionists reject the realities and constraints of human ability. They cannot accept failures, delaying any ambitious and productive behavior in fear of failing again.[64] This neuroticism can even lead to clinical depression and low productivity.[65][better source needed] As an alternative to negative perfectionism, Ben-Shahar suggests the adoption of optimalism. Optimalism allows for failure in pursuit of a goal, and expects that while the trend of activity is towards the positive, it is not necessary always to succeed while striving towards goals. This basis in reality, prevents the optimalist from being overwhelmed in the face of failure.[62]

Optimalists accept failures and learn from them, encouraging further pursuit of achievement.[64] Ben-Shahar believes that optimalists and perfectionists show distinct motives. Optimalists tend to have more intrinsic, inward desires, with a motivation to learn, while perfectionists are highly motivated by a need to prove themselves worthy consistently.[62]

Two additional facets of optimalism have been described: product optimalism and process optimalism. The former is described as an outlook that seeks to realize the best possible result, while the latter seeks maximization of the chances of achieving the best possible result.[66]

Some sources also distinguish the concept from optimism since it does not focus on how things are going well but on whether things are going as well as possible.[67]

See also edit

References edit

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  55. ^ Cronk, Nicholas (2009). The Cambridge Companion to Voltaire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 125. ISBN 9780521849739.
  56. ^ Nachtomy, Ohad (2018). "On Living Mirrors and Mites: Leibniz's Encounter with Pascal on Infinity and Living Things Circa 1696". In Garber, Daniel; Rutherford, Donald (eds.). Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy, Volume 8. 9780198829294: Oxford University Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780198829294.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  57. ^ Olick, Jeffrey (2013). The Politics of Regret: On Collective Memory and Historical Responsibility. New York: Routledge. p. 169. ISBN 9780415956833.
  58. ^ Zack, Naomi (2009). The Handy Philosophy Answer Book. Detroit: Visible Ink Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-57859-277-7.
  59. ^ Rescher, Nicholas (June 2000). "Optimalism and axiological metaphysics". The Review of Metaphysics. 53 (4): 807–35. ISSN 0034-6632. JSTOR 20131443.
  60. ^ Steinhart, Eric (2010). "Platonic Atheism" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
  61. ^ Rescher, Nicholas (2013). Issues in the Philosophy of Religion. Piscataway, N.J.: Transaction Books. p. 80. ISBN 9783938793701.
  62. ^ a b c Ben-Shahar, Tal (11 March 2009). The Pursuit of Perfect: How to Stop Chasing Perfection and Start Living a Richer, Happier Life. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-07-160882-4. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
  63. ^ Parker, W. D.; Adkins, K. K. (1994), "Perfectionism and the gifted", Roeper Review, 17 (3): 173–176, doi:10.1080/02783199509553653
  64. ^ a b Horne, Amanda (2009-09-03). "Positive Psychology News Daily". from the original on June 14, 2011. Retrieved July 24, 2011.
  65. ^ "Perfectionism: Impossible Dream", Psychology Today, May 1995, archived from the original on 2013-01-04, retrieved 2011-07-26
  66. ^ Rescher, Nicholas (2013). Being and Value and Other Philosophical Essays. Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag. p. 11. ISBN 978-3-938793-88-6.
  67. ^ Rescher, Nicholas (2010). Axiogenesis: An Essay in Metaphysical Optimalism. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-7391-4932-4.

Further reading edit

  • Ehrenreich, Barbara (2010). Bright-Sided: How Positive Thinking Is Undermining America. Picador. p. 256. ISBN 9780312658854. Retrieved 2013-07-29.
  • Huesemann, Michael H.; Huesemann, Joyce A. (2011). "Technological Optimism and Belief in Progress". Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment. Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada: New Society Publishers. ISBN 978-0865717046.
  • Seligman, M.E.P. (2006). Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life. Vintage. ISBN 1400078393.
  • Sharot, Tali (2012). The Optimism Bias: Why We're Wired to Look on the Bright Side. Vintage. ISBN 9780307473516.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Optimism.
 
Wikiversity has learning resources about Positive thinking
 
Wikiversity has learning resources about Optimism
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Optimism.

November 16, 2023
optimism, confused, with, idealism, optimist, optimistic, redirect, here, other, uses, optimist, disambiguation, optimistic, disambiguation, disambiguation, attitude, reflecting, belief, hope, that, outcome, some, specific, endeavor, outcomes, general, will, p. Not to be confused with Idealism Optimist and Optimistic redirect here For other uses see Optimist disambiguation Optimistic disambiguation and Optimism disambiguation Optimism is an attitude reflecting a belief or hope that the outcome of some specific endeavor or outcomes in general will be positive favorable and desirable A common idiom used to illustrate optimism versus pessimism is a glass filled with water to the halfway point an optimist is said to see the glass as half full while a pessimist sees the glass as half empty Half a glass of water illustration of two different mental attitudes optimism half full and pessimism half empty The term derives from the Latin optimum meaning best To be optimistic in the typical sense of the word is to expect the best possible outcome from any given situation 1 This is usually referred to in psychology as dispositional optimism It reflects a belief that future conditions will work out for the best 2 As a trait it fosters resilience in the face of stress 3 Theories of optimism include dispositional models and models of explanatory style Methods to measure optimism have been developed within both of these theoretical approaches such as various forms of the Life Orientation Test for the original dispositional definition of optimism and the Attributional Style Questionnaire designed to test optimism in terms of explanatory style Variation in optimism between people is somewhat heritable 4 and reflects biological trait systems to some degree clarification needed 5 A person s optimism is also influenced by environmental factors including family environment 4 and may be learnable 6 page needed Optimism may also be linked to vague health 7 Contents 1 Psychological optimism 1 1 Dispositional optimism 1 2 Explanatory style 1 3 Origins 1 4 Assessment 1 4 1 Life Orientation Test 1 4 2 Attributional Style Questionnaire 1 5 Associations with health 1 6 Optimism and well being 1 7 Translating association into modifiability 2 Philosophical optimism 2 1 Optimalism 3 See also 4 References 5 Further readingPsychological optimism editDispositional optimism edit nbsp An optimist and a pessimist Vladimir Makovsky 1893Researchers operationalize the term optimism differently depending on their research As with any trait characteristic there are several ways to evaluate optimism such as the Life Orientation Test LOT an eight item scale developed in 1985 by Michael Scheier and Charles Carver 8 Dispositional optimism and pessimism are typically assessed by asking people whether they expect future outcomes to be beneficial or negative see below 9 The LOT returns separate optimism and pessimism scores for each individual Behaviourally clarification needed these two scores correlate around r 0 5 Optimistic scores on this scale predict better outcomes in relationships 10 higher social status 11 and reduced loss of well being following adversity 12 page needed Health preserving behaviors are associated with vague optimism while health damaging behaviors are associated with pessimism 13 Some have argued that optimism is the opposite end of a single dimension with pessimism 14 page needed with any distinction between them reflecting factors such as social desirability Confirmatory modelling however supports a two dimensional model 15 and the two dimensions predict different outcomes clarification needed 16 Genetic modelling confirms this independence showing that pessimism and optimism are inherited as independent traits with the typical correlation between them emerging as a result of a general well being factor and family environment influences 4 Patients with high dispositional optimism appear to have stronger immune systems since optimism buffers against psychological stressors 17 Optimists appear to live longer 18 Explanatory style edit Explanatory style is distinct from dispositional theories of optimism While related to life orientation measures of optimism attributional style clarification needed theory suggests that dispositional optimism and pessimism are reflections of the ways people explain events i e that attributions cause these dispositions 19 An optimist would view defeat as temporary as something that does not apply to other cases and as something that is not their fault 20 Measures of attributional style distinguish three dimensions among explanations for events Whether these explanations draw on internal versus external causes whether the causes are viewed as stable versus unstable and whether explanations apply globally versus being situationally specific In addition the measures distinguish attributions for positive and negative events Optimistic people attribute internal stable and global explanations to good things Pessimistic explanations attribute these traits of stability globality and internality to negative events such as relationship difficulty 21 Models of optimistic and pessimistic attributions show that attributions themselves are a cognitive style individuals who tend to focus on the global explanations do so for all types of events and the styles correlate among each other In addition individuals vary in how optimistic their attributions are for good events and on how pessimistic their attributions are for bad events Still these two traits of optimism and pessimism are un correlated 22 There is much debate about the relationship between explanatory style and optimism Some researchers argue that optimism is simply the lay term for what researchers know as explanatory style 23 More commonly it is found that explanatory style is distinct from dispositional optimism 24 so the two should not be used interchangeably as they are marginally correlated at best More research is required to bridge or further differentiate these concepts 21 Origins edit nbsp Optimistic personality modified from 4 As with all psychological traits differences in both dispositional optimism and pessimism 4 and in attributional style 25 are heritable Both optimism and pessimism are strongly influenced by environmental factors including the family environment 4 Optimism may be indirectly inherited as a reflection of underlying heritable traits such as intelligence temperament and alcoholism 25 Evidence from twin studies shows that the inherited component of the dispositional optimism is about 25 percent making this trait a stable personality dimension 26 page needed and a predictor of life outcomes 27 Its genetic origin interacts with environmental influences and other risks to determine the vulnerability to depression across the lifespan 28 Many theories assume optimism can be learned 6 and research supports a modest role of family environment acting to raise or lower optimism and lower or raise neuroticism and pessimism 4 Work utilising brain imaging and biochemistry suggests that at a biological trait level optimism and pessimism reflect brain systems specialised for the tasks of processing and incorporating beliefs regarding good and bad information respectively 5 Assessment edit Life Orientation Test edit The Life Orientation Test LOT was designed by Scheier and Carver 1985 full citation needed to assess dispositional optimism expecting positive or negative outcomes 21 It is one of the more popular tests of optimism and pessimism It was often used in early studies examining these dispositions effects in health related domains 29 Scheier and Carver s initial research which surveyed college students found that optimistic participants were less likely to show an increase in symptoms like dizziness muscle soreness fatigue blurred vision and other physical complaints than pessimistic respondents 30 There are eight items and four filler items in the test Four are positive items e g In uncertain times I usually expect the best and four are negative items e g If something can go wrong for me it will 31 The LOT has been revised twice once by the original creators LOT R and also by Chang Maydeu Olivares and D Zurilla as the Extended Life Orientation Test ELOT The Revised Life Orientation Test LOT R consists of six items each scored on a five point scale from Strongly disagree to Strongly agree and four filler items 32 Half of the coded items are phrased optimistically the other half in a pessimistic way Compared with its previous iteration LOT R offers good internal consistency over time despite item overlaps making the correlation between the LOT and LOT R extremely high 29 Attributional Style Questionnaire edit The Attributional Style Questionnaire ASQ 33 is based on the explanatory style model of optimism Subjects read a list of six positive and negative events e g you have been looking for a job unsuccessfully for some time and are asked to record a possible cause for the event They then rate whether this is internal or external stable or changeable and global or local to the event 33 There are several modified versions of the ASQ including the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire EASQ the Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations CAVE and the ASQ designed for testing the optimism of children 21 Associations with health edit Optimism and health are correlated moderately 34 Optimism explains between 5 10 of the variation in the likelihood of developing some health conditions correlation coefficients between 20 and 30 35 notably including cardiovascular disease 36 stroke 37 and depression 38 The relationship between optimism and health has also been studied with regard to physical symptoms coping strategies and negative effects for those suffering from rheumatoid arthritis asthma and fibromyalgia Among individuals with these diseases optimists are not more likely than pessimists to report pain alleviation due to coping strategies despite differences in psychological well being between the two groups 39 A meta analysis confirmed the assumption that optimism is related to psychological well being Put simply optimists emerge from difficult circumstances with less distress than do pessimists 40 Furthermore the correlation appears to be attributable to coping style That is optimists seem intent on facing problems head on taking active and constructive steps to solve their problems pessimists are more likely to abandon their effort to attain their goals 40 Optimists may respond better to stress pessimists have shown higher levels of cortisol the stress hormone and trouble regulating cortisol in response to stressors 41 Another study by Scheier examined the recovery process for a number of patients that had undergone surgery 42 The study showed that optimism was a strong predictor of the rate of recovery Optimists achieved faster results in behavioral milestones such as sitting in bed walking around etc They also were rated by staff as having a more favorable physical recovery At a six month follow up optimists were quicker to resume normal activities Optimism and well being edit A number of studies have been done on optimism and psychological well being One 30 year study undertaken by Lee et al 2019 full citation needed assessed the overall optimism and longevity of cohorts of men from the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study and women from the Nurses Health Study The study found a positive correlation between higher levels of optimism and exceptional longevity defined as a lifespan exceeding 85 years One study found older generations to be generally more positive as well as more likely to assume the best in others 43 Another study conducted by Aspinwall and Taylor 1990 full citation needed assessed incoming freshmen on a range of personality factors such as optimism self esteem locus of self control etc 42 Freshmen who scored high on optimism before entering college had lower levels of psychological distress than their more pessimistic peers while controlling for the other personality factors Over time the more optimistic students were less stressed less lonely and less depressed than their pessimistic counterparts This study suggests a strong link between optimism and psychological well being Low optimism may help explain the association between caregivers anger and reduced sense of vitality clarification needed 44 A meta analysis of optimism supported findings that optimism is positively correlated with life satisfaction happiness 45 better source needed and psychological and physical well being and negatively correlated with depression and anxiety 46 Seeking to explain the correlation specify researchers find that optimists choose healthier lifestyles For example optimists smoke less are more physically active consume more fruit vegetables and whole grain bread and are more moderate in alcohol consumption 47 Translating association into modifiability edit Research to date update has demonstrated that optimists are less likely to have certain diseases or develop certain diseases over time Research has not yet update been able to demonstrate the ability to change an individual s level of optimism through psychological interventions and thereby perhaps alter the course of disease or likelihood for development of disease citation needed An article by Mayo Clinic argues that steps to change self talk from negative to positive may shift individuals from a negative to a more positive optimistic outlook 48 Strategies claimed to be of value include surrounding oneself with positive people identifying areas of change practicing positive self talk being open to humor and following a healthy lifestyle 48 There is also the notion of learned optimism in positive psychology which holds that joy is a talent that can be cultivated and can be achieved through specific actions such as challenging negative self talk or overcoming learned helplessness 49 However criticism against positive psychology argues that it places too much importance on upbeat thinking while shunting challenging and difficult experiences to the side threatening to become toxic positivity 50 A study involving twins found that optimism is largely inherited at birth 51 Along with the recognition that childhood experiences determine an individual s outlook such studies demonstrate the genetic basis for optimism reinforces the recognized difficulty in changing or manipulating the direction of an adult s disposition from pessimist to optimist 51 Philosophical optimism editOne of the earliest forms of philosophical optimism was Socrates theory of moral intellectualism which formed part of his model of enlightenment through the process of self improvement 52 According to the philosopher it is possible to live a virtuous life by attaining moral perfection through philosophical self examination He maintained that knowledge of moral truth is necessary and sufficient for leading a good life 52 In his philosophical investigations Socrates followed a model that did not merely focus on the intellect or reason but a balanced practice that also considered emotion as an important contributor to the richness of human experience 53 Distinct from a disposition to believe that things will work out there is a philosophical idea that perhaps in ways that may not be fully comprehended the present moment is in an optimum state This view that all of nature past present and future operates by laws of optimization along the lines of Hamilton s principle in the realm of physics is countered by views such as idealism realism and philosophical pessimism Philosophers often link the concept of optimism with the name of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz who held that we live in the best of all possible worlds le meilleur des mondes possibles or that God created a physical universe that applies the laws of physics clarification needed The concept was also reflected in an aspect of Voltaire s early philosophy one that was based on Isaac Newton s view that described a divinely ordered human condition 54 This philosophy would also later emerge in Alexander Pope s Essay on Man Leibniz proposed that it was not God s power to create a perfect world but he created the best among possible worlds 55 In one of his writings he responded to Blaise Pascal s philosophy of awe and desperation in the face of the infinite by claiming that infinity should be celebrated While Pascal advocated for making man s rational aspirations more humble Leibniz was optimistic about the capacity of human reason to extend itself further 56 This idea was mocked by Voltaire in his satirical novel Candide as baseless optimism of the sort exemplified by the beliefs of one of its characters Dr Pangloss which are the opposite of his fellow traveller Martin s pessimism and emphasis on free will The optimistic position is also called Panglossianism which became an term for excessive even stupendous optimism 57 The phrase panglossian pessimism has been used by whom to describe the pessimistic position that since this is the best of all possible worlds it is impossible for anything to get any better Conversely philosophical pessimism might be associated by whom with an optimistic long term view because it implies that no change for the worse is possible Voltaire found it difficult to reconcile Leibniz s optimism with human suffering as demonstrated by the earthquake that devastated Lisbon in 1755 and the atrocities committed by the pre revolutionary France against its people 58 Optimalism edit As defined by Nicholas Rescher philosophical optimalism holds that this universe exists because it is better than the alternatives 59 While this philosophy does not exclude the possibility of a deity it also does not require one and is compatible with atheism 60 Rescher explained that the concept can stand on its own feet arguing that there is no necessity to seeing optimalism realization as divinely instituted because it is a naturalistic theory in principle 61 Psychological optimalism as defined by the positive psychologist Tal Ben Shahar means willingness to accept failure while remaining confident that success will follow a positive attitude he contrasts with negative perfectionism 62 Perfectionism can be defined as a persistent compulsive drive toward unattainable goals and valuation based solely in terms of accomplishment 63 Perfectionists reject the realities and constraints of human ability They cannot accept failures delaying any ambitious and productive behavior in fear of failing again 64 This neuroticism can even lead to clinical depression and low productivity 65 better source needed As an alternative to negative perfectionism Ben Shahar suggests the adoption of optimalism Optimalism allows for failure in pursuit of a goal and expects that while the trend of activity is towards the positive it is not necessary always to succeed while striving towards goals This basis in reality prevents the optimalist from being overwhelmed in the face of failure 62 Optimalists accept failures and learn from them encouraging further pursuit of achievement 64 Ben Shahar believes that optimalists and perfectionists show distinct motives Optimalists tend to have more intrinsic inward desires with a motivation to learn while perfectionists are highly motivated by a need to prove themselves worthy consistently 62 Two additional facets of optimalism have been described product optimalism and process optimalism The former is described as an outlook that seeks to realize the best possible result while the latter seeks maximization of the chances of achieving the best possible result 66 Some sources also distinguish the concept from optimism since it does not focus on how things are going well but on whether things are going as well as possible 67 See also editAffirmations New Age Practice of positive thinking and self empowerment Agathism Explanatory style Mood psychology Relatively long lasting emotional internal and subjective state Moral idealism Principle or value that one actively pursues as an ethical goalPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets New Thought 19th century American spiritual movement Optimism bias Type of cognitive bias Pessimism Negative mental attitude Philosophy Study of general and fundamental questions Philosophy of happiness Philosophical theory Positive mental attitude The importance of positive thinking as a contributing factor of success Positive psychology Approach of psychological scientific study Pronoia psychology Phenomenon akin to the opposite of paranoia Self efficacy Psychology concept Silver lining idiom English metaphor for optimism Toxic positivity Construct in psychologyReferences edit optimism Merriam Webster Archived from the original on November 15 2017 Retrieved November 14 2017 Definition of optimism in English Oxford Dictionaries Archived from the original on 2014 06 06 Weiten Wayne Lloyd Margaret 2005 Psychology Applied to Modern Life Adjustment in the 21st Century Belmont Calif Thomson Wadsworth pp 96 ISBN 978 0534608590 a b c d e f g Bates Timothy C 25 February 2015 The glass is half full and half empty A population representative twin study testing if optimism and pessimism are distinct systems The Journal of Positive Psychology 10 6 533 542 doi 10 1080 17439760 2015 1015155 PMC 4637169 PMID 26561494 a b Sharot Tali December 2011 The optimism bias Current Biology 21 23 R941 R945 doi 10 1016 j cub 2011 10 030 PMID 22153158 a b Vaughan Susan C 2000 Half Empty Half Full Understanding the Psychological Roots of Optimism New York Harcourt ISBN 0151004013 Ron Gutman The hidden power of smiling on YouTube Breckler Steven J Olson James Wiggins Elizabeth 2006 Social Psychology Alive Belmont Calif Thomson Learning pp 190 ISBN 0534578349 Scheier M F Carver C S 1987 Dispositional optimism and physical well being the influence of generalized outcome expectancies on health Journal of Personality 55 2 169 210 doi 10 1111 j 1467 6494 1987 tb00434 x PMID 3497256 House J Landis K Umberson D 1988 07 29 Social relationships and health Science 241 4865 540 545 Bibcode 1988Sci 241 540H doi 10 1126 science 3399889 PMID 3399889 Lorant Vincent Croux Christophe Weich Scott Deliege Denise Mackenbach Johan Ansseau Marc 2007 04 01 Depression and socio economic risk factors 7 year longitudinal population study The British Journal of Psychiatry 190 4 293 298 doi 10 1192 bjp bp 105 020040 ISSN 0007 1250 PMID 17401034 Carver C S Scheier M F 1998 On the self regulation of behavior New York Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521572040 Hooker Karen Monahan Deborah Shifren Kim Hutchinson Cheryl 1992 Mental and physical health of spouse caregivers The role of personality Psychology and Aging 7 3 367 375 doi 10 1037 0882 7974 7 3 367 PMID 1388857 Jeste Dilip V Palmer Barton W 2015 04 28 Positive Psychiatry A Clinical Handbook American Psychiatric Pub ISBN 9781585625192 Herzberg Philipp Yorck Glaesmer Heide Hoyer Jurgen 2006 Separating optimism and pessimism A robust psychometric analysis of the Revised Life Orientation Test LOT R Psychological Assessment 18 4 433 438 doi 10 1037 1040 3590 18 4 433 PMID 17154764 S2CID 14674536 Robinson Whelen Susan Kim Cheongtag MacCallum Robert C Kiecolt Glaser Janice K 1997 Distinguishing optimism from pessimism in older adults Is it more important to be optimistic or not to be pessimistic Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73 6 1345 1353 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 73 6 1345 PMID 9418282 Duffy James D Valentine Alan 2010 MD Anderson Manual of Psychosocial Oncology New York City McGraw Hill Professional p 38 ISBN 9780071624381 Abbott Eileen 14 November 2019 Optimists live longer Here s why Changing America Retrieved 30 January 2020 Hackfort Dieter Schinke Robert J Strauss Bernd 2019 Dictionary of Sport Psychology Sport Exercise and Performing Arts London Academic Press p 202 ISBN 9780128131503 Snyder C R Lopez Shane J 2009 Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology Second edition New York Oxford University Press p 137 ISBN 9780195187243 a b c d Gillham Jane E Shatte Andrew J Reivich Karen J Seligman Martin E P 2001 Optimism Pessimism and Explanatory Style In Chang Edward C ed Optimism and Pessimism Implications for Theory Research and Practice Washington DC American Psychological Association pp 53 75 ISBN 978 1 55798 691 7 Liu Caimei Bates Timothy C 2014 08 01 The structure of attributional style Cognitive styles and optimism pessimism bias in the Attributional Style Questionnaire Personality and Individual Differences 66 79 85 doi 10 1016 j paid 2014 03 022 Peterson C 2000 The Future of Optimism American Psychologist 55 1 44 55 doi 10 1037 0003 066X 55 1 44 PMID 11392864 S2CID 22373177 Abramson L Dykman B Needles D 1991 Attributional Style and Theory Let No One Tear Them Asunder Psychological Inquiry 2 1 11 13 doi 10 1207 s15327965pli0201 2 Zullow H 1991 Explanations and Expectations Understanding the Doing Side of Optimism Psychological Inquiry 2 1 45 49 doi 10 1207 s15327965pli0201 13 a b Schulman P Keith D Seligman M 1993 Is Optimism Heritable A Study of Twins Behaviour Research and Therapy 31 6 569 574 doi 10 1016 0005 7967 93 90108 7 PMID 8347115 Bornstein Marc H 2018 01 15 The SAGE Encyclopedia of Lifespan Human Development SAGE Publications ISBN 9781506353326 Popper Micha Mayseless Ofra 2013 Internal World of Transformational Leaders In Avolio Bruce Yammarino Francis eds Transformational and Charismatic Leadership The Road Ahead Bingley U K Emerald Group Publishing Limited p 247 ISBN 9781781905999 Abela John R Z Auerbach Randy P Seligman Martin E P 2008 Dispositional Pessimism Across the Lifespan In Dobson Keith Dozois David eds Risk Factors in Depression San Diego Calif Academic Press p 213 ISBN 9780080450780 a b Christensen Alan Martin Rene Smyth Joshua 2004 Encyclopedia of Health Psychology New York Springer Science Business Media p 159 ISBN 9780306483363 Breckler Steven Olson James Wiggins Elizabeth 2005 Social Psychology Alive Belmont Calif Thomson Wadsworth p 190 ISBN 978 0534578343 Scheier Michael F Carver Charles S 1985 Optimism coping and health Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies Health Psychology 4 3 219 247 doi 10 1037 0278 6133 4 3 219 PMID 4029106 Scheier Michael F Carver Charles S Bridges Michael W December 1994 Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism and trait anxiety self mastery and self esteem A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 6 1063 1078 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 67 6 1063 PMID 7815302 a b Peterson Christopher Semmel Amy von Baeyer Carl Abramson Lyn Y Metalsky Gerald I Seligman Martin E P September 1982 The Attributional Style Questionnaire Cognitive Therapy and Research 6 3 287 299 doi 10 1007 BF01173577 S2CID 30737751 Peterson Christopher Park Nansook Kim Eric S February 2012 Can optimism decrease the risk of illness and disease among the elderly Aging Health 8 1 5 8 doi 10 2217 ahe 11 81 Peterson Christopher Bossio Lisa M 2001 Optimism and Physical Well Being In Chang Edward C ed Optimism and Pessimism Implications for Theory Research and Practice Washington D C American Psychological Association pp 127 145 ISBN 978 1 55798 691 7 Scheier Michael F Matthews Karen A Owens Jane F et al 1989 Dispositional optimism and recovery from coronary artery bypass surgery The beneficial effects on physical and psychological well being Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57 6 1024 1040 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 57 6 1024 PMID 2614656 Kubzansky Laura D Sparrow David Vokonas Pantel Kawachi Ichiro November 2001 Is the Glass Half Empty or Half Full A Prospective Study of Optimism and Coronary Heart Disease in the Normative Aging Study Psychosomatic Medicine 63 6 910 916 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 492 6714 doi 10 1097 00006842 200111000 00009 PMID 11719629 S2CID 19463805 Giltay Erik J Geleijnse Johanna M Zitman Frans G Hoekstra Tiny Schouten Evert G November 2004 Dispositional Optimism and All Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality ina Prospective Cohort of Elderly Dutch Men and Women Archives of General Psychiatry 61 11 1126 35 doi 10 1001 archpsyc 61 11 1126 PMID 15520360 Kim Eric S Park Nansook Peterson Christopher October 2011 Dispositional Optimism Protects Older Adults From Stroke The Health And Retirement Study Stroke 42 10 2855 2859 doi 10 1161 STROKEAHA 111 613448 PMID 21778446 Giltay Erik J Zitman Frans G Kromhout Daan March 2006 Dispositional optimism and the risk of depressive symptoms during 15 years of follow up The Zutphen Elderly Study Journal of Affective Disorders 91 1 45 52 doi 10 1016 j jad 2005 12 027 PMID 16443281 Patton George C Tollit Michelle M Romaniuk Helena Spence Susan H Sheffield Jeannie Sawyer Michael G February 2011 A Prospective Study of the Effects of Optimism on Adolescent Health Risks Pediatrics 127 2 308 16 doi 10 1542 peds 2010 0748 hdl 10072 44257 PMID 21220404 Affleck Glenn Tennen Howard Apter Andrea 2001 Optimism Pessimism and Daily Life With Chronic Illness In Chang E ed Optimism amp Pessimism Implications for Theory Research and Practice Washington D C American Psychological Association pp 147 168 ISBN 9781557986917 a b Scheier Michael F Carver Charles S Bridges Michael W 2001 Optimism Pessimism and Psychological Well Being In Chang E ed Optimism amp Pessimism Implications for Theory Research and Practice Washington D C American Psychological Association pp 189 216 ISBN 978 1 55798 691 7 Bergland Christopher 2013 07 24 Optimism Stabilizes Cortisol Levels and Lowers Stress Psychology Today The Athlete s Way a b Scheier Michael F Carver Charles S April 1992 Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well being Theoretical overview and empirical update Cognitive Therapy and Research 16 2 201 228 doi 10 1007 BF01173489 S2CID 6849439 Surveying Americans on Optimism in 2023 Shane Co 4 August 2023 Lopez J Romero Moreno R Marquez Gonzalez M Losada A 2015 04 01 Anger and Health in Dementia Caregivers Exploring the Mediation Effect of Optimism Stress and Health 31 2 158 165 doi 10 1002 smi 2539 ISSN 1532 2998 PMID 24123699 Singh Sarbjit May 2019 How Optimism Affects Happiness Love Equals Alarcon Gene M Bowling Nathan A Khazon Steven May 2013 Great expectations A meta analytic examination of optimism and hope Personality and Individual Differences 54 7 821 827 doi 10 1016 j paid 2012 12 004 Giltay Erik J Geleijnse Johanna M Zitman Frans G Buijsse Brian Kromhout Daan November 2007 Lifestyle and dietary correlates of dispositional optimism in men The Zutphen Elderly Study Journal of Psychosomatic Research 63 5 483 490 doi 10 1016 j jpsychores 2007 07 014 PMID 17980220 a b Positive thinking Stop negative self talk to reduce stress Mayo Clinic March 4 2014 Archived from the original on September 16 2014 Retrieved September 18 2014 Rockwell Sylvia 2006 You Can t Make Me From Chaos to Cooperation in the Elementary Classroom Thousand Oaks Calif Corwin Press p 110 ISBN 978 1412916615 Smith Jen Rose 17 September 2020 When does a good attitude become toxic positivity CNN Retrieved 2020 11 29 a b Rand Kevin L Shea Amanda M 2013 Optimism Within the Context of Disability In Wehmeyer Michael L ed The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Disability New York Oxford University Press p 56 ISBN 9780195398786 a b Wallgren Thomas 2006 Transformative Philosophy Socrates Wittgenstein and the Democratic Spirit of Philosophy Lanham Md Lexington Books p 60 ISBN 978 0 7391 1361 5 Schultz Anne Marie 2013 06 07 Plato s Socrates as Narrator A Philosophical Muse Lanham Md Lexington Books p 28 ISBN 978 0 7391 8330 4 Craig Edward 2005 The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Oxon Routledge p 1052 ISBN 978 1 134 34409 3 Cronk Nicholas 2009 The Cambridge Companion to Voltaire Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 125 ISBN 9780521849739 Nachtomy Ohad 2018 On Living Mirrors and Mites Leibniz s Encounter with Pascal on Infinity and Living Things Circa 1696 In Garber Daniel Rutherford Donald eds Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy Volume 8 9780198829294 Oxford University Press p 176 ISBN 9780198829294 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location link Olick Jeffrey 2013 The Politics of Regret On Collective Memory and Historical Responsibility New York Routledge p 169 ISBN 9780415956833 Zack Naomi 2009 The Handy Philosophy Answer Book Detroit Visible Ink Press p 137 ISBN 978 1 57859 277 7 Rescher Nicholas June 2000 Optimalism and axiological metaphysics The Review of Metaphysics 53 4 807 35 ISSN 0034 6632 JSTOR 20131443 Steinhart Eric 2010 Platonic Atheism PDF Archived PDF from the original on 10 July 2011 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Rescher Nicholas 2013 Issues in the Philosophy of Religion Piscataway N J Transaction Books p 80 ISBN 9783938793701 a b c Ben Shahar Tal 11 March 2009 The Pursuit of Perfect How to Stop Chasing Perfection and Start Living a Richer Happier Life McGraw Hill Professional p 7 ISBN 978 0 07 160882 4 Retrieved 26 July 2011 Parker W D Adkins K K 1994 Perfectionism and the gifted Roeper Review 17 3 173 176 doi 10 1080 02783199509553653 a b Horne Amanda 2009 09 03 Positive Psychology News Daily Archived from the original on June 14 2011 Retrieved July 24 2011 Perfectionism Impossible Dream Psychology Today May 1995 archived from the original on 2013 01 04 retrieved 2011 07 26 Rescher Nicholas 2013 Being and Value and Other Philosophical Essays Frankfurt Ontos Verlag p 11 ISBN 978 3 938793 88 6 Rescher Nicholas 2010 Axiogenesis An Essay in Metaphysical Optimalism Lanham Md Lexington Books p 41 ISBN 978 0 7391 4932 4 Further reading editEhrenreich Barbara 2010 Bright Sided How Positive Thinking Is Undermining America Picador p 256 ISBN 9780312658854 Retrieved 2013 07 29 Huesemann Michael H Huesemann Joyce A 2011 Technological Optimism and Belief in Progress Technofix Why Technology Won t Save Us or the Environment Gabriola Island British Columbia Canada New Society Publishers ISBN 978 0865717046 Seligman M E P 2006 Learned Optimism How to Change Your Mind and Your Life Vintage ISBN 1400078393 Sharot Tali 2012 The Optimism Bias Why We re Wired to Look on the Bright Side Vintage ISBN 9780307473516 nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Optimism nbsp Wikiversity has learning resources about Positive thinking nbsp Wikiversity has learning resources about Optimism nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Optimism Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Optimism amp oldid 1183967565, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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