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Military leadership in the American Civil War

February 15, 2024

Military leadership in the American Civil War was vested in both the political and the military structures of the belligerent powers. The overall military leadership of the United States during the Civil War was ultimately vested in the President of the United States as constitutional commander-in-chief, and in the political heads of the military departments he appointed. Most of the major Union wartime commanders had, however, previous regular army experience. A smaller number of military leaders originated from the United States Volunteers. Some of them derived from nations other than the United States.

In the Southern Confederacy, the constitutional commander-in-chief was educated at West Point and had served in the Mexican War. Many officers in the United States Army, most of them educated at West Point at the expense of the United States, and having taken an oath of allegiance to the same, joined the rebellion against it. Several significant Confederate military leaders emerged from state unit commands. Some military leaders derived from countries other than the United States.

The United States (The Union) edit

 
Winfield Scott
 
John E. Wool
 
George B. McClellan
 
Henry W. Halleck
 
Ulysses S. Grant
 
William T. Sherman
 
George G. Meade
 
George H. Thomas
 
Philip H. Sheridan
 
Winfield S. Hancock
 
Admiral David Farragut
 
Admiral David Porter

Civilian military leaders edit

President Abraham Lincoln was Commander-in-Chief of the Union armed forces throughout the conflict; after his April 14, 1865 assassination, Vice President Andrew Johnson became the nation's chief executive.[1] Lincoln's first Secretary of War was Simon Cameron; Edwin M. Stanton was confirmed to replace Cameron in January 1862. Thomas A. Scott was Assistant Secretary of War. Gideon Welles was Secretary of the Navy, aided by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus Fox.[2]

Title Name Tenure Notes

Commander-in-Chief

  Abraham Lincoln March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865
(1,464 days during the war) 		assassinated April 14, 1865; died April 15, 1865
  Andrew Johnson April 15, 1865 – March 4, 1869
(24 days during the war) 		Declared the armed conflict to be "virtually" ended on May 9, 1865[3]

Secretary of War

  Simon Cameron March 5, 1861 – January 14, 1862
(277 days during the war) 		resigned January 14, 1862
  Edwin Stanton January 20, 1862 – May 28, 1867
(1,205 days during the war) 		previously U.S. Attorney General

Secretary of Navy

  Gideon Welles March 7, 1861 – March 4, 1869
(1,488 days during the war)

Regular Army officers edit

When the war began, the American standing army or "Regular army" consisted of only 1080 commissioned officers and 15,000 enlisted men.[4] Although 142 regular officers became Union generals during the war, most remained "frozen" in their regular units. That stated, most of the major Union wartime commanders had previous regular army experience.[5] Over the course of the war, the Commanding General of the United States Army was, in order of service, Winfield Scott, George B. McClellan, Henry Halleck, and finally, Ulysses S. Grant.

Commanding Generals, U.S.A.

No. Name Tenure Notes
1   Brevet Lieutenant general Winfield Scott July 5, 1841 – November 1, 1861 retired November 1, 1861
2   Major general George McClellan November 1, 1861 – March 11, 1862 Commanded the Army of the Potomac in addition to serving as Commanding General. Relieved of duty as Commanding General on March 11, 1862.
3 vacant March 11, 1862 – July 23, 1862 responsibilities of Commanding General fulfilled by President Lincoln
4   Major general Henry Halleck July 23, 1862 – March 9, 1864 Appointed Chief of Staff of the General Headquarters in Washington DC on March 12, 1864[6]
5   General Ulysses S. Grant March 9, 1864 – March 4, 1869 first full rank General in the U.S. Army

Militia and political leaders appointed to Union military leadership edit

Under the United States Constitution, each state recruited, trained, equipped, and maintained local militia; regimental officers were appointed and promoted by state governors. After states answered Lincoln's April 15, 1861, ninety-day call for 75,000 volunteer soldiers, most Union states' regiments and batteries became known as United States Volunteers to distinguish between state-raised forces and regular army units. Union brigade-level officers (generals) could receive two different types of Federal commissions: U.S. Army or U.S. Volunteers (ex: Major General, U.S.A. as opposed to Major General, U.S.V.). While most Civil War generals held volunteer or brevet rank, many generals held both types of commission; regular rank was considered superior.[7]

Native American and international officers in Union Army edit

Reflecting the multi-national makeup of the soldiers engaged, some Union military leaders derived from nations other than the United States.

Union naval leaders edit

The rapid rise of the United States Navy during the Civil War contributed enormously to the North's ability to effectively blockade ports and Confederate shipping from quite early in the conflict. Handicapped by an aging 90 ship fleet, and despite significant manpower losses to the Confederate Navy after secession, a massive ship construction campaign embracing technological innovations from civil engineer James Buchanan Eads and naval engineers like Benjamin F. Isherwood and John Ericsson, along with four years' daily experience with modern naval conflict put the U. S. Navy onto a path which has led to today's world naval dominance.[8]

Commanding Officer, U.S.N.

No. Name Tenure Notes
-   Flag Officer Charles Stewart March 2, 1859 – December 21, 1861 Served as "Senior Flag Officer, U.S.N." until his retirement on 21 December 1861; promoted Rear Admiral on the Retired list July 16, 1862
1   Vice Admiral David Farragut December 21, 1861 – August 14, 1870 Commanded the West Gulf Blockading Squadron in addition to serving as Commanding Officer. Promoted full Admiral on July 25, 1866

The Confederate States edit

Civilian military leaders edit

Jefferson Davis was named provisional president on February 9, 1861, and assumed similar commander-in-chief responsibilities as would Lincoln; on November 6, 1861, Davis was elected President of the Confederate States of America under the Confederate Constitution. Alexander H. Stephens was appointed as Vice President of the Confederate States of America on February 18, 1861, and later assumed identical vice presidential responsibilities as Hannibal Hamlin did. Several men served the Confederacy as Secretary of War, including Leroy Pope Walker, Judah P. Benjamin, George W. Randolph, James Seddon, and John C. Breckinridge. Stephen Mallory was Confederate Secretary of the Navy throughout the conflict.[9]

Title Name Tenure Notes

Commander-in-Chief

  Jefferson Davis February 18, 1861 – May 5, 1865
Vice President   Alexander H. Stephens February 11, 1861 – May 11, 1865

Secretary of War

  LeRoy Pope Walker February 25, 1861 – September 16, 1861 resigned September 16, 1861
  Judah P. Benjamin September 17, 1861 – March 24, 1862 resigned March 24, 1862, to take appointment as CS Secretary of State
  George W. Randolph March 24, 1862 – November 15, 1862 resigned November 15, 1862, due to health reasons
  James Seddon November 21, 1862 – February 5, 1865 resigned February 5, 1865
  Major General John C. Breckinridge February 6, 1865 – May 10, 1865

Secretary of Navy

  Stephen Mallory March 4, 1861 – May 2, 1865

Former Regular Army officers edit

In the wake of secession, many regular officers felt they could not betray loyalty to their home state, and as a result some 313 of those officers resigned their commission and in many cases took up arms for the Confederate Army. Himself a graduate of West Point and a former regular officer, Confederate President Jefferson Davis highly prized these valuable recruits to the cause and saw that former regular officers were given positions of authority and responsibility.[10]

Militia and political leaders appointed to Confederate military leadership edit

The land of Davy Crockett and Andrew Jackson, the state military tradition was especially strong in southern states, some of which were until recently frontier areas. Several significant Confederate military leaders emerged from state unit commands.

Native American and international officers in Confederate army edit

While no foreign power sent troops or commanders directly to assist the Confederate States, some leaders derived from countries other than the United States.

Confederate naval leaders edit

The Confederate Navy possessed no extensive shipbuilding facilities; instead, it relied on refitting captured ships or purchased warships from Great Britain. The South had abundant navigable inland waterways, but after the Union built a vast fleet of gunboats, they soon dominated the Mississippi, Tennessee, Cumberland, Red and other rivers, rendering those waterways almost useless to the Confederacy. Confederates did seize several Union Navy vessels in harbor after secession and converted a few into ironclads, like the CSS Virginia. Blockade runners were built and operated by British naval interests, although by late in the war the C.S. Navy operated some. A few new vessels were built or purchased in Britain, notably the CSS Shenandoah and the CSS Alabama. These warships acted as raiders, wreaking havoc with commercial shipping. Aggrieved by these losses, in 1871 the U.S. government was awarded damages from Great Britain in the Alabama Claims.[8]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Boatner 483, 437
  2. ^ Boatner 858, 728, 303
  3. ^ "The Belligerent Rights of the Rebels at an End. All Nations Warned Against Harboring Their Privateers. If They Do Their Ships Will be Excluded from Our Ports. Restoration of Law in the State of Virginia. The Machinery of Government to be Put in Motion There". The New York Times. Associated Press. May 10, 1865. Retrieved December 23, 2013.
  4. ^ Boatner 673, 858
  5. ^ Boatner 673
  6. ^ Eicher p.274
  7. ^ Boatner 858, 328
  8. ^ a b Boatner 582
  9. ^ Boatner 225, 170
  10. ^ Boatner 495, 225, 674

References edit

  • Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. The Civil War Dictionary. New York: McKay, 1959; revised 1988. ISBN 0-8129-1726-X.
  • Eicher, John and David Eicher, Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3
  • Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders, Louisiana State University Press, 1964, ISBN 0-8071-0822-7
  • Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders, Louisiana State University Press, 1959, ISBN 0-8071-0823-5
  • Waugh, John C., The Class of 1846, From West Point to Appomattox: Stonewall Jackson, George McClellan and their Brothers, New York: Warner, 1994. ISBN 0-446-51594-9

Further reading edit

  • American National Biography (20 vol. 2000; online and paper copies at academic libraries) short biographies by specialists
  • Bledsoe, Andrew S. Citizen-Officers: The Union and Confederate Volunteer Junior Officer Corps in the American Civil War. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0-8071-6070-1.
  • Current, Richard N., et al. eds. Encyclopedia of the Confederacy (1993) (4 Volume set; also 1 vol abridged version) (ISBN 0-13-275991-8)
  • Dictionary of American Biography 30 vol, 1934–1990; short biographies by specialists
  • Faust, Patricia L. (ed.) Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War (1986) (ISBN 0-06-181261-7) 2000 short entries
  • Heidler, David Stephen. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History (2002), 1600 entries in 2700 pages in 5 vol or 1-vol editions
  • Woodworth, Steven E. ed. American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research (1996) (ISBN 0-313-29019-9), 750 pages of historiography and bibliography

February 15, 2024
military, leadership, american, civil, vested, both, political, military, structures, belligerent, powers, overall, military, leadership, united, states, during, civil, ultimately, vested, president, united, states, constitutional, commander, chief, political,. Military leadership in the American Civil War was vested in both the political and the military structures of the belligerent powers The overall military leadership of the United States during the Civil War was ultimately vested in the President of the United States as constitutional commander in chief and in the political heads of the military departments he appointed Most of the major Union wartime commanders had however previous regular army experience A smaller number of military leaders originated from the United States Volunteers Some of them derived from nations other than the United States In the Southern Confederacy the constitutional commander in chief was educated at West Point and had served in the Mexican War Many officers in the United States Army most of them educated at West Point at the expense of the United States and having taken an oath of allegiance to the same joined the rebellion against it Several significant Confederate military leaders emerged from state unit commands Some military leaders derived from countries other than the United States Contents 1 The United States The Union 1 1 Civilian military leaders 1 2 Regular Army officers 1 3 Militia and political leaders appointed to Union military leadership 1 4 Native American and international officers in Union Army 1 5 Union naval leaders 2 The Confederate States 2 1 Civilian military leaders 2 2 Former Regular Army officers 2 3 Militia and political leaders appointed to Confederate military leadership 2 4 Native American and international officers in Confederate army 2 5 Confederate naval leaders 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further readingThe United States The Union edit nbsp Winfield Scott nbsp John E Wool nbsp George B McClellan nbsp Henry W Halleck nbsp Ulysses S Grant nbsp William T Sherman nbsp George G Meade nbsp George H Thomas nbsp Philip H Sheridan nbsp Winfield S Hancock nbsp Admiral David Farragut nbsp Admiral David PorterCivilian military leaders edit President Abraham Lincoln was Commander in Chief of the Union armed forces throughout the conflict after his April 14 1865 assassination Vice President Andrew Johnson became the nation s chief executive 1 Lincoln s first Secretary of War was Simon Cameron Edwin M Stanton was confirmed to replace Cameron in January 1862 Thomas A Scott was Assistant Secretary of War Gideon Welles was Secretary of the Navy aided by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus Fox 2 Title Name Tenure NotesCommander in Chief nbsp Abraham Lincoln March 4 1861 April 15 1865 1 464 days during the war assassinated April 14 1865 died April 15 1865 nbsp Andrew Johnson April 15 1865 March 4 1869 24 days during the war Declared the armed conflict to be virtually ended on May 9 1865 3 Secretary of War nbsp Simon Cameron March 5 1861 January 14 1862 277 days during the war resigned January 14 1862 nbsp Edwin Stanton January 20 1862 May 28 1867 1 205 days during the war previously U S Attorney GeneralSecretary of Navy nbsp Gideon Welles March 7 1861 March 4 1869 1 488 days during the war Regular Army officers edit When the war began the American standing army or Regular army consisted of only 1080 commissioned officers and 15 000 enlisted men 4 Although 142 regular officers became Union generals during the war most remained frozen in their regular units That stated most of the major Union wartime commanders had previous regular army experience 5 Over the course of the war the Commanding General of the United States Army was in order of service Winfield Scott George B McClellan Henry Halleck and finally Ulysses S Grant Commanding Generals U S A No Name Tenure Notes1 nbsp Brevet Lieutenant general Winfield Scott July 5 1841 November 1 1861 retired November 1 18612 nbsp Major general George McClellan November 1 1861 March 11 1862 Commanded the Army of the Potomac in addition to serving as Commanding General Relieved of duty as Commanding General on March 11 1862 3 vacant March 11 1862 July 23 1862 responsibilities of Commanding General fulfilled by President Lincoln4 nbsp Major general Henry Halleck July 23 1862 March 9 1864 Appointed Chief of Staff of the General Headquarters in Washington DC on March 12 1864 6 5 nbsp General Ulysses S Grant March 9 1864 March 4 1869 first full rank General in the U S ArmyRobert Anderson Don Carlos Buell John Buford Ambrose Burnside Edward Canby Philip St George Cooke Darius N Couch Thomas Turpin Crittenden Thomas Leonidas Crittenden Samuel Curtis Abner Doubleday William B Franklin James A Garfield Quincy Adams Gillmore Gordon Granger Ulysses S Grant David McMurtrie Gregg Henry Wager Halleck Winfield Scott Hancock William B Hazen Samuel P Heintzelman Joseph Hooker Oliver O Howard Andrew A Humphreys Henry Jackson Hunt David Hunter Philip Kearny Erasmus D Keyes John McArthur George B McClellan Alexander McDowell McCook Irvin McDowell James B McPherson Joseph K Mansfield George Meade Montgomery C Meigs Wesley Merritt Dixon S Miles Edward Ord Alfred Pleasonton John Pope John F Reynolds William Rosecrans John Schofield Winfield Scott John Sedgwick Philip Sheridan William T Sherman Henry W Slocum Andrew Jackson Smith William Farrar Smith George Stoneman Edwin V Sumner George Sykes George Henry Thomas Alfred Thomas Archimedes Torbert Gouverneur K Warren James H Wilson John E WoolMilitia and political leaders appointed to Union military leadership edit Under the United States Constitution each state recruited trained equipped and maintained local militia regimental officers were appointed and promoted by state governors After states answered Lincoln s April 15 1861 ninety day call for 75 000 volunteer soldiers most Union states regiments and batteries became known as United States Volunteers to distinguish between state raised forces and regular army units Union brigade level officers generals could receive two different types of Federal commissions U S Army or U S Volunteers ex Major General U S A as opposed to Major General U S V While most Civil War generals held volunteer or brevet rank many generals held both types of commission regular rank was considered superior 7 Edward D Baker Nathaniel Prentice Banks Francis Preston Blair Jr Benjamin Franklin Butler Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain Jacob Dolson Cox John Adams Dix John C Fremont Nathan Kimball John A Logan John Alexander McClernand Daniel Sickles James B Steedman Alfred Terry Lew WallaceNative American and international officers in Union Army edit Reflecting the multi national makeup of the soldiers engaged some Union military leaders derived from nations other than the United States Philippe Comte de Paris Michael Corcoran Wlodzimierz Krzyzanowski Thomas Francis Meagher Ely Parker Albin F Schoepf Carl Schurz Franz Sigel Regis de Trobriand Ivan Turchaninov August WillichUnion naval leaders edit The rapid rise of the United States Navy during the Civil War contributed enormously to the North s ability to effectively blockade ports and Confederate shipping from quite early in the conflict Handicapped by an aging 90 ship fleet and despite significant manpower losses to the Confederate Navy after secession a massive ship construction campaign embracing technological innovations from civil engineer James Buchanan Eads and naval engineers like Benjamin F Isherwood and John Ericsson along with four years daily experience with modern naval conflict put the U S Navy onto a path which has led to today s world naval dominance 8 Commanding Officer U S N No Name Tenure Notes nbsp Flag Officer Charles Stewart March 2 1859 December 21 1861 Served as Senior Flag Officer U S N until his retirement on 21 December 1861 promoted Rear Admiral on the Retired list July 16 18621 nbsp Vice Admiral David Farragut December 21 1861 August 14 1870 Commanded the West Gulf Blockading Squadron in addition to serving as Commanding Officer Promoted full Admiral on July 25 1866John A Dahlgren Charles Henry Davis Samuel Francis du Pont David Farragut Andrew Hull Foote Samuel Phillips Lee David Dixon Porter John Ancrum Winslow John Lorimer WordenThe Confederate States edit nbsp Robert E Lee nbsp T J Stonewall Jackson nbsp James Longstreet nbsp Joseph E Johnston nbsp James WaddellCivilian military leaders edit Jefferson Davis was named provisional president on February 9 1861 and assumed similar commander in chief responsibilities as would Lincoln on November 6 1861 Davis was elected President of the Confederate States of America under the Confederate Constitution Alexander H Stephens was appointed as Vice President of the Confederate States of America on February 18 1861 and later assumed identical vice presidential responsibilities as Hannibal Hamlin did Several men served the Confederacy as Secretary of War including Leroy Pope Walker Judah P Benjamin George W Randolph James Seddon and John C Breckinridge Stephen Mallory was Confederate Secretary of the Navy throughout the conflict 9 Title Name Tenure NotesCommander in Chief nbsp Jefferson Davis February 18 1861 May 5 1865Vice President nbsp Alexander H Stephens February 11 1861 May 11 1865Secretary of War nbsp LeRoy Pope Walker February 25 1861 September 16 1861 resigned September 16 1861 nbsp Judah P Benjamin September 17 1861 March 24 1862 resigned March 24 1862 to take appointment as CS Secretary of State nbsp George W Randolph March 24 1862 November 15 1862 resigned November 15 1862 due to health reasons nbsp James Seddon November 21 1862 February 5 1865 resigned February 5 1865 nbsp Major General John C Breckinridge February 6 1865 May 10 1865Secretary of Navy nbsp Stephen Mallory March 4 1861 May 2 1865Former Regular Army officers edit In the wake of secession many regular officers felt they could not betray loyalty to their home state and as a result some 313 of those officers resigned their commission and in many cases took up arms for the Confederate Army Himself a graduate of West Point and a former regular officer Confederate President Jefferson Davis highly prized these valuable recruits to the cause and saw that former regular officers were given positions of authority and responsibility 10 Richard H Anderson P G T Beauregard Milledge Luke Bonham Braxton Bragg Simon Bolivar Buckner Sr George B Crittenden Samuel Cooper Jubal Anderson Early Richard S Ewell Franklin Gardner Robert S Garnett Josiah Gorgas William Joseph Hardee Ambrose Powell Hill Daniel Harvey Hill John Bell Hood Thomas J Stonewall Jackson Albert Sidney Johnston Joseph E Johnston Robert E Lee Stephen D Lee Mansfield Lovell James Longstreet John B Magruder Humphrey Marshall Dabney Herndon Maury John Hunt Morgan John C Pemberton George Pickett Edmund Kirby Smith Gustavus Woodson Smith J E B Stuart William B Taliaferro Earl Van Dorn Joseph Wheeler Henry A WiseMilitia and political leaders appointed to Confederate military leadership edit The land of Davy Crockett and Andrew Jackson the state military tradition was especially strong in southern states some of which were until recently frontier areas Several significant Confederate military leaders emerged from state unit commands John C Breckinridge Benjamin F Cheatham Nathan Bedford Forrest Wade Hampton James L Kemper Ben McCulloch Leonidas Polk Sterling Price Alexander P Stewart Richard TaylorNative American and international officers in Confederate army edit While no foreign power sent troops or commanders directly to assist the Confederate States some leaders derived from countries other than the United States Patrick Cleburne Stand Watie Camille Armand Jules Marie Prince de Polignac Raleigh E Colston Collett Leventhorpe George St Leger Grenfell Garnet WolseleyConfederate naval leaders edit The Confederate Navy possessed no extensive shipbuilding facilities instead it relied on refitting captured ships or purchased warships from Great Britain The South had abundant navigable inland waterways but after the Union built a vast fleet of gunboats they soon dominated the Mississippi Tennessee Cumberland Red and other rivers rendering those waterways almost useless to the Confederacy Confederates did seize several Union Navy vessels in harbor after secession and converted a few into ironclads like the CSS Virginia Blockade runners were built and operated by British naval interests although by late in the war the C S Navy operated some A few new vessels were built or purchased in Britain notably the CSS Shenandoah and the CSS Alabama These warships acted as raiders wreaking havoc with commercial shipping Aggrieved by these losses in 1871 the U S government was awarded damages from Great Britain in the Alabama Claims 8 John Mercer Brooke Isaac Newton Brown Franklin Buchanan James Dunwoody Bulloch Catesby ap Roger Jones Matthew Fontaine Maury Raphael Semmes Josiah Tattnall III James Iredell WaddellSee also editHistory of Confederate States Army Generals Confederate States Armed Forces Union Army Union NavyNotes edit Boatner 483 437 Boatner 858 728 303 The Belligerent Rights of the Rebels at an End All Nations Warned Against Harboring Their Privateers If They Do Their Ships Will be Excluded from Our Ports Restoration of Law in the State of Virginia The Machinery of Government to be Put in Motion There The New York Times Associated Press May 10 1865 Retrieved December 23 2013 Boatner 673 858 Boatner 673 Eicher p 274 Boatner 858 328 a b Boatner 582 Boatner 225 170 Boatner 495 225 674References editBoatner Mark Mayo III The Civil War Dictionary New York McKay 1959 revised 1988 ISBN 0 8129 1726 X Eicher John and David Eicher Civil War High Commands Stanford University Press 2001 ISBN 0 8047 3641 3 Warner Ezra J Generals in Blue Lives of the Union Commanders Louisiana State University Press 1964 ISBN 0 8071 0822 7 Warner Ezra J Generals in Gray Lives of the Confederate Commanders Louisiana State University Press 1959 ISBN 0 8071 0823 5 Waugh John C The Class of 1846 From West Point to Appomattox Stonewall Jackson George McClellan and their Brothers New York Warner 1994 ISBN 0 446 51594 9Further reading editAmerican National Biography 20 vol 2000 online and paper copies at academic libraries short biographies by specialists Bledsoe Andrew S Citizen Officers The Union and Confederate Volunteer Junior Officer Corps in the American Civil War Baton Rouge Louisiana Louisiana State University Press 2015 ISBN 978 0 8071 6070 1 Current Richard N et al eds Encyclopedia of the Confederacy 1993 4 Volume set also 1 vol abridged version ISBN 0 13 275991 8 Dictionary of American Biography 30 vol 1934 1990 short biographies by specialists Faust Patricia L ed Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War 1986 ISBN 0 06 181261 7 2000 short entries Heidler David Stephen Encyclopedia of the American Civil War A Political Social and Military History 2002 1600 entries in 2700 pages in 5 vol or 1 vol editions Woodworth Steven E ed American Civil War A Handbook of Literature and Research 1996 ISBN 0 313 29019 9 750 pages of historiography and bibliography Retrieved from https en 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