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Non-rapid eye movement sleep

February 07, 2023

"Slow eyes" redirects here. For sloe eyes, see Prunus spinosa.

Non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM), also known as quiescent sleep, is, collectively, sleep stages 1–3, previously known as stages 1–4. Rapid eye movement sleep (REM) is not included. There are distinct electroencephalographic and other characteristics seen in each stage. Unlike REM sleep, there is usually little or no eye movement during these stages. Dreaming occurs during both sleep states, and muscles are not paralyzed as in REM sleep. People who do not go through the sleeping stages properly get stuck in NREM sleep, and because muscles are not paralyzed a person may be able to sleepwalk. According to studies, the mental activity that takes place during NREM sleep is believed to be thought-like, whereas REM sleep includes hallucinatory and bizarre content.[1] NREM sleep is characteristic of dreamer-initiated friendliness, compared to REM sleep where it's more aggressive, implying that NREM is in charge of simulating friendly interactions.[2] The mental activity that occurs in NREM and REM sleep is a result of two different mind generators, which also explains the difference in mental activity. In addition, there is a parasympathetic dominance during NREM. The reported differences between the REM and NREM activity are believed to arise from differences in the memory stages that occur during the two types of sleep.

Stages

NREM sleep was divided into four stages in the Rechtschaffen and Kales (R&K) standardization of 1968. That has been reduced to three in the 2007 update by The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM).[3]

  • Stage 1 – occurs mostly in the beginning of sleep, with slow eye movement. This state is sometimes referred to as relaxed wakefulness.[4] Alpha waves disappear and the theta wave appears. People aroused from this stage often believe that they have been fully awake. During the transition into stage-1 sleep, it is common to experience hypnic jerks.[5]
  • Stage 2 – no eye movement occurs, and dreaming is very rare. The sleeper is quite easily awakened. EEG recordings tend to show characteristic "sleep spindles", which are short bursts of high frequency brain activity,[6] and "K-complexes" during this stage.
  • Stage 3 – previously divided into stages 3 and 4, is deep sleep, slow-wave sleep (SWS). Stage 3 was formerly the transition between stage 2 and stage 4 where delta waves, associated with "deep" sleep, began to occur, while delta waves dominated in stage 4. In 2007, these were combined into just stage 3 for all of deep sleep.[7] Dreaming is more common in this stage than in other stages of NREM sleep though not as common as in REM sleep. The content of SWS dreams tends to be disconnected, less vivid, and less memorable than those that occur during REM sleep.[8] This is also the stage during which parasomnias most commonly occur. Various education systems e.g. the VCAA of Australian Victorian education practice still practice the stages 3 & 4 separation.

Sleep spindles and K-complexes

Sleep spindles are unique to NREM sleep. The most spindle activity occurs at the beginning and the end of NREM. Sleep spindles involve activation in the brain in the areas of the thalamus, anterior cingulate and insular cortices, and the superior temporal gyri. They have different lengths. There are slow spindles in the range of 11 – 13 Hz that are associated with increased activity in the superior frontal gyrus, and fast spindles in the range of 13 – 15 Hz that are associated with recruitment of sensorimotor processing cortical regions, as well as recruitment of the mesial frontal cortex and hippocampus. There is no clear answer as to what these sleep spindles mean, but ongoing research hopes to illuminate their function.[9]

K-complexes are single long delta waves that last for only a second.[10] They are also unique to NREM sleep. They appear spontaneously across the early stages, usually in the second stage, much like the sleep spindles. However, unlike sleep spindles, they can be voluntarily induced by transient noises such as a knock at the door. The function of these K-complexes is unknown and further research needs to be conducted.[11]

Dreaming

Although study participants' reports of intense dream vividness during REM sleep and increased recollection of dreams occurring during that phase suggest that dreaming most commonly occurs during that stage,[12] dreaming can also occur during NREM sleep,[12] in which dreams tend to be more mundane in comparison.[13] It was initially thought that NREM sleep is the absence of dreaming, or dreams occur more rarely compared to REM sleep because 90-95% of those who wake up in the middle of REM sleep will report that they have had a dream, but only 5-10% of those waking up in the middle of non-REM sleep will report they've had a dream.[14] However, when asked for more general thought processes or feelings, 70% of people who awaken from NREM sleep reports of having dream-like feelings, which is characteristic of NREM dreams, potentially disproving that theory.[15][16]

Research has also shown that dreams during the NREM stage most commonly occur during the morning hours which is also the time period with the highest occurrence of REM sleep. This was found through a study involving subjects taking naps over specific intervals of time and being forcefully awakened, their sleep was separated into naps including only REM sleep and only NREM sleep using polysomnography. This implies that the polysomnographic occurrence of REM sleep is not required for dreaming. Rather, the actual mechanisms that create REM sleep cause changes to one's sleep experience. Through these changes, by morning, a sub-cortical activation occurs during NREM that is comparable to the type that occurs during REM. It is this sub-cortical activation that results in dreaming during the NREM stage during the morning hours.[17]

Self in dreaming

It is suggested that dreaming involves two selfs: aggressive self (REM) and friendly self (NREM). It seems that in NREM dreams, the self are put in different situations, largely negative, but are found to respond in a way that befriends or embraces the unfamiliar.[2] It's sometimes thought that in NREM sleep, the dreamers are "aware of being aware", also known as "secondary awareness",[18] which allows them to make better decisions and be able to reflect on them.[15]

Muscle movements

During non-REM sleep, the tonic drive to most respiratory muscles of the upper airway is inhibited. This has two consequences:

  1. The upper airway becomes more floppy.
  2. The rhythmic innervation results in weaker muscle contractions because the intracellular calcium levels are lowered, as the removal of tonic innervation hyperpolarizes motoneurons, and consequently, muscle cells.

However, because the diaphragm is largely driven by the autonomous system, it is relatively spared of non-REM inhibition. As such, the suction pressures it generates stay the same. This narrows the upper airway during sleep, increasing resistance and making airflow through the upper airway turbulent and noisy. For example, one way to determine whether a person is sleeping is to listen to their breathing - once the person falls asleep, their breathing becomes noticeably louder. Not surprisingly, the increased tendency of the upper airway to collapse during breathing in sleep can lead to snoring, a vibration of the tissues in the upper airway. This problem is exacerbated in overweight people when sleeping on the back, as extra fat tissue may weigh down on the airway, closing it. This can lead to sleep apnea.[citation needed]

Parasomnias

Main article: Parasomnia

The occurrence of parasomnias is very common in the last stage of NREM sleep. Parasomnias are sleep behaviors that affect the function, quality, or timing of sleep, caused by a physiological activation in which the brain is caught between the stages of falling asleep and waking. The autonomous nervous system, cognitive process, and motor system are activated during sleep or while the person wakes up from sleep.

Some examples of parasomnias are somnambulism (sleep walking), somniloquy (sleep talking), sleep eating, nightmares or night terrors, sleep paralysis, and sexsomnia (or "sleep sex"). Many of these have a genetic component, and can be quite damaging to the person with the behavior or their bed partner. Parasomnias are most common in children, but most children have been found to outgrow them with age. However, if not outgrown, they can cause other serious problems with everyday life.[19]

Polysomnography

Polysomnography (PSG) is a test used in the study of sleep; the test result is called a polysomnogram. Below are images of the NREM stages 1, 2 and 3.

The figures represent 30-second epochs (30 seconds of data). They represent data from both eyes, EEG, chin, microphone, EKG, legs, nasal/oral air flow, thermistor, thoracic effort, abdominal effort, oximetry, and body position, in that order. EEG is highlighted by the red box. Sleep spindles in the stage 2 figure are underlined in red.

Stage N1:  

Stage N2:  

Stage N3:  

Slow-wave sleep

Main article: Slow-wave sleep

Slow-wave sleep (SWS) is made up of the deepest stage of NREM, and is often referred to as deep sleep.

The highest arousal thresholds (e.g. difficulty of awakening, such as by a sound of a particular volume) are observed in stage 3. A person will typically feel groggy when awakened from this stage, and indeed, cognitive tests administered after awakening from stage 3 indicate that mental performance is somewhat impaired for periods up to 30 minutes or so, relative to awakenings from other stages. This phenomenon has been called "sleep inertia."

After sleep deprivation there is usually a sharp rebound of SWS, suggesting there is a "need" for this stage.[20]

Slow Wave Sleep (SWS) is a highly active state unlike a state of brain quiescence as previously thought. Brain imaging data has shown that during NREM sleep the regional brain activity is influenced by the waking experience just passed.

A study was done involving an experimental and a control group to have them learn to navigate a 3D maze. The blood flow in the parahippocampal gyrus increased in conjunction with the individual's performance through the 3D maze. Participants were then trained in the maze for 4 hours and later, during the various sleep cycles of NREM sleep, REM sleep and wakefulness, they were scanned twelve times using a PET scan during the night. The PET scan demonstrated a higher blood flow in the hippocampus during SWS/NREM sleep due to the training from the previous day while the control group exhibited no increased blood flow and they had not received the training the prior day. The brain activity during sleep, according to this study, would show the events of the previous day do make a difference. One theory suggests a model of hippocampal-neocortical dialogue. "Two stages of hippocampal activity have been proposed, the first being the recording of the memory during waking and the second involving the playback of the memory during NREM sleep. This process of reactivation of memory firing sequences is believed to gradually reinforce initially weak connections between neocortical sites allowing the original information to be activated in the cortex independently of the hippocampus, and thus ensuring refreshed encoding capacity of the hippocampus." Maquet concluded that the areas of the brain involved with information processing and memory have increased brain activity during the slow wave sleep period. Events experienced in the previous day have more efficient and clearer memory recall the next day thus indicating that the memory regions of the brain are activated during SWS/NREM sleep instead of being dormant as previously thought.[21]

NREM SWS, also known as slow wave activity (SWA), is regarded as highly important in brain development due not only to its homeostatic behavior but also because of its distinct correlation with age.[22] Children sleep longer and deeper than adults. The difference in depth of sleep has been quantified by EEG recordings of SWA.[23] An increase in SWA peaks just before puberty and exponentially decreases from adolescence to adulthood in both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies of typically developing participants.[24][22][23][25] This phenomenon is understood as memories and learned skills being metabolized during NREM sleep;[22] the decrease in SWA is considered a reflection of synaptic rewiring and, therefore, an effect of behavioral maturation concluding.[24] The critical period from childhood to emerging adulthood is also considered a sensitive period for mental disorders to manifest. For example, children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a brain disorder that affects cognitive and motor control, have shown considerably different cortical thickening trajectories in contrast with typically developing children per MRI data. Cortical thickness is a common measure of brain maturation; the main difference in children with ADHD shows a delay in cortical thickness, specifically in the frontal lobe.[25] Significant correlations in the trajectory of gray matter thickness and SWA suggest that SWA may be able to indicate levels of cortical maturation on an individual level.[24] However, there has yet to be a study in which the diagnosis of ADHD can be given directly from SWA readings.

Memory

Main article: Sleep and memory

Non-rapid eye movement sleep is known for its beneficial effect on memory consolidation, especially for declarative memory (while procedural memory improvement is more associated with REM-sleep),[26] even if it is important to note that a clear-cut distinction between stages' influence on type of learning doesn't seem to be possible.[27]

Generally, both REM and NREM are associated with an increased memory performance, because newly encoded memories are reactivated and consolidated during sleep.[28]

NREM sleep has been demonstrated to be intimately correlated with declarative memory consolidation in various studies, where subject slept after a declarative memory-task; these who had a sleep imbued of NREM stages, had a better performance after the nap or the night, compared to subjects who have been awake or had more REM-sleep.[29][30][31]

The importance of NREM sleep in memory consolidation has also been demonstrated using cueing; in this paradigm, while participants are sleeping and are in NREM sleep stages, cues are proposed (which can be, for example, aurally-presented sounds or words, odors, and so on).[32][33][34] The fact that this procedure was effective on the improvement of the later memory performance, indicates that during these stages, there is a reactivation of the memory traces and a subsequent consolidation, which are facilitated by the cues; importantly, this doesn't work if the cueing is presented when subjects are awake or in REM stages.[32][33]

Furthermore, the specific and crucial role of SWS (Slow-Wave Sleep, a stage of NREM sleep) in memory consolidation has been demonstrated in a study[35] where, through electrical stimulations, slow oscillations were induced and boosted; because of this SWA increase, participants had a better performance in declarative memory tasks. Not only SWA helps learning, but it is also crucial, because its suppression has been demonstrated to impair declarative memory consolidation.[36]

On the other hand, sleep spindles (especially associated with N2 NREM sleep stage, but can also occur during N3 NREM sleep stage) are also crucial for declarative consolidation; indeed they are enhanced (increasing in density) after declarative learning,[37] their increase is associated with a better memory performance (which has been proved using pharmacological manipulation of spindles' density, and measuring outcomes on learning tasks).[38]

A working model of sleep and memory stabilization

Schreiner and Rasch (2017)[34] proposed a model illustrating how the cueing beneficial effect on memory during sleep could function, which includes theta and gamma waves and sleep spindles.

Increased theta activity represents the successful reestablishment of the memory after the cueing: if such an increase is observed, it means that the association between the cue and the memory trace is strong enough, and that the cue is presented in an effective way and time. Theta waves interacts with gamma activity, and - during NREM - this oscillatory theta-gamma produces the relocation of the memory representation, from the hippocampus to the cortex. On the other hand, sleep spindles increase occurs right after or in parallel to the theta augmentation, and is a necessary mechanism for the stabilization, the reinforcement and also the integration of the newly encoded memory trace.[34]

Importantly, in this working model, slow oscillations have the role of a 'time-giving pace maker',[34] and seem to be a prerequisite for the success of cueing.

According to this model, enhancing only slow waves or only spindles, is not sufficient to improve memory function of sleep: both need to be increased to obtain an influence and this latter.[34]

NREM in other animals

Not much is known about NREM, so scientists have conducted studies in other animals to potentially understand more, in particular why the brain has evolved to have two distinct states.[39] In their studies, it was found that between birds and certain mammals like dolphins, their brains exhibit similar behavior. It was found that certain species of birds have half their brain's hemisphere release brain waves similar to a human's during NREM sleep, and the other half of it fully conscious, allowing them to fly while sleeping.[40] Certain species of dolphins also exhibit similar behavior as birds in order to be able to swim while sleeping.[41]

In rats, after a 24-hour sleep deprivation, it was found that there was an increase of slow-wave activity in NREM sleep,[42] which corresponds directly with the human brain which when sleep deprived, prioritizes NREM sleep over REM sleep, implying that the NREM sleep is responsible for regulating and compensating for missed sleep.[43]

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Further reading

  • Rechtschaffen, A; Kales, A (1968). A Manual of Standardized Terminology, Techniques and Scoring System For Sleep Stages of Human Subjects. US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare; National Institutes of Health.
  • Massimini, Marcello; Ferrarelli, Fabio; Huber, Reto; Esser, Steve K.; Singh, Harpreet; Tononi, Giulio (2005). "Breakdown of Cortical Effective Connectivity during Sleep". Science. 309 (5744): 2228–2232. Bibcode:2005Sci...309.2228M. doi:10.1126/science.1117256. JSTOR 3843726. PMID 16195466. S2CID 38498750.
  • Cicogna, P; Natale, V; Occhionero, M; Bosinelli, M (2000). "Slow wave and REM sleep mentation". Sleep Research Online. 3 (2): 67–72. PMID 11382903.
  • Vogel, Gerald; Foulkes, D; Trosman, H (1 March 1966). "Ego Functions and Dreaming During Sleep Onset". Archives of General Psychiatry. 14 (3): 238–248. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1966.01730090014003. PMID 5903415.
  • Rock, Andrea (2004). The Mind at Night. ISBN 978-0-7382-0755-1.
  • Warren, Jeff (2007). "The Slow Wave". The Head Trip: Adventures on the Wheel of Consciousness. ISBN 978-0-679-31408-0.
  • Iber, C; Ancoli-Israel, S; Chesson, A; Quan, SF. for the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. The AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events: Rules, Terminology and Technical Specifications. Westchester: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2007.
  • Manni, Raffaele (May 2005). "Rapid eye movement sleep, non-rapid eye movement sleep, dreams, and hallucinations". Current Psychiatry Reports. 7 (3): 196–200. doi:10.1007/s11920-005-0053-0. PMID 15935133. S2CID 36303702.

February 07, 2023
rapid, movement, sleep, slow, eyes, redirects, here, sloe, eyes, prunus, spinosa, this, article, multiple, issues, please, help, improve, discuss, these, issues, talk, page, learn, when, remove, these, template, messages, this, article, needs, additional, cita. Slow eyes redirects here For sloe eyes see Prunus spinosa This article has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Non rapid eye movement sleep news newspapers books scholar JSTOR December 2008 Learn how and when to remove this template message The lead section of this article may need to be rewritten Use the lead layout guide to ensure the section follows Wikipedia s norms and is inclusive of all essential details September 2009 Learn how and when to remove this template message Learn how and when to remove this template message Non rapid eye movement sleep NREM also known as quiescent sleep is collectively sleep stages 1 3 previously known as stages 1 4 Rapid eye movement sleep REM is not included There are distinct electroencephalographic and other characteristics seen in each stage Unlike REM sleep there is usually little or no eye movement during these stages Dreaming occurs during both sleep states and muscles are not paralyzed as in REM sleep People who do not go through the sleeping stages properly get stuck in NREM sleep and because muscles are not paralyzed a person may be able to sleepwalk According to studies the mental activity that takes place during NREM sleep is believed to be thought like whereas REM sleep includes hallucinatory and bizarre content 1 NREM sleep is characteristic of dreamer initiated friendliness compared to REM sleep where it s more aggressive implying that NREM is in charge of simulating friendly interactions 2 The mental activity that occurs in NREM and REM sleep is a result of two different mind generators which also explains the difference in mental activity In addition there is a parasympathetic dominance during NREM The reported differences between the REM and NREM activity are believed to arise from differences in the memory stages that occur during the two types of sleep Contents 1 Stages 2 Sleep spindles and K complexes 3 Dreaming 3 1 Self in dreaming 4 Muscle movements 5 Parasomnias 6 Polysomnography 7 Slow wave sleep 8 Memory 8 1 A working model of sleep and memory stabilization 9 NREM in other animals 10 References 11 Further readingStages EditNREM sleep was divided into four stages in the Rechtschaffen and Kales R amp K standardization of 1968 That has been reduced to three in the 2007 update by The American Academy of Sleep Medicine AASM 3 Stage 1 occurs mostly in the beginning of sleep with slow eye movement This state is sometimes referred to as relaxed wakefulness 4 Alpha waves disappear and the theta wave appears People aroused from this stage often believe that they have been fully awake During the transition into stage 1 sleep it is common to experience hypnic jerks 5 Stage 2 no eye movement occurs and dreaming is very rare The sleeper is quite easily awakened EEG recordings tend to show characteristic sleep spindles which are short bursts of high frequency brain activity 6 and K complexes during this stage Stage 3 previously divided into stages 3 and 4 is deep sleep slow wave sleep SWS Stage 3 was formerly the transition between stage 2 and stage 4 where delta waves associated with deep sleep began to occur while delta waves dominated in stage 4 In 2007 these were combined into just stage 3 for all of deep sleep 7 Dreaming is more common in this stage than in other stages of NREM sleep though not as common as in REM sleep The content of SWS dreams tends to be disconnected less vivid and less memorable than those that occur during REM sleep 8 This is also the stage during which parasomnias most commonly occur Various education systems e g the VCAA of Australian Victorian education practice still practice the stages 3 amp 4 separation Sleep spindles and K complexes EditSleep spindles are unique to NREM sleep The most spindle activity occurs at the beginning and the end of NREM Sleep spindles involve activation in the brain in the areas of the thalamus anterior cingulate and insular cortices and the superior temporal gyri They have different lengths There are slow spindles in the range of 11 13 Hz that are associated with increased activity in the superior frontal gyrus and fast spindles in the range of 13 15 Hz that are associated with recruitment of sensorimotor processing cortical regions as well as recruitment of the mesial frontal cortex and hippocampus There is no clear answer as to what these sleep spindles mean but ongoing research hopes to illuminate their function 9 K complexes are single long delta waves that last for only a second 10 They are also unique to NREM sleep They appear spontaneously across the early stages usually in the second stage much like the sleep spindles However unlike sleep spindles they can be voluntarily induced by transient noises such as a knock at the door The function of these K complexes is unknown and further research needs to be conducted 11 Dreaming EditAlthough study participants reports of intense dream vividness during REM sleep and increased recollection of dreams occurring during that phase suggest that dreaming most commonly occurs during that stage 12 dreaming can also occur during NREM sleep 12 in which dreams tend to be more mundane in comparison 13 It was initially thought that NREM sleep is the absence of dreaming or dreams occur more rarely compared to REM sleep because 90 95 of those who wake up in the middle of REM sleep will report that they have had a dream but only 5 10 of those waking up in the middle of non REM sleep will report they ve had a dream 14 However when asked for more general thought processes or feelings 70 of people who awaken from NREM sleep reports of having dream like feelings which is characteristic of NREM dreams potentially disproving that theory 15 16 Research has also shown that dreams during the NREM stage most commonly occur during the morning hours which is also the time period with the highest occurrence of REM sleep This was found through a study involving subjects taking naps over specific intervals of time and being forcefully awakened their sleep was separated into naps including only REM sleep and only NREM sleep using polysomnography This implies that the polysomnographic occurrence of REM sleep is not required for dreaming Rather the actual mechanisms that create REM sleep cause changes to one s sleep experience Through these changes by morning a sub cortical activation occurs during NREM that is comparable to the type that occurs during REM It is this sub cortical activation that results in dreaming during the NREM stage during the morning hours 17 Self in dreaming Edit This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed April 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message It is suggested that dreaming involves two selfs aggressive self REM and friendly self NREM It seems that in NREM dreams the self are put in different situations largely negative but are found to respond in a way that befriends or embraces the unfamiliar 2 It s sometimes thought that in NREM sleep the dreamers are aware of being aware also known as secondary awareness 18 which allows them to make better decisions and be able to reflect on them 15 Muscle movements EditDuring non REM sleep the tonic drive to most respiratory muscles of the upper airway is inhibited This has two consequences The upper airway becomes more floppy The rhythmic innervation results in weaker muscle contractions because the intracellular calcium levels are lowered as the removal of tonic innervation hyperpolarizes motoneurons and consequently muscle cells However because the diaphragm is largely driven by the autonomous system it is relatively spared of non REM inhibition As such the suction pressures it generates stay the same This narrows the upper airway during sleep increasing resistance and making airflow through the upper airway turbulent and noisy For example one way to determine whether a person is sleeping is to listen to their breathing once the person falls asleep their breathing becomes noticeably louder Not surprisingly the increased tendency of the upper airway to collapse during breathing in sleep can lead to snoring a vibration of the tissues in the upper airway This problem is exacerbated in overweight people when sleeping on the back as extra fat tissue may weigh down on the airway closing it This can lead to sleep apnea citation needed Parasomnias EditMain article Parasomnia The occurrence of parasomnias is very common in the last stage of NREM sleep Parasomnias are sleep behaviors that affect the function quality or timing of sleep caused by a physiological activation in which the brain is caught between the stages of falling asleep and waking The autonomous nervous system cognitive process and motor system are activated during sleep or while the person wakes up from sleep Some examples of parasomnias are somnambulism sleep walking somniloquy sleep talking sleep eating nightmares or night terrors sleep paralysis and sexsomnia or sleep sex Many of these have a genetic component and can be quite damaging to the person with the behavior or their bed partner Parasomnias are most common in children but most children have been found to outgrow them with age However if not outgrown they can cause other serious problems with everyday life 19 Polysomnography EditPolysomnography PSG is a test used in the study of sleep the test result is called a polysomnogram Below are images of the NREM stages 1 2 and 3 The figures represent 30 second epochs 30 seconds of data They represent data from both eyes EEG chin microphone EKG legs nasal oral air flow thermistor thoracic effort abdominal effort oximetry and body position in that order EEG is highlighted by the red box Sleep spindles in the stage 2 figure are underlined in red Stage N1 Stage N2 Stage N3 Slow wave sleep EditMain article Slow wave sleep Slow wave sleep SWS is made up of the deepest stage of NREM and is often referred to as deep sleep The highest arousal thresholds e g difficulty of awakening such as by a sound of a particular volume are observed in stage 3 A person will typically feel groggy when awakened from this stage and indeed cognitive tests administered after awakening from stage 3 indicate that mental performance is somewhat impaired for periods up to 30 minutes or so relative to awakenings from other stages This phenomenon has been called sleep inertia After sleep deprivation there is usually a sharp rebound of SWS suggesting there is a need for this stage 20 Slow Wave Sleep SWS is a highly active state unlike a state of brain quiescence as previously thought Brain imaging data has shown that during NREM sleep the regional brain activity is influenced by the waking experience just passed A study was done involving an experimental and a control group to have them learn to navigate a 3D maze The blood flow in the parahippocampal gyrus increased in conjunction with the individual s performance through the 3D maze Participants were then trained in the maze for 4 hours and later during the various sleep cycles of NREM sleep REM sleep and wakefulness they were scanned twelve times using a PET scan during the night The PET scan demonstrated a higher blood flow in the hippocampus during SWS NREM sleep due to the training from the previous day while the control group exhibited no increased blood flow and they had not received the training the prior day The brain activity during sleep according to this study would show the events of the previous day do make a difference One theory suggests a model of hippocampal neocortical dialogue Two stages of hippocampal activity have been proposed the first being the recording of the memory during waking and the second involving the playback of the memory during NREM sleep This process of reactivation of memory firing sequences is believed to gradually reinforce initially weak connections between neocortical sites allowing the original information to be activated in the cortex independently of the hippocampus and thus ensuring refreshed encoding capacity of the hippocampus Maquet concluded that the areas of the brain involved with information processing and memory have increased brain activity during the slow wave sleep period Events experienced in the previous day have more efficient and clearer memory recall the next day thus indicating that the memory regions of the brain are activated during SWS NREM sleep instead of being dormant as previously thought 21 NREM SWS also known as slow wave activity SWA is regarded as highly important in brain development due not only to its homeostatic behavior but also because of its distinct correlation with age 22 Children sleep longer and deeper than adults The difference in depth of sleep has been quantified by EEG recordings of SWA 23 An increase in SWA peaks just before puberty and exponentially decreases from adolescence to adulthood in both longitudinal and cross sectional studies of typically developing participants 24 22 23 25 This phenomenon is understood as memories and learned skills being metabolized during NREM sleep 22 the decrease in SWA is considered a reflection of synaptic rewiring and therefore an effect of behavioral maturation concluding 24 The critical period from childhood to emerging adulthood is also considered a sensitive period for mental disorders to manifest For example children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ADHD a brain disorder that affects cognitive and motor control have shown considerably different cortical thickening trajectories in contrast with typically developing children per MRI data Cortical thickness is a common measure of brain maturation the main difference in children with ADHD shows a delay in cortical thickness specifically in the frontal lobe 25 Significant correlations in the trajectory of gray matter thickness and SWA suggest that SWA may be able to indicate levels of cortical maturation on an individual level 24 However there has yet to be a study in which the diagnosis of ADHD can be given directly from SWA readings Memory EditMain article Sleep and memory Non rapid eye movement sleep is known for its beneficial effect on memory consolidation especially for declarative memory while procedural memory improvement is more associated with REM sleep 26 even if it is important to note that a clear cut distinction between stages influence on type of learning doesn t seem to be possible 27 Generally both REM and NREM are associated with an increased memory performance because newly encoded memories are reactivated and consolidated during sleep 28 NREM sleep has been demonstrated to be intimately correlated with declarative memory consolidation in various studies where subject slept after a declarative memory task these who had a sleep imbued of NREM stages had a better performance after the nap or the night compared to subjects who have been awake or had more REM sleep 29 30 31 The importance of NREM sleep in memory consolidation has also been demonstrated using cueing in this paradigm while participants are sleeping and are in NREM sleep stages cues are proposed which can be for example aurally presented sounds or words odors and so on 32 33 34 The fact that this procedure was effective on the improvement of the later memory performance indicates that during these stages there is a reactivation of the memory traces and a subsequent consolidation which are facilitated by the cues importantly this doesn t work if the cueing is presented when subjects are awake or in REM stages 32 33 Furthermore the specific and crucial role of SWS Slow Wave Sleep a stage of NREM sleep in memory consolidation has been demonstrated in a study 35 where through electrical stimulations slow oscillations were induced and boosted because of this SWA increase participants had a better performance in declarative memory tasks Not only SWA helps learning but it is also crucial because its suppression has been demonstrated to impair declarative memory consolidation 36 On the other hand sleep spindles especially associated with N2 NREM sleep stage but can also occur during N3 NREM sleep stage are also crucial for declarative consolidation indeed they are enhanced increasing in density after declarative learning 37 their increase is associated with a better memory performance which has been proved using pharmacological manipulation of spindles density and measuring outcomes on learning tasks 38 A working model of sleep and memory stabilization Edit Schreiner and Rasch 2017 34 proposed a model illustrating how the cueing beneficial effect on memory during sleep could function which includes theta and gamma waves and sleep spindles Increased theta activity represents the successful reestablishment of the memory after the cueing if such an increase is observed it means that the association between the cue and the memory trace is strong enough and that the cue is presented in an effective way and time Theta waves interacts with gamma activity and during NREM this oscillatory theta gamma produces the relocation of the memory representation from the hippocampus to the cortex On the other hand sleep spindles increase occurs right after or in parallel to the theta augmentation and is a necessary mechanism for the stabilization the reinforcement and also the integration of the newly encoded memory trace 34 Importantly in this working model slow oscillations have the role of a time giving pace maker 34 and seem to be a prerequisite for the success of cueing According to this model enhancing only slow waves or only spindles is not sufficient to improve memory function of sleep both need to be increased to obtain an influence and this latter 34 NREM in other animals EditNot much is known about NREM so scientists have conducted studies in other animals to potentially understand more in particular why the brain has evolved to have two distinct states 39 In their studies it was found that between birds and certain mammals like dolphins their brains exhibit similar behavior It was found that certain species of birds have half their brain s hemisphere release brain waves similar to a human s during NREM sleep and the other half of it fully conscious allowing them to fly while sleeping 40 Certain species of dolphins also exhibit similar behavior as birds in order to be able to swim while sleeping 41 In rats after a 24 hour sleep deprivation it was found that there was an increase of slow wave activity in NREM sleep 42 which corresponds directly with the human brain which when sleep deprived prioritizes NREM sleep over REM sleep implying 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1664 1078 PMC 7767968 PMID 33381062 Rattenborg Niels C van der Meij Jacqueline Beckers Gabriel J L Lesku John A 2019 06 05 Local Aspects of Avian Non REM and REM Sleep Frontiers in Neuroscience 13 567 doi 10 3389 fnins 2019 00567 ISSN 1662 453X PMC 6560081 PMID 31231182 Mukhametov L M Supin A Y Polyakova I G October 1977 Interhemispheric asymmetry of the electroencephalographic sleep patterns in dolphins Brain Research 134 3 581 584 doi 10 1016 0006 8993 77 90835 6 PMID 902119 S2CID 31725807 Borbely Alexander A Tobler Irene Hanagasioglu Mehmet December 1984 Effect of sleep deprivation on sleep and EEG power spectra in the rat Behavioural Brain Research 14 3 171 182 doi 10 1016 0166 4328 84 90186 4 PMID 6525241 S2CID 4017517 Naiman Rubin October 2017 Dreamless the silent epidemic of REM sleep loss The silent epidemic of REM sleep loss Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1406 1 77 85 doi 10 1111 nyas 13447 PMID 28810072 S2CID 13797279 Further reading EditRechtschaffen A Kales A 1968 A Manual of Standardized Terminology Techniques and Scoring System For Sleep Stages of Human Subjects US Dept of Health Education and Welfare National Institutes of Health Massimini Marcello Ferrarelli Fabio Huber Reto Esser Steve K Singh Harpreet Tononi Giulio 2005 Breakdown of Cortical Effective Connectivity during Sleep Science 309 5744 2228 2232 Bibcode 2005Sci 309 2228M doi 10 1126 science 1117256 JSTOR 3843726 PMID 16195466 S2CID 38498750 Cicogna P Natale V Occhionero M Bosinelli M 2000 Slow wave and REM sleep mentation Sleep Research Online 3 2 67 72 PMID 11382903 Vogel Gerald Foulkes D Trosman H 1 March 1966 Ego Functions and Dreaming During Sleep Onset Archives of General Psychiatry 14 3 238 248 doi 10 1001 archpsyc 1966 01730090014003 PMID 5903415 Rock Andrea 2004 The Mind at Night ISBN 978 0 7382 0755 1 Warren Jeff 2007 The Slow Wave The Head Trip Adventures on the Wheel of Consciousness ISBN 978 0 679 31408 0 Iber C Ancoli Israel S Chesson A Quan SF for the American Academy of Sleep Medicine The AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events Rules Terminology and Technical Specifications Westchester American Academy of Sleep Medicine 2007 Manni Raffaele May 2005 Rapid eye movement sleep non rapid eye movement sleep dreams and hallucinations Current Psychiatry Reports 7 3 196 200 doi 10 1007 s11920 005 0053 0 PMID 15935133 S2CID 36303702 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Non rapid eye movement sleep amp oldid 1136258168, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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