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Andrew Jackson

Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American lawyer, planter, general, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Before being elected to the presidency, he gained fame as a general in the U.S. Army and served in both houses of the U.S. Congress. Although often praised as an advocate for ordinary Americans and for his work in preserving the union of states, Jackson has also been criticized for his racial policies, particularly his treatment of Native Americans.

Andrew Jackson
Portrait by Ralph E. W. Earl, c. 1835
7th President of the United States
In office
March 4, 1829 – March 4, 1837
Vice President
Preceded byJohn Quincy Adams
Succeeded byMartin Van Buren
United States Senator
from Tennessee
In office
March 4, 1823 – October 14, 1825
Preceded byJohn Williams
Succeeded byHugh Lawson White
In office
September 26, 1797 – April 1, 1798
Preceded byWilliam Cocke
Succeeded byDaniel Smith
1st Federal Military Commissioner of Florida
In office
March 10, 1821 – December 31, 1821
Appointed byJames Monroe
Preceded by
Succeeded byWilliam Pope Duval
Justice of the Tennessee Supreme Court
In office
June 1798 – June 1804
Preceded byHowell Tatum
Succeeded byJohn Overton
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from Tennessee's at-large district
In office
December 4, 1796 – September 26, 1797
Preceded byJames White (Delegate from the Southwest Territory)
Succeeded byWilliam C. C. Claiborne
Personal details
Born(1767-03-15)March 15, 1767
Waxhaw Settlement between North Carolina and South Carolina, British America
DiedJune 8, 1845(1845-06-08) (aged 78)
Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.
Resting placeThe Hermitage
Political partyDemocratic (1828–1845)
Other political
affiliations
Spouse
(m. 1794; died 1828)
Children
Occupation
  • Politician
  • lawyer
  • general
Awards
Signature
Military service
Branch/serviceUnited States Army
Rank
Wars

Jackson was born in the colonial Carolinas before the American Revolutionary War. He became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards. He briefly served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate, representing Tennessee. After resigning, he served as a justice on the Tennessee Supreme Court from 1798 until 1804. Jackson purchased a property later known as the Hermitage, becoming a wealthy planter who owned hundreds of African American slaves. In 1801, he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and was elected its commander the following year. He led troops during the Creek War of 1813–1814, winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. The subsequent Treaty of Fort Jackson required the Creek to surrender vast tracts of present-day Alabama and Georgia. In the concurrent war against the British, Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 made him a national hero. He later commanded U.S. forces in the First Seminole War, which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain. Jackson briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor before returning to the Senate. He ran for president in 1824, winning a plurality of the popular and electoral vote, but no candidate won an electoral majority. In a contingent election, the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams with Henry Clay's support. Jackson's supporters alleged that there was a "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay and began creating their own political organization that would eventually become the Democratic Party.

Jackson ran again in 1828, defeating Adams in a landslide. In 1830, he signed the Indian Removal Act. This act, which has been described as ethnic cleansing, displaced tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands east of the Mississippi and resulted in thousands of deaths. Under Jackson, the integrity of the federal union was challenged when South Carolina threatened to nullify a high protective tariff set by the federal government. He threatened the use of military force to enforce the tariff, but the crisis was defused when it was amended. In 1832, he vetoed a bill by Congress to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States, arguing that it was a corrupt institution that benefited the wealthy. After a lengthy struggle, he and his allies dismantled the Bank. In 1835, Jackson became the only president to pay off the national debt. He also survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president. In one of his final presidential acts, he recognized the Republic of Texas.

In his retirement, Jackson stayed active in politics. He supported the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk, as well as the annexation of Texas, which was accomplished shortly before his death. Jackson's legacy remains controversial, and opinions on him are frequently polarized. He has been seen as a defender of democracy and the constitution and also been called a demagogue who ignored the law when it suited him. Jackson generally ranks high in ratings of U.S. presidents, although his rankings have declined in the 21st century.

Early life and education

Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in the Waxhaws region of the Carolinas. His parents were Scots-Irish colonists Andrew Jackson and Elizabeth Hutchinson, Presbyterians who had emigrated from Ulster, Ireland in 1765.[1][2] Jackson's father was born in Carrickfergus, County Antrim, around 1738,[3] and his ancestors had crossed into Northern Ireland from Scotland after the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.[4] Jackson had two older brothers who came with his parents from Ireland, Hugh (born 1763) and Robert (born 1764).[5][4]

Jackson's exact birthplace is unclear. Jackson's father died at the age of 29 in a logging accident while clearing land in February 1767, three weeks before his son Andrew was born.[5] Afterwards, Elizabeth and her three sons moved in with her sister and brother-in-law, Jane and James Crawford.[6] Jackson later stated that he was born on the Crawford plantation,[7] which is in Lancaster County, South Carolina, but second-hand evidence suggests that he might have been born at another uncle's home in North Carolina.[6]

When Jackson was young, Elizabeth thought he might become a minister and paid to have him schooled by a local clergyman.[8] He learned to read, write, work with numbers, and was exposed to Greek and Latin,[9] but he was too strong-willed and hot-tempered for the ministry.[6]

Revolutionary War service

 
The Brave Boy of the Waxhaws, colored lithograph published by Currier and Ives (1876 lithograph). Young Jackson defending himself against Major Coffin.

Jackson and his older brothers, Hugh and Robert, performed military service against the British during the Revolutionary War. Hugh served with Colonel William Richardson Davie, dying from heat exhaustion after the Battle of Stono Ferry in June 1779.[10] After anti-British sentiment intensified following the Waxhaws Massacre on May 29, 1780, Elizabeth encouraged Andrew and Robert to participate in militia drills.[11] They served as couriers and scouts,[12] and participated with Davie in the Battle of Hanging Rock on August 6, 1780.[13]

Andrew and Robert were captured in April 1781 when the British occupied the home of a Crawford relative. The British officer in command demanded to have his boots polished. Andrew refused, and the officer slashed him with a sword, leaving him with scars on his left hand and head. Robert also refused and was struck a blow on the head.[14] The brothers were taken to a prison camp in Camden, where they were malnourished and contracted smallpox.[15] In late spring, the brothers were released to their mother in an exchange.[16] Robert died two days after arriving home, but Elizabeth was able to nurse Andrew back to health.[17] Once he recovered, Elizabeth volunteered to nurse American prisoners of war housed in British prison ships in the Charleston harbor.[18] She contracted cholera and died soon afterwards. She was buried in an unmarked grave.[19] The war not only made Jackson an orphan at age 14,[20] it led him to despise values he associated with Britain, particularly aristocracy and political privilege.[21]

Early career

Legal career and marriage

After the Revolutionary War, Jackson worked as a saddler,[22] briefly returned to school, and taught reading and writing to children.[23] In 1784, he left the Waxhaws region for Salisbury, North Carolina, where he studied law under attorney Spruce Macay.[24] He completed his training under John Stokes,[25] and was admitted to the North Carolina bar in September 1787.[26] Shortly thereafter, his friend John McNairy helped him get appointed as a prosecuting attorney in the Western District of North Carolina,[27] which would later become the state of Tennessee. While traveling to assume his new position, Jackson stopped in Jonesborough. While there, he bought his first slave, a woman who was around his age.[28] He also fought his first duel, accusing another lawyer, Waightstill Avery, of impugning his character. The duel ended with both men firing in the air.[29]

Jackson began his new career in the frontier town of Nashville in 1788 and quickly moved up in social status.[30] He became a protégé of William Blount, one of the most powerful men in the territory.[31] Jackson was appointed attorney general in 1791 and judge advocate for the militia the following year.[32] He also got involved in land speculation,[33] eventually forming a partnership with fellow lawyer John Overton.[34] Their partnership mainly dealt with claims made under a 'land grab' act of 1783 that opened Cherokee and Chickasaw territory to North Carolina's white residents.[35]

While boarding at the home of Rachel Stockly Donelson, the widow of John Donelson, Jackson became acquainted with their daughter, Rachel Donelson Robards. The younger Rachel was in an unhappy marriage with Captain Lewis Robards, and the two were separated by 1789.[36] After the separation, Jackson and Rachel became romantically involved,[37] living together as husband and wife.[38] Robards petitioned for divorce, which was granted on the basis of Rachel's infidelity.[39] The couple legally married in January 1794.[40] In 1796, they acquired their first plantation, Hunter's Hill,[41] on 640 acres (260 ha) of land near Nashville.[42]

Early public career

Jackson became a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, the dominant party in Tennessee.[31] He was elected as a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention in 1796.[43] When Tennessee achieved statehood that year, he was elected to be its U.S. representative. In Congress, Jackson argued against the Jay Treaty, criticized George Washington for allegedly removing Democratic-Republicans from public office, and joined several other Democratic-Republican congressmen in voting against a resolution of thanks for Washington.[44] He advocated for the right of Tennesseans to militarily oppose Native American interests.[45] The state legislature elected him to be a U.S. senator in 1797, but he resigned after serving only six months.[46]

Upon returning to Tennessee, Jackson was elected as a judge of the Tennessee superior court.[47][48] In 1802, he also became major general, or commander, of the Tennessee militia, a position that was determined by a vote of the militia's officers. The vote was tied between Jackson and John Sevier, a popular Revolutionary War veteran and former governor, but the current state governor, Archibald Roane, broke the tie in Jackson's favor. Jackson later accused Sevier of fraud and bribery.[49] Sevier responded by impugning Rachel's honor, resulting in a shootout on a public street.[50] Soon afterwards, they met to duel, but parted without having fired at each other.[51]

Planting career and slavery

 
Photograph of Aaron and Hannah Jackson by Theodore Schleier, (1865, the Hermitage, Tennessee). Aaron and Hannah were African American slaves owned by Andrew Jackson.

Jackson resigned his judgeship in 1804.[52] He had almost gone bankrupt when the credit he used for land speculation collapsed in the wake of an earlier financial panic.[53] He had to sell Hunters Hill, as well as 25,000 acres (10,000 ha) of land he bought for speculation, and bought a smaller 420-acre (170 ha) plantation near Nashville that he would call the Hermitage.[54] He focused on recovering from his losses by becoming a successful planter and merchant.[54] The Hermitage would grow to 1,000 acres (400 ha),[55] making it one of the largest cotton-growing plantations in the state.[52]

Like most planters in the Southern United States, Jackson used slave labor. In 1804, Jackson had nine African American slaves; by 1820, he had over 100; and by his death in 1845, he had over 150.[56] Over his lifetime, he owned a total of 300 slaves.[57] Jackson subscribed to the paternalistic idea of slavery, which claimed that slave ownership was morally acceptable as long as slaves were treated with humanity and their basic needs were cared for.[58] In practice, slaves were treated as a form of wealth whose productivity needed to be protected.[59] Slaves who disobeyed or ran away could be harshly punished.[60] For example, in an 1804 advertisement to recover a runaway slave, Jackson offered "ten dollars extra, for every hundred lashes any person will give him, to the amount of three hundred".[61] Jackson also participated in the local slave trade.[62] Over time, his accumulation of wealth in both slaves and land placed him among the elite families of Tennessee.[63]

Duel with Dickinson and adventure with Burr

In May 1806, Jackson fought a duel with Charles Dickinson. They had gotten into an argument over a horse race, and Dickinson allegedly uttered a slur against Rachel.[50] During the duel, Dickinson fired first, and the bullet hit Jackson in the chest. The wound was not life-threatening because the bullet had shattered against his breastbone.[64] Jackson returned fire and killed Dickinson. The killing tarnished Jackson's reputation.[65]

Later in the year, Jackson became involved in former vice president Aaron Burr's plan to conquer Spanish Florida and drive the Spanish from Texas. Jackson had first gotten to know Burr in 1805 when he stayed with the Jacksons at the Hermitage during a tour of what was then the Western United States that he had embarked on after mortally wounding Alexander Hamilton in the Burr–Hamilton duel.[66] Burr eventually persuaded Jackson to join his adventure. In October 1806, Jackson wrote James Winchester that the United States "can conquer not only the Floridas [at that time there was an East Florida and a West Florida], but all Spanish North America".[67] He informed the Tennessee militia that it should be ready to march at a moment's notice "when the government and constituted authority of our country require it",[68] and agreed to provide boats and provisions for the expedition.[66] Jackson sent a letter to president Thomas Jefferson telling him that Tennessee was ready to defend the nation's honor.[69]

Jackson also expressed uncertainty about the enterprise. He warned the Governor of Louisiana William Claiborne and Tennessee Senator Daniel Smith that some of the people involved in the adventure might be intending to break away from the United States.[70] In December, Jefferson ordered Burr to be arrested for treason.[66] Jackson, safe from arrest because of his extensive paper trail, organized the militia to capture the conspirators.[71] Jackson testified before a grand jury at Burr's trial in 1807, implying that it was Burr's associate James Wilkinson who was guilty of treason, not Burr. Burr was acquitted of the charges.[72]

Military career

Military campaigns
of Andrew Jackson
 
General Andrew Jackson by John Wesley Jarvis, (c. 1819, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)

War of 1812

Creek War

On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war on the United Kingdom.[73] The causes of the War of 1812 were primarily about maritime issues,[74] but for the white settlers on the southern frontier, the war provided an opportunity to prevent continued Native American resistance to settlement on their lands, and to undermine British support of the Native American tribes,[75] and to pry Florida from the Spanish.[76]

Jackson immediately offered to raise volunteers for the war, but he was not called to duty until after the United States military was repeatedly defeated in the American Northwest. After these defeats, in January 1813, Jackson enlisted over 2,000 volunteers,[77] who were ordered to head to New Orleans to defend against a British attack.[78][79][80][81] When his forces arrived at Natchez, they were ordered to halt by General Wilkinson, the commander at New Orleans and the man Jackson accused of treason after the Burr adventure. A little later, Jackson received a letter from the Secretary of War, John Armstrong, stating that his volunteers were not needed,[15] and that they were to be disbanded and any supplies were to be handed over to Wilkinson.[82] Jackson refused to disband his troops; instead, he led them on the difficult march back to Nashville, earning the nickname "Hickory" (later "Old Hickory") for his toughness.[83]

After returning to Nashville, Jackson and one of his colonels, John Coffee, got into a street brawl over honor with the brothers Jesse and Thomas Hart Benton. Nobody was killed, but Jackson received a gunshot in the shoulder that nearly killed him.[84]

Jackson had not fully recovered from his wounds when Governor Blount called out the militia in September 1813 following the August Fort Mims Massacre.[85] The Red Sticks, a confederate faction that had allied with Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief who was fighting with the British against the United States, killed about 250 militia men and civilians at Fort Mims in retaliation for an ambush by American militia at Burnt Corn Creek.[86][87]

Jackson's objective was to destroy the Red Sticks.[88] He headed south from Fayetteville, Tennessee in October with 2,500 militia, establishing Fort Strother as his supply base.[89] He sent his cavalry under General Coffee ahead of the main force, destroying Red Stick villages and capturing supplies.[90][91] On November 3, Coffee defeated a band of Red Sticks at the Battle of Tallushatchee. Later in the month, Jackson defeated another band of Red Sticks who were besieging Creek allies at the Battle of Talladega.[92]

By January 1814, the expiration of enlistments and desertion had reduced Jackson's force by about 1,000 volunteers and Creek allies.[93] Even with this reduced force, Jackson continued the offensive.[94] The Red Sticks counterattacked at the Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek. Though outnumbered, Jackson repelled the attacks, but he was forced to withdraw to Fort Strother.[95] After Jackson's army was reinforced by further recruitment, including a regular army unit, the 39th U. S. Infantry Regiment under the command of Colonel John Williams,[94] their combined forces confronted the Red Sticks at a fort they had constructed at a bend in the Tallapoosa River. The Battle of Horseshoe Bend was fought on March 27. Jackson's forces—including Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek allies–numbered over 3,000 men; the Red Sticks had about 1,000.[96][97] The Red Sticks were overwhelmed and massacred. Over 800 Red Sticks were killed,[98] and nearly 300 Red Stick women and children were taken prisoner and distributed to Jackson's Native American allies.[99]

After the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, the power of the Red Sticks was broken.[100] Jackson continued his scorched-earth campaign of burning villages, destroying supplies,[100] and starving Red Stick women and children.[101] The campaign ended when Weatherford surrendered,[102] although some Red Sticks, including McQueen, fled to East Florida.[103] On June 8, Jackson was appointed a brigadier general in the United States Army, and 10 days later was made a brevet major general with command of the Seventh Military District, which included Tennessee, Louisiana, the Mississippi Territory, and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy.[104] With President James Madison's approval, Jackson imposed the Treaty of Fort Jackson. The treaty required all Creek, including those who had remained allies, to surrender 23,000,000 acres (9,300,000 ha) of land to the United States.[105]

Jackson then turned his attention to the British and Spanish. He moved his forces to Mobile, Alabama in August. He accused the Spanish governor of West Florida, Mateo González Manrique, of arming the Red Sticks and threatened to attack. The governor responded by inviting the British to land at Pensacola to defend it, which violated Spanish neutrality.[106] The British attempted to capture Mobile, but their invasion fleet was repulsed at Fort Bowyer, located at the mouth of Mobile Bay.[107] Jackson then invaded Florida, defeating the Spanish and British forces at the Battle of Pensacola on November 7.[108] Afterwards, the Spanish surrendered and the British withdrew. Weeks later, Jackson learned that the British were planning an attack on New Orleans, which was the gateway to the Lower Mississippi River and control of the American West.[109] He evacuated Pensacola, strengthened the garrison at Mobile,[110] and led his troops to New Orleans.[111]

Battle of New Orleans

Jackson arrived in New Orleans on December 1, 1814.[112] There he instituted martial law because he worried about the loyalty of the city's Creole and Spanish inhabitants. He augmented his force by forming an alliance with Jean Lafitte's smugglers and raising units of free African Americans and Creek,[113] paying non-white volunteers the same salary as whites.[114] This gave Jackson a force of about 5,000 men when the British arrived.[115]

 
The Battle of New Orleans by Edward Percy Moran (1910).

The British arrived in New Orleans in mid-December.[116] Admiral Cochrane was the overall commander of the operation;[117] General Edward Pakenham commanded the army of 10,000 soldiers, many of whom had served in the Napoleonic Wars.[118] As the British advanced up the east bank of the Mississippi River, Jackson constructed a fortified position to block them.[119] The climactic battle took place on January 8 when the British launched a frontal assault. Their troops made easy targets for the Americans protected by their parapets, and the attack ended in disaster.[120] General Packenham was killed and the British suffered over 2,000 casualties; the Americans had suffered about 60 casualties.[121]

The British decamped from New Orleans at the end of January, but they still remained a threat.[122] Jackson refused to lift martial law and kept the militia under arms. He approved the execution of six militiamen for desertion.[123] Some Creoles registered as French citizens with the French consul and demanded to be discharged from the militia due to their foreign nationality. Jackson then ordered all French citizens to leave the city within three days,[124] and had a member of the Louisiana legislature, Louis Louaillier, arrested when he wrote a newspaper article criticizing Jackson's continuation of martial law. U.S. District Court Judge Dominic A. Hall signed a writ of habeas corpus for Louailler's release. Jackson had Hall arrested too. A military court ordered Louiallier's release, but Jackson kept him in prison and evicted Hall from the city.[125] Although Jackson lifted martial law when he received official word that the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war with the British, had been signed,[126] his previous behavior tainted his reputation in New Orleans.[127]

Jackson's victory made him a national hero,[128] and on February 27, 1815, he was given the Thanks of Congress and awarded a Congressional Gold Medal.[47] Though the Treaty of Ghent had been signed in December 1814 before the Battle of New Orleans was fought,[129] Jackson's victory assured that the United States control of the region between Mobile and New Orleans would not be effectively contested by European powers. This control allowed the American government to ignore one of the articles in the treaty, which would have returned the Creek lands taken in the Treaty of Fort Jackson.[130]

First Seminole War

 
Engraving of the trial of Robert Ambrister by William Croome in John Frost's Pictorial Life of Andrew Jackson. (c. 1846)

Following the war, Jackson remained in command of troops in the southern half of the United States and was permitted to make his headquarters at the Hermitage.[131] Jackson continued to displace the Native Americans in areas under his command. Despite resistance from the Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford, who tried to help the Native Americans retain their land, Jackson signed five treaties between 1816 and 1820, including the Treaty of Tuscaloosa and the Treaty of Doak's Stand,[132] in which the Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee and Chickasaw ceded tens of millions of acres of land to the United States.[133]

Jackson would soon find himself embroiled in conflict in the Floridas. Fort Negro, which the British had turned over to runaway slaves,[134] had become a magnet for other runaways[134] that was seen as a threat to the property rights of slave owners[135] and a potential source of slave insurrection.[136] Jackson ordered Colonel Duncan Clinch to capture the fort in July 1816. He destroyed the it and killed most of the garrison. The survivors were returned to slavery.[137]

In addition, White settlers were in constant conflict with Native American people collectively known as the Seminoles, who straddled the border between the U.S. and Florida.[138] In December 1817, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun initiated what would be called the First Seminole War by ordering Jackson to lead a campaign "with full power to conduct the war as he may think best".[139] Jackson believed the best way to do this was to seize Florida from Spain once and for all. Before departing, Jackson wrote to President James Monroe, "Let it be signified to me through any channel ... that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished."[140]

Jackson invaded Florida, captured the Spanish fort of St. Marks, and occupied Pensacola. Seminole and Spanish resistance was effectively ended by May 1818. He also captured two British agents, Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot, who had been working with the Seminoles. After a brief trial, Jackson executed both of them, causing a diplomatic incident with the British. Jackson's actions polarized Monroe's cabinet. The occupied territories were returned to Spain.[141] Calhoun wanted him censured for violating the Constitution, since the United States had not declared war on Spain. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams defended him as he thought Jackson's occupation of Pensacola would lead Spain to sell Florida, which Spain did in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819.[142] In February 1819, a congressional investigation exonerated Jackson, [143] and his victory was instrumental in convincing the Seminoles to sign Treaty of Moultrie Creek in 1823, which surrendered much of their land in Florida.[144]

Presidential aspirations

Election of 1824

 
Painting of Jackson by Thomas Sully (1824)

In 1819, mismanagement by the Second Bank of the United States created a financial panic that sent the U.S. into its first prolonged financial depression. The United States reduced its military and Jackson was forced to retire from his major general position.[145] In compensation, Monroe made him the first territorial governor of Florida in 1821.[146] Jackson served as the governor for two months, returning to the Hermitage in ill health.[147] During his convalescence, Jackson, who had been a Freemason since at least 1798, became the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Tennessee for 1822–1823.[148] Around this time, he also completed negotiations for Tennessee to purchase Chickasaw lands. This became known as the Jackson Purchase. Jackson, Overton, and another colleague had speculated in some of the land and used their portion to found the town of Memphis.[149]

In 1822, Jackson accepted a plan by Overton to nominate him as a candidate for the 1824 presidential election, and he was nominated by the Tennessee legislature in July.[150] At the time, the Federalist Party had collapsed, and there were four major contenders for the Democratic-Republican Party nomination: William Crawford, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Jackson was intended to be a stalking horse candidate to prevent Tennessee's electoral votes from going to Crawford, who was seen as a Washington insider. Unexpectedly, Jackson garnered popular support outside of Tennessee and became a serious candidate.[145] He benefited from the expansion of suffrage among white males that followed the conclusion of the War of 1812.[151][152] He was a popular war hero whose reputation suggested he had the decisiveness and independence to bring change to how the government was run.[153] He also was promoted as a Washington outsider who stood for all the people, blaming banks for the country's depression.[154]

During his presidential candidacy, Jackson relunctantly ran for one of Tennessee's U.S. Senate seats. William Berkeley Lewis and the other U.S. senator John Eaton, who were Jackson's political managers, convinced him that he needed to defeat incumbent John Williams, who openly opposed Jackson. The legislature elected him in October 1823.[155][156] Jackson was attentive to his senatorial duties. He was appointed chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs, but avoided debate or initiating legislation.[157] He used his time in the Senate to form alliances and make peace with old adversaries.[158] Eaton continued to campaign for Jackson's presidency, updating his biography, and writing letters under a pseudonym that were quoted in newspapers around the country and so popular that they were reprinted in pamphlet form—Jackson himself had a part in their composition.[159]

 
1824 election results

Democratic-Republican presidential nominees had historically been chosen by informal congressional nominating caucuses. In 1824, most of the Democratic-Republicans in Congress boycotted the caucus,[160] and the power to choose nominees was shifting to state nominating committees and legislatures.[161] Jackson was nominated by a Pennsylvania convention, making him not merely a regional candidate from the west but the leading national contender.[162] When Jackson won the Pennsylvania nomination, Calhoun dropped out of the presidential race.[163] Afterwards, Jackson won the nomination in six other states and had a strong second-place finish in three others.[164]

In the presidential election, Jackson won a plurality of the popular vote, receiving 42 percent. More importantly, he won a plurality of electoral votes, receiving 99 votes from states in the South, West, and Mid-Atlantic. He was the only candidate to win states outside of his regional base: Adams dominated New England, Crawford won Virginia and Georgia, and Clay took three western states. Because no candidate had a majority of 131 of electoral votes, the House of Representatives held a contingent election under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment. The amendment specifies that only the top three electoral vote-winners are eligible to be elected by the House, so Clay was eliminated from contention.[165] Clay, who was also Speaker of the House and presided over the election's resolution, saw a Jackson presidency as a disaster for the country.[166] Clay threw his support behind Adams, who won the contingent election on the first ballot. Adams appointed Clay as his Secretary of State, leading supporters of Jackson to accuse Clay and Adams of having struck a "corrupt bargain".[167] After the Congressional session concluded, Jackson resigned his Senate seat and returned to Tennessee.[168]

Election of 1828 and death of Rachel Jackson

After the election, Jackson's supporters formed a new party to undermine Adams and ensure he served only one term. Adams' presidency went poorly, and Adam's behavior undermined it. He was perceived as an intellectual elite who ignored the needs of the populace. He was unable to accomplish anything because Congress blocked his proposals.[169] In his First Annual Message to Congress, Adams stated that "we are palsied by the will of our constituents", which was interpreted as his being against representative democracy.[170] Jackson responded by championing the needs of ordinary citizens and declaring that "the voice of the people ... must be heard".[171]

 
1828 election results

Jackson was nominated for president by the Tennessee legislature in October 1825, more than three years before the 1828 election.[172] He gained powerful supporters in both the south and north, including Calhoun, who became Jackson's vice presidential running mate, and New York Senator Martin Van Buren.[173] Meanwhile, Adams's support from the Southern states was eroded when he signed a tax on European imports, the Tariff of 1828, which was called the "Tariff of Abominations" by opponents, into law.[171] Jackson's victory in the presidential race was overwhelming. He won 56 percent of the popular vote and 68 percent of the electoral vote. The election ended the one-party system that had formed during the Era of Good Feelings as Jackson's supporters coalesced into the Democratic Party and the various groups who did not support him eventually formed the Whig Party.[174]

The political campaign was dominated by the personal abuse that partisans flung at both candidates.[175] Jackson was accused of being the son of an English prostitute and a mulatto,[176][177] and he was labeled a slave trader who trafficked in human flesh.[178] A series of pamphlets known as the Coffin Handbills[179] accused him of having murdered 18 white men, including the soldiers he had executed for desertion and alleging that he stabbed a man in the back with his cane.[180][181] They stated that he had intentionally massacred Native American women and children at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, ate the bodies of Native Americans he killed in battle,[182][183] and threatened to cut off the ears of congressmen who questioned his behavior during the First Seminole War.[184]

Jackson and Rachel were accused of adultery for living together before her divorce was finalized,[185] and Rachel heard about the accusation.[186] She had been under stress throughout the election, and just as Jackson was preparing to head to Washington for his inauguration, she fell ill.[187] She did not live to see her husband become president, dying of a stroke or heart attack a few days later, and was buried on Christmas Eve.[186] Jackson believed that the abuse from Adams' supporters had hastened her death, stating at her funeral: "May God Almighty forgive her murderers, as I know she forgave them. I never can."[188]

Presidency (1829–1837)

 
Engraving of President Jackson by A. H. Ritchie after painting by D. M. Carter (c. 1860)

Inauguration

Jackson arrived in Washington on February 11. His first concern was forming his cabinet.[189] He chose Van Buren as Secretary of State, his friend John Eaton as Secretary of War, Samuel D. Ingham as Secretary of Treasury, John Branch as Secretary of Navy, John M. Berrien as Attorney General, and William T. Barry as Postmaster General.[190] Jackson was inaugurated on March 4, 1829, becoming the first president-elect to take the oath of office on the East Portico of the U.S. Capitol.[191] Embittered by his defeat, Adams refused to attend.[192] In his inaugural address, Jackson promised to protect the sovereignty of the states, respect the limits of the presidency, reform the government by removing disloyal or incompetent appointees, and observe a fair policy toward Native Americans.[193] Jackson invited the public to the White House, which was promptly overrun by well-wishers who caused minor damage to its furnishings. The spectacle earned him the nickname "King Mob".[194]

Reforms and rotation in office

Jackson's administration believed that Adams's had been corrupt and one of Jackson's first acts as president was to initiate investigations into all executive departments.[195] The investigations revealed that $280,000 (equivalent to (equivalent to $7,100,000 in 2021) today) was stolen from the Treasury, and the reduction in costs to the Department of the Navy saved it $1 million (equivalent to $25,400,000 in 2021).[196] One of the people caught in his investigation was the Treasury Auditor Tobias Watkins, a personal friend of Adams' who was found guilty of embezzlement.[197][196] In the first year of his term Jackson asked Congress to tighten laws on embezzlement, revise laws to reduce tax evasion, and pushed for an improved government accounting system.[198]

Jackson implemented a principle he called "rotation in office" by enforcing the Tenure of Office Act, signed by President Monroe in 1820, that limited appointed office tenure and authorized the president to remove and appoint political party associates. The previous custom had been for the president to leave the existing appointees in office, replacing them through attrition.[199] During his first year in office, Jackson removed hundreds of federal officials, which was about 10% of all Federal employees,[199] and replaced them with loyal Democrats.[200] He argued that rotation in office was a democratic reform that reduced bureaucracy and corruption[201] by preventing hereditary officeholding and made officeholders responsible to the popular will,[202] but it functioned as political patronage, which came to be known as the spoils system.[203][201]

Petticoat affair

 
Lithograph cartoon The Celeste-al Cabinet by Albert A. Hoffay, published by H. R. Robinson (1836). Illustrates Jackson's cabinet during the Petticoat Affair. "Celeste" is Margaret Eaton.

Jackson spent much of his time during his first two and a half years in office dealing with what came to be known as the "Petticoat Affair" or "Eaton Affair".[204][205] The affair focused on Secretary of War Eaton's wife, Margaret. She had a reputation for being promiscuous, and like Rachel Jackson, she was accused of adultery. She and Eaton had been close before her first husband John Timberlake died, and they married nine months after his death.[206] With the exception of Barry's wife Catherine,[207] the cabinet members' wives followed the lead of Vice-president Calhoun's wife Floride and refused to socialize with the Eatons.[208] Though Jackson defended Margaret, her presence split the cabinet, which had been so ineffective that he rarely called it into session,[190] and the ongoing disagreement led to its dissolution.[209]

In the spring of 1831, Jackson demanded the resignations of all the cabinet members except Barry,[210] who would resign in 1835 when a Congressional investigation revealed his mismanagement of the Post Office.[211] Jackson tried to compensate Van Buren by appointing him the Minister to Great Britain, but Calhoun blocked the nomination with a tie-breaking vote against it.[210] Van Buren—along with Amos Kendall, who helped organize what would become the Democratic Party,[212] and Francis Preston Blair, the editor of The Globe newspaper that served as Jackson's house organ,[213]—would become regular participants in Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet, an unofficial, varying group of advisors that Jackson turned to for decision making even after he had formed a new official cabinet.[214]

Indian Removal Act

 
The Indian Removal Act and treaties involving Jackson before his presidency displaced most of the major tribes of the Southeast from their traditional territories east of the Mississippi.

Jackson's presidency marked the beginning of a national policy of Native American removal.[210] Before Jackson took office, the relationship between the southern states and the Native American tribes who lived within their boundaries was strained. The states felt that they had full jurisdiction over their territories; the native tribes saw themselves as autonomous nations that had a right to the land they lived on.[216] Significant portions of the five major tribes in the Southwest—the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminoles— began to adopt white culture, including education, agricultural techniques, a road system, and rudimentary manufacturing.[217] In the case of the tensions between the state of Georgia and the Cherokee, Adams had tried to address the issue encouraging Cherokee emigration west of the Mississippi through financial incentives, but most refused.[218]

In the first days of Jackson's presidency, some of the southern states had passed legislation extending state jurisdiction to Native American lands.[219] Jackson supported the states' right to do so.[220][221] His position was later made clear in the 1832 Supreme Court test case of this legislation, Worcester v. Georgia. Georgia had arrested a group of missionaries for entering Cherokee territory without a permit; the Cherokee declared these arrests illegal. The court under Chief Justice John Marshall decided in favor of the Cherokee: imposition of Georgia law on the Cherokee was unconstitutional.[222] Horace Greeley alleges that when Jackson heard the ruling, he said, "Well, John Marshall has made his decision, but now let him enforce it."[223] Although the quote may be apocryphal, Jackson made it clear he would not use the federal government to enforce the ruling.[224][225][226]

Jackson used the power of the federal government to enforce the separation of the Native American tribes and whites.[227] In May 1830, Jackson passed the Indian Removal Act through Congress.[228] It gave the president the right to negotiate treaties to buy tribal lands in the eastern part of the United States in exchange for lands set aside for Native Americans west of the Mississippi,[229] as well as broad discretion on how to use the federal funds allocated to the negotiations.[230] The law was supposed to be a voluntary relocation program, but it was not implemented as one. Jackson's administration often achieved agreement to relocate through bribes, fraud and intimidation,[231] and the leaders who signed the treaties often did not represent the entire tribe.[232] The relocations could be a source of misery too: the Choctaw relocation was rife with corruption, theft, and mismanagement that brought great suffering to that people.[233]

 
Portrait of Jackson by Ralph E. W. Earl (c. 1830, North Carolina Museum of Art)

In 1830, Jackson personally negotiated with the Chickasaw, who quickly agreed to move.[234] In the same year, Choctaw leaders signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek; the majority did not want the treaty but complied with its terms.[235] In 1832, Seminole leaders signed the Treaty of Payne's Landing, which stipulated that the Seminoles would move west and become part of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy if they found the new land suitable.[236] Most Seminoles refused to move, leading to the Second Seminole War in 1835 that lasted six years.[232] Members of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy ceded their land to the state of Alabama in the Treaty of Cusseta of 1832. Their private ownership of the land was to be protected, but the federal government did not enforce this. The government did encourage voluntary removal until the Creek War of 1836, after which almost all Creek were removed to Oklahoma territory.[237] In 1836, Cherokee leaders ceded their land to the government by the Treaty of New Echota.[238] Their removal, known as the Trail of Tears, was enforced by Jackson's successor, Van Buren.[239]

Jackson also applied the removal policy in the Northwest. He was not successful in removing the Iroquois Confederacy in New York, but when some members of the Meskwaki (Fox) and the Sauk triggered the Black Hawk War by trying to cross back to the east side of the Mississippi, the peace treaties ratified after their defeat reduced their lands further.[240]

During his administration, he made about 70 treaties with American Indian tribes. He had removed almost all the Native Americans east of the Mississippi and south of Lake Michigan, about 70,000 people, from the United States;[241] though it was done at the cost of thousands of Native American lives lost because of the unsanitary conditions and epidemics arising from their dislocation, as well as their resistance to expulsion.[242] Jackson's implementation of the Indian Removal Act contributed to his popularity with his constituency. He added over 170,000 square miles of land to the public domain, which primarily benefited the United States' agricultural interests. The act also benefited small farmers, as Jackson allowed them to purchase moderate plots at low prices and offered squatters on land formerly belonging to Native Americans the option to purchase it before it was offered for sale to others.[243]

Nullification crisis

 
Civil War-era lithograph cartoon of Calhoun bowing before Jackson during the nullification crisis by Pendleton's Lithography and published by L. Prang & Co. (1864)

Jackson had to confront another challenge that had been building up since the beginning of his first term. The Tariff of 1828, which had been passed in the last year of Adams' administration, set a protective tariff at a very high rate to prevent the manufacturing industries in the Northern states from having to compete with lower-priced imports from Britain.[244] The tariff reduced the income of southern cotton planters: it propped up consumer prices, but not the price of cotton which had severely declined in the previous decade.[245] Immediately after the tariff's passage, the South Carolina Exposition and Protest was sent to the U.S. Senate.[246] This document, which had been anonymously written by John C. Calhoun, asserted that the constitution was a compact of individual states[247] and when the federal government went beyond its delegated duties, such as enacting a protective tariff, a state had a right to declare this action unconstitutional and make the act null and void with the borders of that state.[248]

Jackson suspected Calhoun of writing the Exposition and Protest, and opposed his interpretation. Jackson argued that Congress as a whole had full authority to enact tariffs and that a dissenting state was denying the will of the majority.[249] He also needed the tariff, which generated 90% of the federal revenue,[250] to achieve another of his presidential goals, eliminating the national debt.[251] The issue developed into a personal rivalry between the two men. For example, during a celebration of Thomas Jefferson's birthday on April 13, 1830, the attendees gave after-dinner toasts. Jackson toasted: "Our federal Union: It must be preserved!" – a clear challenge to nullification. Calhoun whose toast immediately followed, rebutted: "The Union: Next to our Liberty, the most dear!"[252]

As a compromise, Jackson supported the Tariff of 1832, which reduced the duties from the Tariff of 1828 by almost half. The bill was signed on July 9, but failed to satisfy extremists on either side.[253] On November 24, South Carolina had passed the Ordinance of Nullification,[254] declaring both tariffs null and void and threatening to secede from the United States if the federal government tried to use force to collect the duties.[255][256] In response, Jackson sent warships to Charleston harbor, and threatened to hang any man who worked to support nullification or secession.[257]

On December 10, Jackson issued a proclamation against the "nullifiers",[258] stating that he considered "the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed". South Carolina, the president declared, stood on "the brink of insurrection and treason", and he appealed to the people of the state to reassert their allegiance to that Union. Jackson also denied the right of secession: "The Constitution ... forms a government not a league ... To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States are not a nation."[259] On December 28, Calhoun, who had been elected to the U.S. Senate, resigned as vice president.[260]

Jackson asked Congress to pass a "Force Bill" authorizing the military to enforce the tariff. It was attacked by Calhoun as despotism.[261] Meanwhile, Calhoun and Clay began to work on a new compromise tariff. Jackson saw it as an effective way to end the confrontation, but insisted on the passage of the Force Bill before he signed.[262] On March 2, he signed into law the Force Bill and the Tariff of 1833, both of which passed on March 1, 1833. The South Carolina Convention then met and rescinded its nullification ordinance, but nullified the Force Bill in a final act of defiance.[263] Two months later, Jackson reflected on South Carolina's nullification: "the tariff was only the pretext, and disunion and southern confederacy the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or slavery question".[264]

Bank War and Election of 1832

Bank Veto

 
Lithograph cartoon of Jackson destroying the Second Bank of the United States with his "Removal Notice" by Zachariah Downing, published by H. R. Robinson (c. 1833). Nicholas Biddle is portrayed as the devil.

A few weeks after his inauguration, Jackson started looking into how he could replace the Second Bank of the United States.[265] The Bank had been chartered by President Madison in 1816 to restore the United States economy after the War of 1812. Monroe had appointed Nicholas Biddle as the Bank's executive.[266] The Bank was a repository for the country's public monies which also serviced the national debt; it was formed as a for-profit entity that looked after the concerns of its shareholders.[267] Under the Bank's stewardship, the country was economically healthy[268] and the currency was stable,[269] but Jackson saw the Bank as a fourth branch of government run by an elite,[265] what he called the "money power" that sought to control the labor and earnings of the "real people", who depend on their own efforts to succeed: the planters, farmers, mechanics, and laborers.[270] Additionally, Jackson's own near bankruptcy in 1804 due to credit-fuelled land speculation had biased him against paper money and toward a policy favorable to hard money.[271]

In his First Annual Address in December 1829, Jackson openly challenged the Bank by questioning its constitutionality and the soundness of its money.[272] Jackson's supporters further alleged that it gave preferential loans to speculators and merchants over artisans and farmers, that it used its money to bribe congressmen and the press, and that it had ties with foreign creditors. Biddle responded to Jackson's challenge in early 1830 by using the Bank's vast financial holding to ensure the Bank's reputation, and his supporters argued that the Bank was the key to prosperity and stable commerce. By the time of the 1832 election, Biddle had spent over $250,000, (equivalent to $6,785,800 in 2021), in printing pamphlets, lobbying for pro-Bank legislation, hiring agents and giving loans to editors and congressmen.[273]

On the surface, Jackson's and Biddle's positions did not appear irreconcilable. Jackson seemed open to keeping the Bank if it could include some degree of Federal oversight, limit its real estate holdings, and have its property subject to taxation by the states.[274] Many of Jackson's cabinet members thought a compromise was possible. In 1831, Treasury Secretary Louis McLane told Biddle that Jackson was open to chartering a modified version of the Bank, but Biddle did not consult Jackson directly. Privately, Jackson expressed opposition to the Bank;[275] publicly, he announced that he would leave the decision concerning the Bank in the hands of the people.[276] Biddle was finally convinced to take open action by Henry Clay, who had decided to run for president against Jackson in the 1832 election. Biddle would agree to seek renewal of the charter two years earlier than scheduled. Clay argued that Jackson was in a bind. If he vetoed the charter, he would loose the votes of his pro-Bank constituents in Pennsylvania; but if he signed the charter, he would lose his anti-Bank constituents. After the recharter bill was passed, Jackson vetoed it on July 10, 1832, arguing that the country should not surrender the will of the majority to the desires of the wealthy.[277]

Election of 1832

 
1832 election results

The 1832 presidential election demonstrated the rapid development of political parties during Jackson's presidency. The Democratic Party's first national convention, held in Baltimore, nominated Jackson's choice for vice president, Martin Van Buren. The National Republican Party, which had held its first convention in Baltimore earlier in December 1831, nominated Clay, now a senator from Kentucky, and John Sergeant of Pennsylvania.[278] An Anti-Masonic Party with a platform built around opposition to Freemasonry,[279] it supported neither Jackson nor Clay, who both were Masons. The party nominated William Wirt of Maryland and Amos Ellmaker of Pennsylvania.[280]

In addition to the votes Jackson would lose because of the Bank veto, Clay hoped that Jackson's Indian Removal Act would alienate voters in the East; but Jackson's losses were offset by the Act's popularity in the West and Southwest. Clay had also expected that Jackson would lose votes because of his stand on internal improvements.[281] Jackson had vetoed the Maysville Road bill, which funded an upgrade of a section of the National Road in Clay's state of Kentucky; as part of his justification, Jackson claimed it was unconstitutional to fund internal improvements using national funds for local projects.[282]

Clay's strategy failed. Jackson was able to mobilize the Democratic Party's strong political networks.[283] The Northeast supported Jackson because he was in favor of maintaining a stiff tariff; the West supported him because the Indian Removal Act reduced the number of Native Americans in the region and made available more public land.[284] Except for South Carolina, which passed the Ordinance of Nullification during the election month and refused to support any party by giving its votes to the future Governor of Virginia John B. Floyd,[285] the South supported Jackson for implementing the Indian Removal Act, as well as for his willingness to compromise by signing the Tariff of 1832.[286] Jackson won the election by a landslide, receiving 55 percent of the popular vote and 219 electoral votes.[283]

Removal of deposits and censure

 
Lithograph cartoon of "King Andrew the First" by an anonymous artist (c. 1832)

Jackson saw his victory as a mandate to continue his war on the Bank's control over the national economy.[287] In 1833, Jackson signed an executive order ending the deposit of Treasury receipts in the bank.[288] When Secretary of the Treasury McLane refused to execute the order, Jackson replaced him with William J. Duane, who also refused. Jackson then appointed Roger B. Taney as acting secretary, who implemented Jackson's policy.[289] With the loss of federal deposits, the Bank had to contract its credit.[290] Biddle used this contraction to create an economic downturn in an attempt to get Jackson to compromise. Biddle wrote, "Nothing but the evidence of suffering abroad will produce any effect in Congress."[291] The attempt did not succeed, the economy recovered and Biddle was blamed for the recession.[292]

Jackson's actions led those who disagreed with him to form the Whig Party. They claimed to oppose Jackson's expansion of executive power, calling him "King Andrew the First", and naming their party after the English Whigs who opposed the British monarchy in the 17th century.[293] In March 1832, the Senate censured Jackson for inappropriately taking authority for the Treasury Department when it was the responsibility of Congress and refused to confirm Taney's appointment as secretary of the treasury.[294] In April, however, the House declared that the bank should not be rechartered. By July 1836, the Bank no longer held any federal deposits.[295]

Jackson had Federal funds deposited into state banks friendly to the administration's policies, which critics called pet banks.[296] The number of these state banks more than doubled during Jackson's administration,[289] and investment patterns changed. The Bank, which had been the federal government's fiscal agent, invested heavily in trade and financed interregional and international trade. State banks were more responsive to state governments, and invested heavily in land development, land speculation, and state public works projects.[297] In spite of the efforts of Taney's successor, Levi Woodbury, to control them, the pet banks expanded their loans, helping to create a speculative boom in the final years of Jackson's administration.[298]

In January 1835, Jackson paid off the national debt, the only time in U.S. history that it had been accomplished.[299][300] It was paid down through tariff revenues,[283] carefully managing federal funding of internal improvements like roads and canals,[301] and the sale of public lands.[302] Between 1834 and 1836, the government had unprecedented spike in land sales:[303] At its peak in 1836, the profits from land sales were eight to twelve times higher than a typical year.[304] During Jackson's presidency, 63 million acres of public land—about the size of the state of Oklahoma—was sold.[305] After Jackson stepped down from the presidency in 1837, a Democrat-majority Senate expunged Jackson's censure.[306][307]

Panic of 1837

 
Lithograph cartoon of the Panic of 1837 published by H. R. Robinson (1837). Jackson is symbolized by "Glory" in the sky with top hat, spectacles, and pipe.

Despite the economic boom following Jackson's victory in the Bank War, land speculation in the west caused the Panic of 1837.[308] Jackson's transfer of federal monies to state banks in 1833 caused western banks to relax their lending standards;[309] the Indian Removal Act made large amounts of former Native American lands available for purchase and speculation.[310] Two of Jackson's acts in 1836 contributed to the Panic of 1837. One was the Specie Circular, which mandated western lands only be purchased by money backed by specie. The act was intended to stabilize the economy by reducing speculation on credit, but it caused a drain of gold and silver from the Eastern banks to the Western banks to address the needs of financing land transactions.[311] The other was the Deposit and Distribution Act, which transferred federal monies from eastern to western state banks. Together, they left Eastern banks unable to pay specie to the British when they recalled their loans to address their economic problems in international trade.[312] The panic drove the U.S. economy into a depression that lasted until 1841.[308]

Physical assault and assassination attempt

 
Lithograph of attempted assassination of Andrew Jackson published by Endicott & Co. (1835)

Jackson was the first president to be subjected to physical assault as well an assassination attempt.[313] On May 6, 1833, Robert B. Randolph struck Jackson in the face with his hand because Jackson had ordered Randolph's dismissal from the navy for embezzlement. Jackson declined to press charges.[314] While leaving the United States Capitol on January 30, 1835, Richard Lawrence, an unemployed house painter from England, aimed a pistol at Jackson, which misfired. Lawrence pulled out a second pistol, which also misfired. Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane until others intervened to restrain Lawrence, who was later found not guilty by reason of insanity and institutionalized.[315][316]

Slavery

During Jackson's presidency, slavery remained a minor political issue.[317] Though federal troops were used to crush Nat Turner's slave rebellion in 1831,[318] Jackson ordered them withdrawn immediately afterwards despite the petition of local citizens for them to remain for protection.[319] Jackson considered the issue too divisive to the nation and to the delicate alliances of the Democratic Party,[320] while sympathetic newspapers argued for excluding slavery from federal politics and keeping it at the state level.[321]

Jackson's view was challenged when the American Anti-Slavery Society formally agitated for abolition[322] by sending anti-slavery tracts through the postal system into the South in 1835.[320] Jackson condemned these agitators as "monsters"[323] who should atone with their lives[324] because they were attempting to destroy the Union by encouraging sectionalism.[325] The act provoked riots in Charleston, and pro-slavery Southerners demanded that the postal service ban distribution of the materials. To address the issue, Jackson authorized that the tracts could be sent only to subscribers, whose names could be made publicly accountable.[326] That December, Jackson called on Congress to prohibit the circulation through the South of "incendiary publications intended to instigate the slaves to insurrection".[327]

There was a risk of slavery becoming a problem again after Van Buren's presidential nomination in 1835 when abolitionists stepped up their campaign to raise the question of slavery in Congress.[328] Jackson saw these as election year attempts by Whigs to undermine the Democrats. During the 1836 election year,[329] the House addressed the issue by passing a gag rule, which kept abolition from becoming a topic of debate: Congress would receive documents regarding abolition, but immediately table them without discussion. The strategy worked; the Democratic Party stayed united and Van Buren, Jackson's chosen successor, was successfully elected president in 1836.[330]

Foreign affairs

 
Engraved portrait of Jackson as president by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. This portrait has appeared on the $20 bill since 1929.[331]

The Jackson administration successfully negotiated trade agreements with Great Britain, Spain, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and Siam.[332] In his First Annual Message to Congress, Jackson addressed the issues of spoliation claims, demands of compensation for the capture of American ships and sailors by foreign nations during the Napoleonic Wars.[333] Using a combination of bluster and tact, he successfully settled these claims with Denmark, Portugal, and Spain,[332] but he had difficulty collecting spoliation claims from France, which was unwilling to pay an indemnity agreed to in an earlier treaty. Jackson asked Congress in 1834 to authorize reprisals against French property if the country failed to make payment, as well as to arm for defense.[333] In response, France put its Caribbean fleet on a wartime footing.[334] Both sides wanted to avoid a conflict, but the French wanted an apology for Jackson's belligerence. In his 1835 Annual Message to the Congress, Jackson asserted that he refused to apologize, but stated that he did not intend to "menace or insult the Government of France".[335] The French were assuaged and agreed to pay $5,000,000 (equivalent to $131,338,700 in 2021) to settle the claims.[336]

Since the early 1820s, large numbers of Americans had been immigrating into Texas, a territory of the newly independent nation of Mexico.[337] As early as 1824, Jackson had expressed a desire to acquire the region for the United States.[338] In 1829, he attempted to purchase it, but Mexico did not want to sell. By 1830, there were twice as many settlers from the United States as from Mexico, leading to tensions with the Mexican government that started the Texas Revolution. During the conflict, Jackson covertly allowed the settlers to obtain weapons and money from the United States.[339] They defeated the Mexican military in April 1836 and soon afterward declared the region an independent country, the Republic of Texas. The new Republic asked Jackson to recognize and annex it. Although Jackson wanted to do so, he was hesitant because he was unsure it could maintain independence from Mexico.[332] He also was concerned because Texas had legalized slavery, which was an issue that could divide the Democrats during the 1836 election. Jackson recognized the Republic of Texas on the last full day of his presidency, March 3, 1837.[340]

Judicial appointments

Jackson appointed six justices to the Supreme Court.[341] Most were undistinguished. Jackson nominated Roger B. Taney in January 1835 to the Court in reward for his services, but the nomination failed to win Senate approval.[342] When Chief Justice Marshall died in 1835, Jackson nominated Taney for Chief Justice; he was confirmed by the new Senate,[343] serving as Chief Justice until 1864.[344] He was regarded with respect during his career on the bench, but he is most remembered for his decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford.[345]

States admitted to the Union

Two new states were admitted into the Union during Jackson's presidency: Arkansas (June 15, 1836)[346] and Michigan (January 26, 1837).[347] Both states increased Democratic power in Congress and helped Van Buren win the presidency in 1836, as new states tended to support the party that had done the most to admit them.[348]

Later life and death (1837–1845)

 
Mezzotint of Jackson (1845)

In 1837, Jackson retired to the Hermitage and immediately began putting its affairs in order, as it had been poorly managed in his absence. Though Jackson was in ill health and had lost some of his popularity because he was blamed for the Panic of 1837, he remained influential in national and state politics.[349]

Jackson supported an Independent Treasury system as a solution to the panic, which would hold the money balances of the government in the form of gold or silver and would be restricted from printing paper money to prevent further inflation.[350] This system was implemented in 1846.[351] The depression still continued, and Van Buren became unpopular. The Whig Party nominated war hero William Henry Harrison and former Democrat John Tyler for the 1840 presidential election. They used a campaign style similar to that of the Democrats: Van Buren was depicted as an uncaring aristocrat, while Harrison's war record was glorified, and he was portrayed as a man of the people.[352] Jackson campaigned loyally for Van Buren in Tennessee.[353] He favored James K. Polk as vice presidential candidate, but no candidate for that office was chosen.[354]

To Jackson's dismay, Harrison won the 1840 election with the Whigs capturing majorities in both houses of Congress.[355] Harrison died only a month into his term, and was replaced by Tyler. Jackson was encouraged because Tyler was not bound to party loyalties. Tyler angered the Whigs in 1841 when he vetoed two Whig-sponsored bills to establish a new national bank. Jackson and other Democrats praised Tyler,[356] but Tyler's entire cabinet, except Daniel Webster, resigned.[357]

 
The tomb of Andrew and Rachel Jackson at the Hermitage, designed by David Morrison (1832)

Jackson lobbied for the annexation of Texas, insisting that it belonged to the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase.[358] He thought that annexation would cause national division over slavery, but feared the British could use Texas as a base to threaten the United States.[359] Jackson wrote several letters to Texas president Sam Houston, urging him to wait for the Senate to approve annexation and explaining how much Texas would benefit as a part of the United States.[360] Tyler signed a treaty of annexation in April 1844, but it became associated with the expansion of slavery and was not ratified. Henry Clay, the Whig nominee for the 1844 presidential election, and Van Buren, Jackson's preferred candidate for the Democratic Party, both opposed annexation. Disappointed by Van Buren, Jackson convinced Polk, who was to be Van Buren's running mate, to run as the Democratic Party's presidential nominee instead. Polk defeated Van Buren for the nomination, and Jackson convinced Tyler not to run as an independent by bringing him back into the Democratic Party. Polk won the election, the Senate passed a bill to annex Texas, and it was signed on March 1, 1845.[361]

Jackson died of dropsy and heart failure[362] at 78 years of age on June 8, 1845. He was surrounded by family and friends at his deathbed, and his last words were, "Oh, do not cry. Be good children and we will all meet in Heaven."[363] He was buried in the same tomb as his wife Rachel.[364]

Personal life

Family

Jackson and Rachel had no children together but adopted Andrew Jackson Jr., the son of Rachel's deceased brother Severn Donelson. The Jacksons acted as guardians for Donelson's other children: John Samuel, Daniel Smith, and Andrew Jackson. They were also guardians for Andrew Jackson Hutchings, Rachel's orphaned grand nephew, and the orphaned children of a friend, Edward Butler – Caroline, Eliza, Edward, and Anthony – who lived with the Jacksons after their father died.[365] Jackson also had three Creek children living with them: Lyncoya, a Creek orphan Jackson had adopted after the Battle of Tallushatchee,[366] and two boys they called Theodore[367] and Charley.[368]

 
Jackson as a Tennessee Gentleman by Ralph E. W. Earl ( c. 1831, the Hermitage, Tennessee)

For the only time in U.S. history, two women acted simultaneously as unofficial First Lady for the widower Jackson. Rachel's niece Emily Donelson was married to Andrew Jackson Donelson (who acted as Jackson's private secretary) and served as hostess at the White House. The president and Emily became estranged for over a year during the Petticoat affair, but they eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess. Sarah Yorke Jackson, the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr., became co-hostess of the White House in 1834, and took over all hostess duties after Emily died from tuberculosis in 1836.[369]

Temperament

Jackson had a reputation for being short-tempered and violent,[370] which terrified his opponents.[371] He was able to use his temper strategically to accomplish what he wanted.[372] He could keep it in check when necessary: his behavior was friendly and urbane when he went to Washington as senator during the campaign leading up to the 1824 election. According to Van Buren, he remained calm in times of difficulty and made his decisions deliberatively.[373]

He had the tendency to take things personally. If someone crossed him, he would often become obsessed with crushing them.[374] For example, on the last day of his presidency, Jackson declared he had only two regrets: that he had not hanged Henry Clay or shot John C. Calhoun.[375] He also had a strong sense of loyalty. He considered threats to his friends as threats to himself, but he demanded unquestioning loyalty in return.[376]

Jackson was self-confident,[377] without projecting a sense of self-importance.[378] This self-confidence gave him the ability to persevere in the face of adversity.[379] Once he decided on a plan of action, he would adhere to it.[380] His reputation for being both quick-tempered and confident worked to his advantage;[381] it misled opponents to see him as simple and direct, leading them to often understimate his political shrewdness.[382]

Religious faith

In 1838, Jackson became an official member of the First Presbyterian Church in Nashville.[383] Both his mother and his wife had been devout Presbyterians all their lives, but Jackson stated that he had postponed officially entering the church until after his retirement to avoid accusations that he had done so for political reasons.[384]

Legacy

 
Equestrian statue of Jackson by Charles Keck in front of the Jackson County Courthouse, Kansas City, Missouri (1934). Commissioned by Judge Harry S. Truman

Jackson's legacy—his impact on American politics, his Native American policy, and his personality—remains controversial,[385][386] Jackson's contemporary, Alexis de Tocqueville described Jackson as the spokesperson of the majority and their local passions.[387]The year after Jackson's death, Benjamin Dusenbery, who collected eulogies to him, wrote that Jackson's "opponents have ever been his most bitter enemies, and his friends almost his worshippers."[388]

Opinions about Jackson are polarized.[389] He has been described as a frontiersman personifying the independence of the American West,[390] a slave-owning member of the Southern gentry,[391] a populist who promoted faith in the wisdom of the ordinary citizen and the will of the majority,[392] and an autocratic demagogue who incited violence for political ends.[393] He has been represented as a statesman who substantially advanced the spirit of democracy[394]and upheld the foundations of American constitutionalism, [395]as well as a dominating personality who knew how to wield power to crush opposition and trampled the law.[396]

In the 1920s, Jackson's rise to power became associated with the idea of the "common man";[397] a connection that remains strong today.[398] This idea defined the age as a populist rejection of social elites and a vindication of every person's value independent of class and status.[399] Jackson was seen as its personification,[400] an individual free of societal constraints who can achieve great things.[401] In 1945, Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.'s influential Age of Jackson redefined Jackson's legacy through the lens of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal,[402] describing the common man as a member of the working class struggling against exploitation by business concerns.[403] [404] Schlesinger quotes Roosevelt as saying that Jackson's heritage is "his unending contributions to the vitality of our democracy".[405]

In the twenty-first century, Jackson's Indian Removal Act has been described as ethnic cleansing:[406] the use of force, terror and violence to make an area ethnically homogeneous.[407] To achieve the goal of separating Native Americans from the whites,[408] coercive force such as threats and bribes were used to effect removal [409] and unauthorized military force was used when there was resistance,[231] as in the case of the Second Seminole War.[410] It's role in the long-term destruction of Native American societies and their cultures continues to be debated.[411]

His legacy has been variously used by later presidents. Abraham Lincoln referenced Jackson's ideas when negotiating the challenges to the Union that he faced during 1861, including Jackson's understanding of the constitution during the nullification crisis and the president's right to interpret the constitution.[412] Franklin D. Roosevelt used Jackson to redefine the Democratic Party, describing him as a defender of the exploited and downtrodden and as a fighter for social justice and human rights.[413][414]Donald Trump used Jackson's legacy to present himself as the president of the common man,[415] praising Jackson for saving the country from a rising aristocracy and protecting American workers with a tariff.[416] In 2016, President Barack Obama's administration announced it was removing Jackson's portrait from the $20 bill and replacing it with one of Harriet Tubman.[417] Though the plan was put on hold during Trump's presidency, President Joe Biden's administration resumed it in 2021.[418]

Jackson's contradictory legacy is seen in opinion polls. In a 2014 survey asking political scientists to rate presidential greatness, Jackson was the ninth-highest rated president, but the second-most polarizing. He was also rated the second-most overrated president.[419] Jackson usually scores in the top half of presidents in public opinion polls looking at their performance, but his ratings have been dropping. In a C-SPAN poll, Jackson was ranked the 13th in 2009, 18th in 2017, and 22nd in 2021.[420][421]

Writings

 
Andrew Jackson by Thomas Sully (1845, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.) Modeled after 1824 version, Jackson is portrayed as the hero of New Orleans.
  • Feller, Daniel; Coens, Thomas; Moss, Laura-Eve; Moser, Harold D.; Alexander, Erik B.; Smith, Sam B.; Owsley, Harriet C.; Hoth, David R; Hoemann, George H.; McPherson, Sharon; Clift, J. Clint; Wells, Wyatt C., eds. (1980–2019). The Papers of Andrew Jackson. University of Tennessee. (11 volumes to date; 17 volumes projected). Ongoing project to print all of Jackson's papers.
  • Vol. I, (1770–1803); Vol. II, (1804–1813); Vol. III, (1814–1815); Vol. IV, (1816–1820); Vol. V, (1821–1824); Vol. VI, (1825–1828); Vol. VII, (1829); Vol. VIII, (1830); Vol. IX, (1831); Vol. X, (1832); Vol. XI, (1833)
  • Bassett, John S., ed. (1926–1935). Correspondence of Andrew Jackson. Carnegie Institution. (7 volumes; 2 available online).
  • Richardson, James D., ed. (1897). "Andrew Jackson". Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents. Vol. III. Bureau of National Literature and Art. pp. 996–1359. Reprints Jackson's major messages and reports.

Notes

  1. ^ Vice President Calhoun resigned from office. As this was prior to the adoption of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next ensuing election and inauguration.

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  405. ^ Schlesinger 1945, Forward, second page.
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  • Adams, Sean P. (2013). "Introduction: The President and his Era". In Adams, Sean P. (ed.). A Companion to the Era of Andrew Jackson. Wiley. pp. 1–11. ISBN 9781444335415. OCLC 1152040405.
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  • Cheathem, Mark R. (2013). ""The Shape of Democracy": Historical Interpretations of Jacksonian Democracy". In McKnight, Brian D.; Humphreys, James S. (eds.). Interpreting American History: The Age of Andrew Jackson. Kent State University Press. pp. 1–21. ISBN 9781606350980. OCLC 700709151.
  • Cheathem, Mark R. (2014a). Andrew Jackson: Southerner (Ebook). ISBN 9780807151006. OCLC 858995561.
  • Clark, Thomas D.; Guice, John D. W. (1996). The Old Southwest, 1765–1830: Frontiers in conflict. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806128368. OCLC 1285743152.
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  • Ellis, Richard E. (1989). The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States' Rights, and the Nullification Crisis. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195345155. OCLC 655900280.
  • Feerick, John D. (1965). From Failing Hands: the Story of Presidential Succession. New York City: Fordham University Press.
  • Fish, Carl R. (1927). The Rise of the Common Man 1830–1850. MacMillian. OCLC 1151151619.
  • Freehling, William (1966). Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816–1836. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195076813. OCLC 1151067281.
  • Garrison, Tim Allen (2002). The Legal Ideology of Removal: The Southern Judiciary and the Sovereignty of Native American Nations. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-3417-2. OCLC 53956489.
  • Gatell, Frank Otto (1967). The Jacksonians and the Money Power. Chicago, Rand McNally. OCLC 651767466.
  • Greeley, Horace (1864). The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States of America, 1860-64. It's Causes, Incidents and Results. O. D. Case and Company.
  • Gullan, Harold I. (2004). "Dramatic Departure: Andrew Jackson Sr., Abraham Van Buren". First fathers: the men who inspired our Presidents. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-46597-3. OCLC 53090968.
  • Hammond, Bray (1957). Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. OCLC 1147712456.
  • Hickey, Donald R. (1989). The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252060598. OCLC 1036973138.
  • Howe, Daniel Walker (2007). What Hath God Wrought: the Transformation of America, 1815–1848. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974379-7. OCLC 646814186.
  • Kakel, Carroll (2011). The American West and the Nazi East: A Comparative and Interpretive Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230307063. OCLC 743799760.
  • Lane, Carl (2014). A Nation Wholly Free: The Elimination of the National Debt in the Age of Jackson. Westholme. ISBN 9781594162091. OCLC 1150853554.
  • Lansford, Tom; Woods, Thomas E., eds. (2008). Exploring American History: From Colonial Times to 1877. Vol. 10. New York: Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-7758-7.
  • Lynn, John A. (2019). Another Kind of War: The Nature and History of Terrorism. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300189988. OCLC 1107042059.
  • Mahon, John K. (1962). "The Treaty of Moultrie Creek, 1823". The Florida Historical Quarterly. 40 (4): 350–372. JSTOR 30139875.
  • Marszalek, John F. (1997). The Petticoat Affair: Manners, Mutiny, and Sex in Andrew Jackson's White House. Free Press. ISBN 0684828014. OCLC 36767691.
  • McCormick, Richard p. (2002). "William Henry Harrison and John Tyler". In Graff, Henry (ed.). The Presidents: A Reference History (3 ed.). New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 106–127. ISBN 978-0-684-31226-2. OCLC 49029341.
  • McGrane, Reginald C. (1965). The Panic of 1837. University of Chicago Press. OCLC 1150938709.
  • Meyers, Marvin (1960). The Jacksonian Persuasion: Politics & Belief. Vintage Books. OCLC 1035884705.
  • Missall, John; Missall, Mary Lou (2004). The Seminole Wars: America's Longest Indian Conflict. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0813027152. OCLC 1256504949.
  • Moser, Harold D.; Macpherson, Sharon, eds. (1984). The Papers of Andrew Jackson, Volume II, 1804–1813. University of Tennessee Press. Retrieved May 25, 2022.
  • Moser, Harold D.; Hoth, David R.; Macpherson, Sharon; Reinbold, John H., eds. (1991). The Papers of Andrew Jackson, Volume III, 1814–1815. University of Tennessee Press. p. 35. Retrieved May 25, 2022. I have not heard whether Genl Coffee has taken on to him little Lyncoya-I have got another Pett-given to me by the chief Jame Fife, ... [The Indian children were probably Theodore and Charley.]*
  • Murphy, Sharon A. (2013). "The Myth and Reality of andrew Jackson's Rise in the Election of 1824". In Adams, Sean P. (ed.). A Companion to the Era of Andrew Jackson. Wiley. pp. 260–279. ISBN 9781444335415. OCLC 1152040405.
  • Nester, William R. (2013). The Age of Jackson and the Art of Power. ISBN 9781612346052. OCLC 857769985.
  • Niven, John (1988). John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union: A Biography. Baton Rouge, LA: LSU Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-1858-0. OCLC 1035889000.
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  • Ogg, Frederic Austin (1919). The Reign of Andrew Jackson; Vol. 20, Chronicles of America Series. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. OCLC 928924919.
  • Olson, James Stuart (2002). Robert L. Shadle (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30830-7. OCLC 1033573148.
  • Owsley, Frank Lawrence Jr. (1981). Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812-1815. University Presses of Florida. ISBN 0813006627. OCLC 1151350587.
  • Ostler, Jeffrey (2019). Surviving Genocide. ISBN 978-0-300-24526-4. OCLC 1099434736.
  • Parins, James W.; Littlefield, Daniel F. (2011). "Introduction". In Parins, James W.; Littlefield, Daniel F. (eds.). Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal [2 Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313360428. OCLC 720586004.
  • Remini, Robert V. (1990). The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 9780807116425. OCLC 1200479832.
  • Rogin, Michael P. (1975). Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian. Knopf. ISBN 0394482042. OCLC 1034678255.
  • Sabato, Larry; O'Connor, Karen (2002). American Government: Continuity and Change. New York: Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-0-321-31711-7. OCLC 1028046888.
  • Satz, Ronald N. (1974). American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era. University of Nebraska. ISBN 9780803208230.
  • Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. (1945). The Age of Jackson. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 9780316773430. OCLC 1024176654.
  • Schwartz, Bernard (1993). A History of the Supreme Court. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509387-2. OCLC 1035668728.
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  • Unger, Harlow G. (2012). John Quincy Adams. De Capo. ISBN 9780306822650. OCLC 1035758771.
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  • Wallace, Anthony F. C. (1993). The long, bitter trail: andrew Jackson and the Indians. Hill and Wang. ISBN 9780809066315. OCLC 1150209732.
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Journal articles and dissertations

  • Anderson, Gary Clayton (2016). "The Native Peoples of the American West: Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing?". Western Historical Quarterly. Oxford University Press. 47 (4): 416. doi:10.1093/whq/whw126. ISSN 0043-3810. JSTOR 26782720.
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  • Berutti, Ronald A. (1992). "The Cherokee Cases: The Fight to Save the Supreme Court and the Cherokee Indians". American Indian Law Review. 17 (1): 291–308. doi:10.2307/20068726. JSTOR 20068726.
  • Brogdon, Matthew S. (2011). "Defending the Union: Andrew Jackson's Nullifaction Proclamation and American federalism". Review of Politics. 73 (2): 245–273. doi:10.1017/S0034670511000064. JSTOR 42623589. S2CID 145679939.
  • Campbell, Stephen W. (2016). "Funding the Bank War: Nicholas Biddle and the public relations campaign to recharter the second bank of the U.S., 1828–1832". American Nineteenth Century History. 17 (3): 279–299. doi:10.1080/14664658.2016.1230930. S2CID 152280055.
  • Cave, Alfred A. (2003). "Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830". The Historian. 65 (6): 1330–1353. doi:10.2307/2205966. JSTOR 2205966.
  • Cheathem, Mark R. (2011). (PDF). History Compass. 9 (4): 326–338. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2011.00763.x. ISSN 1478-0542. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 12, 2022.
  • Cheathem, Mark (2014). "Frontiersman or Southern Gentleman? Newspaper Coverage of Andrew Jackson during the 1828 Presidential Campaign". The Readex Report. 9 (3). from the original on January 12, 2015.
  • Carson, James T. (2008). ""The obituary of nations": Ethnic cleansing, memory, and the origins of the Old South". Southern Culture. 14 (4): 6–31. doi:10.1353/scu.0.0026. JSTOR 26391777. S2CID 144154298.
  • Clifton, Frances (1952). "John Overton as Andrew Jackson's friend". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 11 (1): 23–40. JSTOR 42621095.
  • Cole, Donald B. (1986). "Review: The Age of Jackson: After Forty Years". Reviews in American History. 14 (1): 149–159. doi:10.2307/2702131. JSTOR 2702131.
  • Cole, Donald P. (1997). "A yankee in Kentucky: The early years of Amos Kendall, 1789–1828". Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Third Series. 109 (1): 24–36. JSTOR 25081127.
  • Davis, Ethan (2010). "An administrative Trail of Tears: Indian removal". The American Journal of Legal History. 50 (1): 1330–1353. doi:10.2307/2205966. JSTOR 2205966.
  • Davis, Karl (2002). ""Remember Fort Mims": Reinterpeting the origins of the Creek War". Journal of the Early Republic. 22 (4): 611–636. doi:10.2307/3124760. JSTOR 3124760.
  • Ericson, David F. (1995). "The nullification crisis, American republicanism, and the Force Bill debate". Journal of Southern History. 81 (2): 249–270. doi:10.2307/2211577. JSTOR 2211577.
  • Friedrich, Carl Joachim (1937). "The rise and decline of the spoils tradition". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 189: 10–16. doi:10.1177/000271623718900103. JSTOR 1019439. S2CID 144735397.
  • Gammon, Samuel G. (1922). The Presidential Campaign of 1832 (Thesis). Johns Hopkins University. OCLC 1050835838.
  • Gatell, Frank O. (1964). "Spoils of the Bank War: Political Bias in the Selection of Pet Banks". The American Historical Review. 70 (1): 35–58. doi:10.2307/1842097. JSTOR 1842097.
  • Gilman, Stuart C. (1995). "Presidential Ethics and the Ethics of the Presidency". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 537: 58–75. doi:10.1177/0002716295537000006. JSTOR 1047754. S2CID 143876977.
  • Haveman, Christopher D. (2009). (PDF) (PhD). Auburn University. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2022.
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  • Henig, Gerald S. (1969). "The Jacksonian attitude toward Abolitionism". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 28 (1): 42–56. JSTOR 1901307.
  • Howell, William Huntting (2010). ""Read, Pause, and Reflect!!"". Journal of the Early Republic. 30 (2): 293–300. doi:10.1353/jer.0.0149. JSTOR 40662272. S2CID 144448483.
  • Jackson, Carlton (1966). "The internal improvement vetoes of Andrew Jackson". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 25 (3): 531–550. doi:10.2307/3115344. JSTOR 3115344. S2CID 55379727.
  • Jackson, Carlton (1967). "--Another Time, Another Place--: The attempted assassination of President Andrew Jackson". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 26 (2): 184–190. JSTOR 42622937.
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  • Koenig, Louis W. (1964). "American Politics: The First Half-Century". Current History. 47 (278): 193–198. doi:10.1525/curh.1964.47.278.193. JSTOR 45311183.
  • Knodell, Jane (2006). "Rethinking the Jacksonian economy: The impact of the 1832 bank veto on commercial banking". Journal of Economic History. 66 (3): 641–574. doi:10.1017/S0022050706000258. JSTOR 3874852. S2CID 155084029.
  • Mahon, John K. (1998). "The First Seminole War: November 21, 1817-May24,1818". Florida Historical Quarterly. 77 (1): 62–67. JSTOR 30149093.
  • Latner, Richard B. (1978). "The Kitchen Cabinet and Andrew Jackson's advisory system". The Journal of American History. 65 (2): 367–388. doi:10.2307/1894085. JSTOR 1894085.
  • McFaul, John M. (1975). "Expediency vs. morality: Jacksonian politics and slavery". The Journal of American History. 82 (1): 24–39. doi:10.2307/1901307. JSTOR 1901307.
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  • Miles, Edwin A. (1992). "After John Marshall's Decision: Worcester v. Georgia and the Nullification Crisis". Journal of Southern History. 39 (4): 519–544. doi:10.2307/2205966. JSTOR 2205966.
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  • Perdue, Theda (2012). "The Legacy of Indian Removal". Journal of Southern History. 78 (1): 3–36. JSTOR 23247455.
  • Perkins, Edwin J. (1987). "Lost opportunities for compromise in the Bank War: A reassessment of jackson's veto message". Business History Review. 61 (4): 531–550. doi:10.2307/3115344. JSTOR 3115344. S2CID 55379727.
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Primary Sources

  • Binns, John (1828). "Some account of some of the bloody deeds of General Jackson". Library of Congress. from the original on January 16, 2014. Retrieved January 15, 2014.
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  • de Toqueville, Alexis (1969) [1840]. Democracy in America. Translated by Lawrence, George. Harper & Row. ISBN 9780385081702. OCLC 1148815334.

External links

  • Scholarly coverage of Jackson at Miller Center, U of Virginia
  • Works by Andrew Jackson at Project Gutenberg
  • Works by or about Andrew Jackson at Internet Archive
  • Works by Andrew Jackson at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)  
  • The Papers of Andrew Jackson at the Avalon Project
  • The Hermitage, home of President Andrew Jackson
  • "Andrew Jackson Papers". Library of Congress. A digital archive providing access to manuscript images of many of Jackson's documents.

andrew, jackson, this, article, about, president, united, states, other, uses, disambiguation, march, 1767, june, 1845, american, lawyer, planter, general, statesman, served, seventh, president, united, states, from, 1829, 1837, before, being, elected, preside. This article is about the president of the United States For other uses see Andrew Jackson disambiguation Andrew Jackson March 15 1767 June 8 1845 was an American lawyer planter general and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837 Before being elected to the presidency he gained fame as a general in the U S Army and served in both houses of the U S Congress Although often praised as an advocate for ordinary Americans and for his work in preserving the union of states Jackson has also been criticized for his racial policies particularly his treatment of Native Americans Andrew JacksonPortrait by Ralph E W Earl c 18357th President of the United StatesIn office March 4 1829 March 4 1837Vice PresidentJohn C Calhoun 1829 1832 None 1832 1833 a Martin Van Buren 1833 1837 Preceded byJohn Quincy AdamsSucceeded byMartin Van BurenUnited States Senatorfrom TennesseeIn office March 4 1823 October 14 1825Preceded byJohn WilliamsSucceeded byHugh Lawson WhiteIn office September 26 1797 April 1 1798Preceded byWilliam CockeSucceeded byDaniel Smith1st Federal Military Commissioner of FloridaIn office March 10 1821 December 31 1821Appointed byJames MonroePreceded byJose Maria Coppinger Spanish East Florida Jose Maria Callava Spanish West Florida Succeeded byWilliam Pope DuvalJustice of the Tennessee Supreme CourtIn office June 1798 June 1804Preceded byHowell TatumSucceeded byJohn OvertonMember of the U S House of Representatives from Tennessee s at large districtIn office December 4 1796 September 26 1797Preceded byJames White Delegate from the Southwest Territory Succeeded byWilliam C C ClaibornePersonal detailsBorn 1767 03 15 March 15 1767Waxhaw Settlement between North Carolina and South Carolina British AmericaDiedJune 8 1845 1845 06 08 aged 78 Nashville Tennessee U S Resting placeThe HermitagePolitical partyDemocratic 1828 1845 Other politicalaffiliationsDemocratic Republican before 1825 Jacksonian 1825 1828 SpouseRachel Donelson m 1794 died 1828 wbr ChildrenAndrew Jackson Jr LyncoyaOccupationPoliticianlawyergeneralAwardsCongressional Gold Medal Thanks of CongressSignatureMilitary serviceBranch serviceUnited States ArmyRankMajor General U S Army Major General U S Volunteers Major General Tennessee militia WarsAmerican Revolutionary War Creek War War of 1812 First Seminole WarJackson was born in the colonial Carolinas before the American Revolutionary War He became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards He briefly served in the U S House of Representatives and the U S Senate representing Tennessee After resigning he served as a justice on the Tennessee Supreme Court from 1798 until 1804 Jackson purchased a property later known as the Hermitage becoming a wealthy planter who owned hundreds of African American slaves In 1801 he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and was elected its commander the following year He led troops during the Creek War of 1813 1814 winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend The subsequent Treaty of Fort Jackson required the Creek to surrender vast tracts of present day Alabama and Georgia In the concurrent war against the British Jackson s victory at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 made him a national hero He later commanded U S forces in the First Seminole War which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain Jackson briefly served as Florida s first territorial governor before returning to the Senate He ran for president in 1824 winning a plurality of the popular and electoral vote but no candidate won an electoral majority In a contingent election the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams with Henry Clay s support Jackson s supporters alleged that there was a corrupt bargain between Adams and Clay and began creating their own political organization that would eventually become the Democratic Party Jackson ran again in 1828 defeating Adams in a landslide In 1830 he signed the Indian Removal Act This act which has been described as ethnic cleansing displaced tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands east of the Mississippi and resulted in thousands of deaths Under Jackson the integrity of the federal union was challenged when South Carolina threatened to nullify a high protective tariff set by the federal government He threatened the use of military force to enforce the tariff but the crisis was defused when it was amended In 1832 he vetoed a bill by Congress to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States arguing that it was a corrupt institution that benefited the wealthy After a lengthy struggle he and his allies dismantled the Bank In 1835 Jackson became the only president to pay off the national debt He also survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president In one of his final presidential acts he recognized the Republic of Texas In his retirement Jackson stayed active in politics He supported the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K Polk as well as the annexation of Texas which was accomplished shortly before his death Jackson s legacy remains controversial and opinions on him are frequently polarized He has been seen as a defender of democracy and the constitution and also been called a demagogue who ignored the law when it suited him Jackson generally ranks high in ratings of U S presidents although his rankings have declined in the 21st century Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Revolutionary War service 3 Early career 3 1 Legal career and marriage 3 2 Early public career 3 3 Planting career and slavery 3 4 Duel with Dickinson and adventure with Burr 4 Military career 4 1 War of 1812 4 1 1 Creek War 4 1 2 Battle of New Orleans 4 2 First Seminole War 5 Presidential aspirations 5 1 Election of 1824 5 2 Election of 1828 and death of Rachel Jackson 6 Presidency 1829 1837 6 1 Inauguration 6 2 Reforms and rotation in office 6 3 Petticoat affair 6 4 Indian Removal Act 6 5 Nullification crisis 6 6 Bank War and Election of 1832 6 6 1 Bank Veto 6 6 2 Election of 1832 6 6 3 Removal of deposits and censure 6 6 4 Panic of 1837 6 7 Physical assault and assassination attempt 6 8 Slavery 6 9 Foreign affairs 6 10 Judicial appointments 6 11 States admitted to the Union 7 Later life and death 1837 1845 8 Personal life 8 1 Family 8 2 Temperament 8 3 Religious faith 9 Legacy 10 Writings 11 Notes 12 References 13 Bibliography 13 1 Biographies 13 2 Books 13 3 Journal articles and dissertations 13 4 Primary Sources 14 External linksEarly life and educationAndrew Jackson was born on March 15 1767 in the Waxhaws region of the Carolinas His parents were Scots Irish colonists Andrew Jackson and Elizabeth Hutchinson Presbyterians who had emigrated from Ulster Ireland in 1765 1 2 Jackson s father was born in Carrickfergus County Antrim around 1738 3 and his ancestors had crossed into Northern Ireland from Scotland after the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 4 Jackson had two older brothers who came with his parents from Ireland Hugh born 1763 and Robert born 1764 5 4 Jackson s exact birthplace is unclear Jackson s father died at the age of 29 in a logging accident while clearing land in February 1767 three weeks before his son Andrew was born 5 Afterwards Elizabeth and her three sons moved in with her sister and brother in law Jane and James Crawford 6 Jackson later stated that he was born on the Crawford plantation 7 which is in Lancaster County South Carolina but second hand evidence suggests that he might have been born at another uncle s home in North Carolina 6 When Jackson was young Elizabeth thought he might become a minister and paid to have him schooled by a local clergyman 8 He learned to read write work with numbers and was exposed to Greek and Latin 9 but he was too strong willed and hot tempered for the ministry 6 Revolutionary War service The Brave Boy of the Waxhaws colored lithograph published by Currier and Ives 1876 lithograph Young Jackson defending himself against Major Coffin Jackson and his older brothers Hugh and Robert performed military service against the British during the Revolutionary War Hugh served with Colonel William Richardson Davie dying from heat exhaustion after the Battle of Stono Ferry in June 1779 10 After anti British sentiment intensified following the Waxhaws Massacre on May 29 1780 Elizabeth encouraged Andrew and Robert to participate in militia drills 11 They served as couriers and scouts 12 and participated with Davie in the Battle of Hanging Rock on August 6 1780 13 Andrew and Robert were captured in April 1781 when the British occupied the home of a Crawford relative The British officer in command demanded to have his boots polished Andrew refused and the officer slashed him with a sword leaving him with scars on his left hand and head Robert also refused and was struck a blow on the head 14 The brothers were taken to a prison camp in Camden where they were malnourished and contracted smallpox 15 In late spring the brothers were released to their mother in an exchange 16 Robert died two days after arriving home but Elizabeth was able to nurse Andrew back to health 17 Once he recovered Elizabeth volunteered to nurse American prisoners of war housed in British prison ships in the Charleston harbor 18 She contracted cholera and died soon afterwards She was buried in an unmarked grave 19 The war not only made Jackson an orphan at age 14 20 it led him to despise values he associated with Britain particularly aristocracy and political privilege 21 Early careerLegal career and marriage Painting of Rachel Jackson by Ralph E W Earl 1823 the Hermitage Tennessee After the Revolutionary War Jackson worked as a saddler 22 briefly returned to school and taught reading and writing to children 23 In 1784 he left the Waxhaws region for Salisbury North Carolina where he studied law under attorney Spruce Macay 24 He completed his training under John Stokes 25 and was admitted to the North Carolina bar in September 1787 26 Shortly thereafter his friend John McNairy helped him get appointed as a prosecuting attorney in the Western District of North Carolina 27 which would later become the state of Tennessee While traveling to assume his new position Jackson stopped in Jonesborough While there he bought his first slave a woman who was around his age 28 He also fought his first duel accusing another lawyer Waightstill Avery of impugning his character The duel ended with both men firing in the air 29 Jackson began his new career in the frontier town of Nashville in 1788 and quickly moved up in social status 30 He became a protege of William Blount one of the most powerful men in the territory 31 Jackson was appointed attorney general in 1791 and judge advocate for the militia the following year 32 He also got involved in land speculation 33 eventually forming a partnership with fellow lawyer John Overton 34 Their partnership mainly dealt with claims made under a land grab act of 1783 that opened Cherokee and Chickasaw territory to North Carolina s white residents 35 While boarding at the home of Rachel Stockly Donelson the widow of John Donelson Jackson became acquainted with their daughter Rachel Donelson Robards The younger Rachel was in an unhappy marriage with Captain Lewis Robards and the two were separated by 1789 36 After the separation Jackson and Rachel became romantically involved 37 living together as husband and wife 38 Robards petitioned for divorce which was granted on the basis of Rachel s infidelity 39 The couple legally married in January 1794 40 In 1796 they acquired their first plantation Hunter s Hill 41 on 640 acres 260 ha of land near Nashville 42 Early public career Jackson became a member of the Democratic Republican Party the dominant party in Tennessee 31 He was elected as a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention in 1796 43 When Tennessee achieved statehood that year he was elected to be its U S representative In Congress Jackson argued against the Jay Treaty criticized George Washington for allegedly removing Democratic Republicans from public office and joined several other Democratic Republican congressmen in voting against a resolution of thanks for Washington 44 He advocated for the right of Tennesseans to militarily oppose Native American interests 45 The state legislature elected him to be a U S senator in 1797 but he resigned after serving only six months 46 Upon returning to Tennessee Jackson was elected as a judge of the Tennessee superior court 47 48 In 1802 he also became major general or commander of the Tennessee militia a position that was determined by a vote of the militia s officers The vote was tied between Jackson and John Sevier a popular Revolutionary War veteran and former governor but the current state governor Archibald Roane broke the tie in Jackson s favor Jackson later accused Sevier of fraud and bribery 49 Sevier responded by impugning Rachel s honor resulting in a shootout on a public street 50 Soon afterwards they met to duel but parted without having fired at each other 51 Planting career and slavery Photograph of Aaron and Hannah Jackson by Theodore Schleier 1865 the Hermitage Tennessee Aaron and Hannah were African American slaves owned by Andrew Jackson Jackson resigned his judgeship in 1804 52 He had almost gone bankrupt when the credit he used for land speculation collapsed in the wake of an earlier financial panic 53 He had to sell Hunters Hill as well as 25 000 acres 10 000 ha of land he bought for speculation and bought a smaller 420 acre 170 ha plantation near Nashville that he would call the Hermitage 54 He focused on recovering from his losses by becoming a successful planter and merchant 54 The Hermitage would grow to 1 000 acres 400 ha 55 making it one of the largest cotton growing plantations in the state 52 Like most planters in the Southern United States Jackson used slave labor In 1804 Jackson had nine African American slaves by 1820 he had over 100 and by his death in 1845 he had over 150 56 Over his lifetime he owned a total of 300 slaves 57 Jackson subscribed to the paternalistic idea of slavery which claimed that slave ownership was morally acceptable as long as slaves were treated with humanity and their basic needs were cared for 58 In practice slaves were treated as a form of wealth whose productivity needed to be protected 59 Slaves who disobeyed or ran away could be harshly punished 60 For example in an 1804 advertisement to recover a runaway slave Jackson offered ten dollars extra for every hundred lashes any person will give him to the amount of three hundred 61 Jackson also participated in the local slave trade 62 Over time his accumulation of wealth in both slaves and land placed him among the elite families of Tennessee 63 Duel with Dickinson and adventure with Burr In May 1806 Jackson fought a duel with Charles Dickinson They had gotten into an argument over a horse race and Dickinson allegedly uttered a slur against Rachel 50 During the duel Dickinson fired first and the bullet hit Jackson in the chest The wound was not life threatening because the bullet had shattered against his breastbone 64 Jackson returned fire and killed Dickinson The killing tarnished Jackson s reputation 65 Later in the year Jackson became involved in former vice president Aaron Burr s plan to conquer Spanish Florida and drive the Spanish from Texas Jackson had first gotten to know Burr in 1805 when he stayed with the Jacksons at the Hermitage during a tour of what was then the Western United States that he had embarked on after mortally wounding Alexander Hamilton in the Burr Hamilton duel 66 Burr eventually persuaded Jackson to join his adventure In October 1806 Jackson wrote James Winchester that the United States can conquer not only the Floridas at that time there was an East Florida and a West Florida but all Spanish North America 67 He informed the Tennessee militia that it should be ready to march at a moment s notice when the government and constituted authority of our country require it 68 and agreed to provide boats and provisions for the expedition 66 Jackson sent a letter to president Thomas Jefferson telling him that Tennessee was ready to defend the nation s honor 69 Jackson also expressed uncertainty about the enterprise He warned the Governor of Louisiana William Claiborne and Tennessee Senator Daniel Smith that some of the people involved in the adventure might be intending to break away from the United States 70 In December Jefferson ordered Burr to be arrested for treason 66 Jackson safe from arrest because of his extensive paper trail organized the militia to capture the conspirators 71 Jackson testified before a grand jury at Burr s trial in 1807 implying that it was Burr s associate James Wilkinson who was guilty of treason not Burr Burr was acquitted of the charges 72 Military careerMilitary campaigns of Andrew Jackson General Andrew Jackson by John Wesley Jarvis c 1819 Metropolitan Museum of Art New York Interactive fullscreen map Creek War War of 1812 First Seminole WarWar of 1812 Creek War Main article Creek War On June 18 1812 the United States declared war on the United Kingdom 73 The causes of the War of 1812 were primarily about maritime issues 74 but for the white settlers on the southern frontier the war provided an opportunity to prevent continued Native American resistance to settlement on their lands and to undermine British support of the Native American tribes 75 and to pry Florida from the Spanish 76 Jackson immediately offered to raise volunteers for the war but he was not called to duty until after the United States military was repeatedly defeated in the American Northwest After these defeats in January 1813 Jackson enlisted over 2 000 volunteers 77 who were ordered to head to New Orleans to defend against a British attack 78 79 80 81 When his forces arrived at Natchez they were ordered to halt by General Wilkinson the commander at New Orleans and the man Jackson accused of treason after the Burr adventure A little later Jackson received a letter from the Secretary of War John Armstrong stating that his volunteers were not needed 15 and that they were to be disbanded and any supplies were to be handed over to Wilkinson 82 Jackson refused to disband his troops instead he led them on the difficult march back to Nashville earning the nickname Hickory later Old Hickory for his toughness 83 After returning to Nashville Jackson and one of his colonels John Coffee got into a street brawl over honor with the brothers Jesse and Thomas Hart Benton Nobody was killed but Jackson received a gunshot in the shoulder that nearly killed him 84 Jackson had not fully recovered from his wounds when Governor Blount called out the militia in September 1813 following the August Fort Mims Massacre 85 The Red Sticks a confederate faction that had allied with Tecumseh a Shawnee chief who was fighting with the British against the United States killed about 250 militia men and civilians at Fort Mims in retaliation for an ambush by American militia at Burnt Corn Creek 86 87 Jackson s objective was to destroy the Red Sticks 88 He headed south from Fayetteville Tennessee in October with 2 500 militia establishing Fort Strother as his supply base 89 He sent his cavalry under General Coffee ahead of the main force destroying Red Stick villages and capturing supplies 90 91 On November 3 Coffee defeated a band of Red Sticks at the Battle of Tallushatchee Later in the month Jackson defeated another band of Red Sticks who were besieging Creek allies at the Battle of Talladega 92 By January 1814 the expiration of enlistments and desertion had reduced Jackson s force by about 1 000 volunteers and Creek allies 93 Even with this reduced force Jackson continued the offensive 94 The Red Sticks counterattacked at the Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek Though outnumbered Jackson repelled the attacks but he was forced to withdraw to Fort Strother 95 After Jackson s army was reinforced by further recruitment including a regular army unit the 39th U S Infantry Regiment under the command of Colonel John Williams 94 their combined forces confronted the Red Sticks at a fort they had constructed at a bend in the Tallapoosa River The Battle of Horseshoe Bend was fought on March 27 Jackson s forces including Cherokee Choctaw and Creek allies numbered over 3 000 men the Red Sticks had about 1 000 96 97 The Red Sticks were overwhelmed and massacred Over 800 Red Sticks were killed 98 and nearly 300 Red Stick women and children were taken prisoner and distributed to Jackson s Native American allies 99 After the Battle of Horseshoe Bend the power of the Red Sticks was broken 100 Jackson continued his scorched earth campaign of burning villages destroying supplies 100 and starving Red Stick women and children 101 The campaign ended when Weatherford surrendered 102 although some Red Sticks including McQueen fled to East Florida 103 On June 8 Jackson was appointed a brigadier general in the United States Army and 10 days later was made a brevet major general with command of the Seventh Military District which included Tennessee Louisiana the Mississippi Territory and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy 104 With President James Madison s approval Jackson imposed the Treaty of Fort Jackson The treaty required all Creek including those who had remained allies to surrender 23 000 000 acres 9 300 000 ha of land to the United States 105 Jackson then turned his attention to the British and Spanish He moved his forces to Mobile Alabama in August He accused the Spanish governor of West Florida Mateo Gonzalez Manrique of arming the Red Sticks and threatened to attack The governor responded by inviting the British to land at Pensacola to defend it which violated Spanish neutrality 106 The British attempted to capture Mobile but their invasion fleet was repulsed at Fort Bowyer located at the mouth of Mobile Bay 107 Jackson then invaded Florida defeating the Spanish and British forces at the Battle of Pensacola on November 7 108 Afterwards the Spanish surrendered and the British withdrew Weeks later Jackson learned that the British were planning an attack on New Orleans which was the gateway to the Lower Mississippi River and control of the American West 109 He evacuated Pensacola strengthened the garrison at Mobile 110 and led his troops to New Orleans 111 Battle of New Orleans Main article Battle of New Orleans Jackson arrived in New Orleans on December 1 1814 112 There he instituted martial law because he worried about the loyalty of the city s Creole and Spanish inhabitants He augmented his force by forming an alliance with Jean Lafitte s smugglers and raising units of free African Americans and Creek 113 paying non white volunteers the same salary as whites 114 This gave Jackson a force of about 5 000 men when the British arrived 115 The Battle of New Orleans by Edward Percy Moran 1910 The British arrived in New Orleans in mid December 116 Admiral Cochrane was the overall commander of the operation 117 General Edward Pakenham commanded the army of 10 000 soldiers many of whom had served in the Napoleonic Wars 118 As the British advanced up the east bank of the Mississippi River Jackson constructed a fortified position to block them 119 The climactic battle took place on January 8 when the British launched a frontal assault Their troops made easy targets for the Americans protected by their parapets and the attack ended in disaster 120 General Packenham was killed and the British suffered over 2 000 casualties the Americans had suffered about 60 casualties 121 The British decamped from New Orleans at the end of January but they still remained a threat 122 Jackson refused to lift martial law and kept the militia under arms He approved the execution of six militiamen for desertion 123 Some Creoles registered as French citizens with the French consul and demanded to be discharged from the militia due to their foreign nationality Jackson then ordered all French citizens to leave the city within three days 124 and had a member of the Louisiana legislature Louis Louaillier arrested when he wrote a newspaper article criticizing Jackson s continuation of martial law U S District Court Judge Dominic A Hall signed a writ of habeas corpus for Louailler s release Jackson had Hall arrested too A military court ordered Louiallier s release but Jackson kept him in prison and evicted Hall from the city 125 Although Jackson lifted martial law when he received official word that the Treaty of Ghent which ended the war with the British had been signed 126 his previous behavior tainted his reputation in New Orleans 127 Jackson s victory made him a national hero 128 and on February 27 1815 he was given the Thanks of Congress and awarded a Congressional Gold Medal 47 Though the Treaty of Ghent had been signed in December 1814 before the Battle of New Orleans was fought 129 Jackson s victory assured that the United States control of the region between Mobile and New Orleans would not be effectively contested by European powers This control allowed the American government to ignore one of the articles in the treaty which would have returned the Creek lands taken in the Treaty of Fort Jackson 130 First Seminole War Main article Seminole Wars First Seminole War Engraving of the trial of Robert Ambrister by William Croome in John Frost s Pictorial Life of Andrew Jackson c 1846 Following the war Jackson remained in command of troops in the southern half of the United States and was permitted to make his headquarters at the Hermitage 131 Jackson continued to displace the Native Americans in areas under his command Despite resistance from the Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford who tried to help the Native Americans retain their land Jackson signed five treaties between 1816 and 1820 including the Treaty of Tuscaloosa and the Treaty of Doak s Stand 132 in which the Creek Choctaw Cherokee and Chickasaw ceded tens of millions of acres of land to the United States 133 Jackson would soon find himself embroiled in conflict in the Floridas Fort Negro which the British had turned over to runaway slaves 134 had become a magnet for other runaways 134 that was seen as a threat to the property rights of slave owners 135 and a potential source of slave insurrection 136 Jackson ordered Colonel Duncan Clinch to capture the fort in July 1816 He destroyed the it and killed most of the garrison The survivors were returned to slavery 137 In addition White settlers were in constant conflict with Native American people collectively known as the Seminoles who straddled the border between the U S and Florida 138 In December 1817 Secretary of War John C Calhoun initiated what would be called the First Seminole War by ordering Jackson to lead a campaign with full power to conduct the war as he may think best 139 Jackson believed the best way to do this was to seize Florida from Spain once and for all Before departing Jackson wrote to President James Monroe Let it be signified to me through any channel that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States and in sixty days it will be accomplished 140 Jackson invaded Florida captured the Spanish fort of St Marks and occupied Pensacola Seminole and Spanish resistance was effectively ended by May 1818 He also captured two British agents Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot who had been working with the Seminoles After a brief trial Jackson executed both of them causing a diplomatic incident with the British Jackson s actions polarized Monroe s cabinet The occupied territories were returned to Spain 141 Calhoun wanted him censured for violating the Constitution since the United States had not declared war on Spain Secretary of State John Quincy Adams defended him as he thought Jackson s occupation of Pensacola would lead Spain to sell Florida which Spain did in the Adams Onis Treaty of 1819 142 In February 1819 a congressional investigation exonerated Jackson 143 and his victory was instrumental in convincing the Seminoles to sign Treaty of Moultrie Creek in 1823 which surrendered much of their land in Florida 144 Presidential aspirationsElection of 1824 Main article 1824 United States presidential election Painting of Jackson by Thomas Sully 1824 In 1819 mismanagement by the Second Bank of the United States created a financial panic that sent the U S into its first prolonged financial depression The United States reduced its military and Jackson was forced to retire from his major general position 145 In compensation Monroe made him the first territorial governor of Florida in 1821 146 Jackson served as the governor for two months returning to the Hermitage in ill health 147 During his convalescence Jackson who had been a Freemason since at least 1798 became the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Tennessee for 1822 1823 148 Around this time he also completed negotiations for Tennessee to purchase Chickasaw lands This became known as the Jackson Purchase Jackson Overton and another colleague had speculated in some of the land and used their portion to found the town of Memphis 149 In 1822 Jackson accepted a plan by Overton to nominate him as a candidate for the 1824 presidential election and he was nominated by the Tennessee legislature in July 150 At the time the Federalist Party had collapsed and there were four major contenders for the Democratic Republican Party nomination William Crawford John Quincy Adams Henry Clay and John C Calhoun Jackson was intended to be a stalking horse candidate to prevent Tennessee s electoral votes from going to Crawford who was seen as a Washington insider Unexpectedly Jackson garnered popular support outside of Tennessee and became a serious candidate 145 He benefited from the expansion of suffrage among white males that followed the conclusion of the War of 1812 151 152 He was a popular war hero whose reputation suggested he had the decisiveness and independence to bring change to how the government was run 153 He also was promoted as a Washington outsider who stood for all the people blaming banks for the country s depression 154 During his presidential candidacy Jackson relunctantly ran for one of Tennessee s U S Senate seats William Berkeley Lewis and the other U S senator John Eaton who were Jackson s political managers convinced him that he needed to defeat incumbent John Williams who openly opposed Jackson The legislature elected him in October 1823 155 156 Jackson was attentive to his senatorial duties He was appointed chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs but avoided debate or initiating legislation 157 He used his time in the Senate to form alliances and make peace with old adversaries 158 Eaton continued to campaign for Jackson s presidency updating his biography and writing letters under a pseudonym that were quoted in newspapers around the country and so popular that they were reprinted in pamphlet form Jackson himself had a part in their composition 159 1824 election results Democratic Republican presidential nominees had historically been chosen by informal congressional nominating caucuses In 1824 most of the Democratic Republicans in Congress boycotted the caucus 160 and the power to choose nominees was shifting to state nominating committees and legislatures 161 Jackson was nominated by a Pennsylvania convention making him not merely a regional candidate from the west but the leading national contender 162 When Jackson won the Pennsylvania nomination Calhoun dropped out of the presidential race 163 Afterwards Jackson won the nomination in six other states and had a strong second place finish in three others 164 In the presidential election Jackson won a plurality of the popular vote receiving 42 percent More importantly he won a plurality of electoral votes receiving 99 votes from states in the South West and Mid Atlantic He was the only candidate to win states outside of his regional base Adams dominated New England Crawford won Virginia and Georgia and Clay took three western states Because no candidate had a majority of 131 of electoral votes the House of Representatives held a contingent election under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment The amendment specifies that only the top three electoral vote winners are eligible to be elected by the House so Clay was eliminated from contention 165 Clay who was also Speaker of the House and presided over the election s resolution saw a Jackson presidency as a disaster for the country 166 Clay threw his support behind Adams who won the contingent election on the first ballot Adams appointed Clay as his Secretary of State leading supporters of Jackson to accuse Clay and Adams of having struck a corrupt bargain 167 After the Congressional session concluded Jackson resigned his Senate seat and returned to Tennessee 168 Election of 1828 and death of Rachel Jackson Main articles 1828 United States presidential election and Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign After the election Jackson s supporters formed a new party to undermine Adams and ensure he served only one term Adams presidency went poorly and Adam s behavior undermined it He was perceived as an intellectual elite who ignored the needs of the populace He was unable to accomplish anything because Congress blocked his proposals 169 In his First Annual Message to Congress Adams stated that we are palsied by the will of our constituents which was interpreted as his being against representative democracy 170 Jackson responded by championing the needs of ordinary citizens and declaring that the voice of the people must be heard 171 1828 election results Jackson was nominated for president by the Tennessee legislature in October 1825 more than three years before the 1828 election 172 He gained powerful supporters in both the south and north including Calhoun who became Jackson s vice presidential running mate and New York Senator Martin Van Buren 173 Meanwhile Adams s support from the Southern states was eroded when he signed a tax on European imports the Tariff of 1828 which was called the Tariff of Abominations by opponents into law 171 Jackson s victory in the presidential race was overwhelming He won 56 percent of the popular vote and 68 percent of the electoral vote The election ended the one party system that had formed during the Era of Good Feelings as Jackson s supporters coalesced into the Democratic Party and the various groups who did not support him eventually formed the Whig Party 174 The political campaign was dominated by the personal abuse that partisans flung at both candidates 175 Jackson was accused of being the son of an English prostitute and a mulatto 176 177 and he was labeled a slave trader who trafficked in human flesh 178 A series of pamphlets known as the Coffin Handbills 179 accused him of having murdered 18 white men including the soldiers he had executed for desertion and alleging that he stabbed a man in the back with his cane 180 181 They stated that he had intentionally massacred Native American women and children at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend ate the bodies of Native Americans he killed in battle 182 183 and threatened to cut off the ears of congressmen who questioned his behavior during the First Seminole War 184 Jackson and Rachel were accused of adultery for living together before her divorce was finalized 185 and Rachel heard about the accusation 186 She had been under stress throughout the election and just as Jackson was preparing to head to Washington for his inauguration she fell ill 187 She did not live to see her husband become president dying of a stroke or heart attack a few days later and was buried on Christmas Eve 186 Jackson believed that the abuse from Adams supporters had hastened her death stating at her funeral May God Almighty forgive her murderers as I know she forgave them I never can 188 Presidency 1829 1837 Main article Presidency of Andrew Jackson Engraving of President Jackson by A H Ritchie after painting by D M Carter c 1860 Inauguration Main article First inauguration of Andrew Jackson Jackson arrived in Washington on February 11 His first concern was forming his cabinet 189 He chose Van Buren as Secretary of State his friend John Eaton as Secretary of War Samuel D Ingham as Secretary of Treasury John Branch as Secretary of Navy John M Berrien as Attorney General and William T Barry as Postmaster General 190 Jackson was inaugurated on March 4 1829 becoming the first president elect to take the oath of office on the East Portico of the U S Capitol 191 Embittered by his defeat Adams refused to attend 192 In his inaugural address Jackson promised to protect the sovereignty of the states respect the limits of the presidency reform the government by removing disloyal or incompetent appointees and observe a fair policy toward Native Americans 193 Jackson invited the public to the White House which was promptly overrun by well wishers who caused minor damage to its furnishings The spectacle earned him the nickname King Mob 194 Reforms and rotation in office Further information Spoils system Jackson s administration believed that Adams s had been corrupt and one of Jackson s first acts as president was to initiate investigations into all executive departments 195 The investigations revealed that 280 000 equivalent to equivalent to 7 100 000 in 2021 today was stolen from the Treasury and the reduction in costs to the Department of the Navy saved it 1 million equivalent to 25 400 000 in 2021 196 One of the people caught in his investigation was the Treasury Auditor Tobias Watkins a personal friend of Adams who was found guilty of embezzlement 197 196 In the first year of his term Jackson asked Congress to tighten laws on embezzlement revise laws to reduce tax evasion and pushed for an improved government accounting system 198 Jackson implemented a principle he called rotation in office by enforcing the Tenure of Office Act signed by President Monroe in 1820 that limited appointed office tenure and authorized the president to remove and appoint political party associates The previous custom had been for the president to leave the existing appointees in office replacing them through attrition 199 During his first year in office Jackson removed hundreds of federal officials which was about 10 of all Federal employees 199 and replaced them with loyal Democrats 200 He argued that rotation in office was a democratic reform that reduced bureaucracy and corruption 201 by preventing hereditary officeholding and made officeholders responsible to the popular will 202 but it functioned as political patronage which came to be known as the spoils system 203 201 Petticoat affair Main article Petticoat affair Lithograph cartoon The Celeste al Cabinet by Albert A Hoffay published by H R Robinson 1836 Illustrates Jackson s cabinet during the Petticoat Affair Celeste is Margaret Eaton Jackson spent much of his time during his first two and a half years in office dealing with what came to be known as the Petticoat Affair or Eaton Affair 204 205 The affair focused on Secretary of War Eaton s wife Margaret She had a reputation for being promiscuous and like Rachel Jackson she was accused of adultery She and Eaton had been close before her first husband John Timberlake died and they married nine months after his death 206 With the exception of Barry s wife Catherine 207 the cabinet members wives followed the lead of Vice president Calhoun s wife Floride and refused to socialize with the Eatons 208 Though Jackson defended Margaret her presence split the cabinet which had been so ineffective that he rarely called it into session 190 and the ongoing disagreement led to its dissolution 209 In the spring of 1831 Jackson demanded the resignations of all the cabinet members except Barry 210 who would resign in 1835 when a Congressional investigation revealed his mismanagement of the Post Office 211 Jackson tried to compensate Van Buren by appointing him the Minister to Great Britain but Calhoun blocked the nomination with a tie breaking vote against it 210 Van Buren along with Amos Kendall who helped organize what would become the Democratic Party 212 and Francis Preston Blair the editor of The Globe newspaper that served as Jackson s house organ 213 would become regular participants in Jackson s Kitchen Cabinet an unofficial varying group of advisors that Jackson turned to for decision making even after he had formed a new official cabinet 214 Indian Removal Act Further information Indian removal Indian Removal Act and Trail of Tears The Indian Removal Act and treaties involving Jackson before his presidency displaced most of the major tribes of the Southeast from their traditional territories east of the Mississippi Jackson s presidency marked the beginning of a national policy of Native American removal 210 Before Jackson took office the relationship between the southern states and the Native American tribes who lived within their boundaries was strained The states felt that they had full jurisdiction over their territories the native tribes saw themselves as autonomous nations that had a right to the land they lived on 216 Significant portions of the five major tribes in the Southwest the Cherokee Choctaw Chickasaw Creek and Seminoles began to adopt white culture including education agricultural techniques a road system and rudimentary manufacturing 217 In the case of the tensions between the state of Georgia and the Cherokee Adams had tried to address the issue encouraging Cherokee emigration west of the Mississippi through financial incentives but most refused 218 In the first days of Jackson s presidency some of the southern states had passed legislation extending state jurisdiction to Native American lands 219 Jackson supported the states right to do so 220 221 His position was later made clear in the 1832 Supreme Court test case of this legislation Worcester v Georgia Georgia had arrested a group of missionaries for entering Cherokee territory without a permit the Cherokee declared these arrests illegal The court under Chief Justice John Marshall decided in favor of the Cherokee imposition of Georgia law on the Cherokee was unconstitutional 222 Horace Greeley alleges that when Jackson heard the ruling he said Well John Marshall has made his decision but now let him enforce it 223 Although the quote may be apocryphal Jackson made it clear he would not use the federal government to enforce the ruling 224 225 226 Jackson used the power of the federal government to enforce the separation of the Native American tribes and whites 227 In May 1830 Jackson passed the Indian Removal Act through Congress 228 It gave the president the right to negotiate treaties to buy tribal lands in the eastern part of the United States in exchange for lands set aside for Native Americans west of the Mississippi 229 as well as broad discretion on how to use the federal funds allocated to the negotiations 230 The law was supposed to be a voluntary relocation program but it was not implemented as one Jackson s administration often achieved agreement to relocate through bribes fraud and intimidation 231 and the leaders who signed the treaties often did not represent the entire tribe 232 The relocations could be a source of misery too the Choctaw relocation was rife with corruption theft and mismanagement that brought great suffering to that people 233 Portrait of Jackson by Ralph E W Earl c 1830 North Carolina Museum of Art In 1830 Jackson personally negotiated with the Chickasaw who quickly agreed to move 234 In the same year Choctaw leaders signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek the majority did not want the treaty but complied with its terms 235 In 1832 Seminole leaders signed the Treaty of Payne s Landing which stipulated that the Seminoles would move west and become part of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy if they found the new land suitable 236 Most Seminoles refused to move leading to the Second Seminole War in 1835 that lasted six years 232 Members of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy ceded their land to the state of Alabama in the Treaty of Cusseta of 1832 Their private ownership of the land was to be protected but the federal government did not enforce this The government did encourage voluntary removal until the Creek War of 1836 after which almost all Creek were removed to Oklahoma territory 237 In 1836 Cherokee leaders ceded their land to the government by the Treaty of New Echota 238 Their removal known as the Trail of Tears was enforced by Jackson s successor Van Buren 239 Jackson also applied the removal policy in the Northwest He was not successful in removing the Iroquois Confederacy in New York but when some members of the Meskwaki Fox and the Sauk triggered the Black Hawk War by trying to cross back to the east side of the Mississippi the peace treaties ratified after their defeat reduced their lands further 240 During his administration he made about 70 treaties with American Indian tribes He had removed almost all the Native Americans east of the Mississippi and south of Lake Michigan about 70 000 people from the United States 241 though it was done at the cost of thousands of Native American lives lost because of the unsanitary conditions and epidemics arising from their dislocation as well as their resistance to expulsion 242 Jackson s implementation of the Indian Removal Act contributed to his popularity with his constituency He added over 170 000 square miles of land to the public domain which primarily benefited the United States agricultural interests The act also benefited small farmers as Jackson allowed them to purchase moderate plots at low prices and offered squatters on land formerly belonging to Native Americans the option to purchase it before it was offered for sale to others 243 Nullification crisis Main article Nullification crisis Civil War era lithograph cartoon of Calhoun bowing before Jackson during the nullification crisis by Pendleton s Lithography and published by L Prang amp Co 1864 Jackson had to confront another challenge that had been building up since the beginning of his first term The Tariff of 1828 which had been passed in the last year of Adams administration set a protective tariff at a very high rate to prevent the manufacturing industries in the Northern states from having to compete with lower priced imports from Britain 244 The tariff reduced the income of southern cotton planters it propped up consumer prices but not the price of cotton which had severely declined in the previous decade 245 Immediately after the tariff s passage the South Carolina Exposition and Protest was sent to the U S Senate 246 This document which had been anonymously written by John C Calhoun asserted that the constitution was a compact of individual states 247 and when the federal government went beyond its delegated duties such as enacting a protective tariff a state had a right to declare this action unconstitutional and make the act null and void with the borders of that state 248 Jackson suspected Calhoun of writing the Exposition and Protest and opposed his interpretation Jackson argued that Congress as a whole had full authority to enact tariffs and that a dissenting state was denying the will of the majority 249 He also needed the tariff which generated 90 of the federal revenue 250 to achieve another of his presidential goals eliminating the national debt 251 The issue developed into a personal rivalry between the two men For example during a celebration of Thomas Jefferson s birthday on April 13 1830 the attendees gave after dinner toasts Jackson toasted Our federal Union It must be preserved a clear challenge to nullification Calhoun whose toast immediately followed rebutted The Union Next to our Liberty the most dear 252 As a compromise Jackson supported the Tariff of 1832 which reduced the duties from the Tariff of 1828 by almost half The bill was signed on July 9 but failed to satisfy extremists on either side 253 On November 24 South Carolina had passed the Ordinance of Nullification 254 declaring both tariffs null and void and threatening to secede from the United States if the federal government tried to use force to collect the duties 255 256 In response Jackson sent warships to Charleston harbor and threatened to hang any man who worked to support nullification or secession 257 On December 10 Jackson issued a proclamation against the nullifiers 258 stating that he considered the power to annul a law of the United States assumed by one State incompatible with the existence of the Union contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution unauthorized by its spirit inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded and destructive of the great object for which it was formed South Carolina the president declared stood on the brink of insurrection and treason and he appealed to the people of the state to reassert their allegiance to that Union Jackson also denied the right of secession The Constitution forms a government not a league To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States are not a nation 259 On December 28 Calhoun who had been elected to the U S Senate resigned as vice president 260 Jackson asked Congress to pass a Force Bill authorizing the military to enforce the tariff It was attacked by Calhoun as despotism 261 Meanwhile Calhoun and Clay began to work on a new compromise tariff Jackson saw it as an effective way to end the confrontation but insisted on the passage of the Force Bill before he signed 262 On March 2 he signed into law the Force Bill and the Tariff of 1833 both of which passed on March 1 1833 The South Carolina Convention then met and rescinded its nullification ordinance but nullified the Force Bill in a final act of defiance 263 Two months later Jackson reflected on South Carolina s nullification the tariff was only the pretext and disunion and southern confederacy the real object The next pretext will be the negro or slavery question 264 Bank War and Election of 1832 Main articles Bank War and Banking in the Jacksonian Era Bank Veto Lithograph cartoon of Jackson destroying the Second Bank of the United States with his Removal Notice by Zachariah Downing published by H R Robinson c 1833 Nicholas Biddle is portrayed as the devil A few weeks after his inauguration Jackson started looking into how he could replace the Second Bank of the United States 265 The Bank had been chartered by President Madison in 1816 to restore the United States economy after the War of 1812 Monroe had appointed Nicholas Biddle as the Bank s executive 266 The Bank was a repository for the country s public monies which also serviced the national debt it was formed as a for profit entity that looked after the concerns of its shareholders 267 Under the Bank s stewardship the country was economically healthy 268 and the currency was stable 269 but Jackson saw the Bank as a fourth branch of government run by an elite 265 what he called the money power that sought to control the labor and earnings of the real people who depend on their own efforts to succeed the planters farmers mechanics and laborers 270 Additionally Jackson s own near bankruptcy in 1804 due to credit fuelled land speculation had biased him against paper money and toward a policy favorable to hard money 271 In his First Annual Address in December 1829 Jackson openly challenged the Bank by questioning its constitutionality and the soundness of its money 272 Jackson s supporters further alleged that it gave preferential loans to speculators and merchants over artisans and farmers that it used its money to bribe congressmen and the press and that it had ties with foreign creditors Biddle responded to Jackson s challenge in early 1830 by using the Bank s vast financial holding to ensure the Bank s reputation and his supporters argued that the Bank was the key to prosperity and stable commerce By the time of the 1832 election Biddle had spent over 250 000 equivalent to 6 785 800 in 2021 in printing pamphlets lobbying for pro Bank legislation hiring agents and giving loans to editors and congressmen 273 On the surface Jackson s and Biddle s positions did not appear irreconcilable Jackson seemed open to keeping the Bank if it could include some degree of Federal oversight limit its real estate holdings and have its property subject to taxation by the states 274 Many of Jackson s cabinet members thought a compromise was possible In 1831 Treasury Secretary Louis McLane told Biddle that Jackson was open to chartering a modified version of the Bank but Biddle did not consult Jackson directly Privately Jackson expressed opposition to the Bank 275 publicly he announced that he would leave the decision concerning the Bank in the hands of the people 276 Biddle was finally convinced to take open action by Henry Clay who had decided to run for president against Jackson in the 1832 election Biddle would agree to seek renewal of the charter two years earlier than scheduled Clay argued that Jackson was in a bind If he vetoed the charter he would loose the votes of his pro Bank constituents in Pennsylvania but if he signed the charter he would lose his anti Bank constituents After the recharter bill was passed Jackson vetoed it on July 10 1832 arguing that the country should not surrender the will of the majority to the desires of the wealthy 277 Election of 1832 Main article 1832 United States presidential election 1832 election results The 1832 presidential election demonstrated the rapid development of political parties during Jackson s presidency The Democratic Party s first national convention held in Baltimore nominated Jackson s choice for vice president Martin Van Buren The National Republican Party which had held its first convention in Baltimore earlier in December 1831 nominated Clay now a senator from Kentucky and John Sergeant of Pennsylvania 278 An Anti Masonic Party with a platform built around opposition to Freemasonry 279 it supported neither Jackson nor Clay who both were Masons The party nominated William Wirt of Maryland and Amos Ellmaker of Pennsylvania 280 In addition to the votes Jackson would lose because of the Bank veto Clay hoped that Jackson s Indian Removal Act would alienate voters in the East but Jackson s losses were offset by the Act s popularity in the West and Southwest Clay had also expected that Jackson would lose votes because of his stand on internal improvements 281 Jackson had vetoed the Maysville Road bill which funded an upgrade of a section of the National Road in Clay s state of Kentucky as part of his justification Jackson claimed it was unconstitutional to fund internal improvements using national funds for local projects 282 Clay s strategy failed Jackson was able to mobilize the Democratic Party s strong political networks 283 The Northeast supported Jackson because he was in favor of maintaining a stiff tariff the West supported him because the Indian Removal Act reduced the number of Native Americans in the region and made available more public land 284 Except for South Carolina which passed the Ordinance of Nullification during the election month and refused to support any party by giving its votes to the future Governor of Virginia John B Floyd 285 the South supported Jackson for implementing the Indian Removal Act as well as for his willingness to compromise by signing the Tariff of 1832 286 Jackson won the election by a landslide receiving 55 percent of the popular vote and 219 electoral votes 283 Removal of deposits and censure Lithograph cartoon of King Andrew the First by an anonymous artist c 1832 Jackson saw his victory as a mandate to continue his war on the Bank s control over the national economy 287 In 1833 Jackson signed an executive order ending the deposit of Treasury receipts in the bank 288 When Secretary of the Treasury McLane refused to execute the order Jackson replaced him with William J Duane who also refused Jackson then appointed Roger B Taney as acting secretary who implemented Jackson s policy 289 With the loss of federal deposits the Bank had to contract its credit 290 Biddle used this contraction to create an economic downturn in an attempt to get Jackson to compromise Biddle wrote Nothing but the evidence of suffering abroad will produce any effect in Congress 291 The attempt did not succeed the economy recovered and Biddle was blamed for the recession 292 Jackson s actions led those who disagreed with him to form the Whig Party They claimed to oppose Jackson s expansion of executive power calling him King Andrew the First and naming their party after the English Whigs who opposed the British monarchy in the 17th century 293 In March 1832 the Senate censured Jackson for inappropriately taking authority for the Treasury Department when it was the responsibility of Congress and refused to confirm Taney s appointment as secretary of the treasury 294 In April however the House declared that the bank should not be rechartered By July 1836 the Bank no longer held any federal deposits 295 Jackson had Federal funds deposited into state banks friendly to the administration s policies which critics called pet banks 296 The number of these state banks more than doubled during Jackson s administration 289 and investment patterns changed The Bank which had been the federal government s fiscal agent invested heavily in trade and financed interregional and international trade State banks were more responsive to state governments and invested heavily in land development land speculation and state public works projects 297 In spite of the efforts of Taney s successor Levi Woodbury to control them the pet banks expanded their loans helping to create a speculative boom in the final years of Jackson s administration 298 In January 1835 Jackson paid off the national debt the only time in U S history that it had been accomplished 299 300 It was paid down through tariff revenues 283 carefully managing federal funding of internal improvements like roads and canals 301 and the sale of public lands 302 Between 1834 and 1836 the government had unprecedented spike in land sales 303 At its peak in 1836 the profits from land sales were eight to twelve times higher than a typical year 304 During Jackson s presidency 63 million acres of public land about the size of the state of Oklahoma was sold 305 After Jackson stepped down from the presidency in 1837 a Democrat majority Senate expunged Jackson s censure 306 307 Panic of 1837 Main article Panic of 1837 Lithograph cartoon of the Panic of 1837 published by H R Robinson 1837 Jackson is symbolized by Glory in the sky with top hat spectacles and pipe Despite the economic boom following Jackson s victory in the Bank War land speculation in the west caused the Panic of 1837 308 Jackson s transfer of federal monies to state banks in 1833 caused western banks to relax their lending standards 309 the Indian Removal Act made large amounts of former Native American lands available for purchase and speculation 310 Two of Jackson s acts in 1836 contributed to the Panic of 1837 One was the Specie Circular which mandated western lands only be purchased by money backed by specie The act was intended to stabilize the economy by reducing speculation on credit but it caused a drain of gold and silver from the Eastern banks to the Western banks to address the needs of financing land transactions 311 The other was the Deposit and Distribution Act which transferred federal monies from eastern to western state banks Together they left Eastern banks unable to pay specie to the British when they recalled their loans to address their economic problems in international trade 312 The panic drove the U S economy into a depression that lasted until 1841 308 Physical assault and assassination attempt Lithograph of attempted assassination of Andrew Jackson published by Endicott amp Co 1835 Jackson was the first president to be subjected to physical assault as well an assassination attempt 313 On May 6 1833 Robert B Randolph struck Jackson in the face with his hand because Jackson had ordered Randolph s dismissal from the navy for embezzlement Jackson declined to press charges 314 While leaving the United States Capitol on January 30 1835 Richard Lawrence an unemployed house painter from England aimed a pistol at Jackson which misfired Lawrence pulled out a second pistol which also misfired Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane until others intervened to restrain Lawrence who was later found not guilty by reason of insanity and institutionalized 315 316 Slavery During Jackson s presidency slavery remained a minor political issue 317 Though federal troops were used to crush Nat Turner s slave rebellion in 1831 318 Jackson ordered them withdrawn immediately afterwards despite the petition of local citizens for them to remain for protection 319 Jackson considered the issue too divisive to the nation and to the delicate alliances of the Democratic Party 320 while sympathetic newspapers argued for excluding slavery from federal politics and keeping it at the state level 321 Jackson s view was challenged when the American Anti Slavery Society formally agitated for abolition 322 by sending anti slavery tracts through the postal system into the South in 1835 320 Jackson condemned these agitators as monsters 323 who should atone with their lives 324 because they were attempting to destroy the Union by encouraging sectionalism 325 The act provoked riots in Charleston and pro slavery Southerners demanded that the postal service ban distribution of the materials To address the issue Jackson authorized that the tracts could be sent only to subscribers whose names could be made publicly accountable 326 That December Jackson called on Congress to prohibit the circulation through the South of incendiary publications intended to instigate the slaves to insurrection 327 There was a risk of slavery becoming a problem again after Van Buren s presidential nomination in 1835 when abolitionists stepped up their campaign to raise the question of slavery in Congress 328 Jackson saw these as election year attempts by Whigs to undermine the Democrats During the 1836 election year 329 the House addressed the issue by passing a gag rule which kept abolition from becoming a topic of debate Congress would receive documents regarding abolition but immediately table them without discussion The strategy worked the Democratic Party stayed united and Van Buren Jackson s chosen successor was successfully elected president in 1836 330 Foreign affairs Engraved portrait of Jackson as president by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing This portrait has appeared on the 20 bill since 1929 331 The Jackson administration successfully negotiated trade agreements with Great Britain Spain Russia the Ottoman Empire and Siam 332 In his First Annual Message to Congress Jackson addressed the issues of spoliation claims demands of compensation for the capture of American ships and sailors by foreign nations during the Napoleonic Wars 333 Using a combination of bluster and tact he successfully settled these claims with Denmark Portugal and Spain 332 but he had difficulty collecting spoliation claims from France which was unwilling to pay an indemnity agreed to in an earlier treaty Jackson asked Congress in 1834 to authorize reprisals against French property if the country failed to make payment as well as to arm for defense 333 In response France put its Caribbean fleet on a wartime footing 334 Both sides wanted to avoid a conflict but the French wanted an apology for Jackson s belligerence In his 1835 Annual Message to the Congress Jackson asserted that he refused to apologize but stated that he did not intend to menace or insult the Government of France 335 The French were assuaged and agreed to pay 5 000 000 equivalent to 131 338 700 in 2021 to settle the claims 336 Since the early 1820s large numbers of Americans had been immigrating into Texas a territory of the newly independent nation of Mexico 337 As early as 1824 Jackson had expressed a desire to acquire the region for the United States 338 In 1829 he attempted to purchase it but Mexico did not want to sell By 1830 there were twice as many settlers from the United States as from Mexico leading to tensions with the Mexican government that started the Texas Revolution During the conflict Jackson covertly allowed the settlers to obtain weapons and money from the United States 339 They defeated the Mexican military in April 1836 and soon afterward declared the region an independent country the Republic of Texas The new Republic asked Jackson to recognize and annex it Although Jackson wanted to do so he was hesitant because he was unsure it could maintain independence from Mexico 332 He also was concerned because Texas had legalized slavery which was an issue that could divide the Democrats during the 1836 election Jackson recognized the Republic of Texas on the last full day of his presidency March 3 1837 340 Judicial appointments Main article List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson Jackson appointed six justices to the Supreme Court 341 Most were undistinguished Jackson nominated Roger B Taney in January 1835 to the Court in reward for his services but the nomination failed to win Senate approval 342 When Chief Justice Marshall died in 1835 Jackson nominated Taney for Chief Justice he was confirmed by the new Senate 343 serving as Chief Justice until 1864 344 He was regarded with respect during his career on the bench but he is most remembered for his decision in Dred Scott v Sandford 345 States admitted to the Union Two new states were admitted into the Union during Jackson s presidency Arkansas June 15 1836 346 and Michigan January 26 1837 347 Both states increased Democratic power in Congress and helped Van Buren win the presidency in 1836 as new states tended to support the party that had done the most to admit them 348 Later life and death 1837 1845 Mezzotint of Jackson 1845 In 1837 Jackson retired to the Hermitage and immediately began putting its affairs in order as it had been poorly managed in his absence Though Jackson was in ill health and had lost some of his popularity because he was blamed for the Panic of 1837 he remained influential in national and state politics 349 Jackson supported an Independent Treasury system as a solution to the panic which would hold the money balances of the government in the form of gold or silver and would be restricted from printing paper money to prevent further inflation 350 This system was implemented in 1846 351 The depression still continued and Van Buren became unpopular The Whig Party nominated war hero William Henry Harrison and former Democrat John Tyler for the 1840 presidential election They used a campaign style similar to that of the Democrats Van Buren was depicted as an uncaring aristocrat while Harrison s war record was glorified and he was portrayed as a man of the people 352 Jackson campaigned loyally for Van Buren in Tennessee 353 He favored James K Polk as vice presidential candidate but no candidate for that office was chosen 354 To Jackson s dismay Harrison won the 1840 election with the Whigs capturing majorities in both houses of Congress 355 Harrison died only a month into his term and was replaced by Tyler Jackson was encouraged because Tyler was not bound to party loyalties Tyler angered the Whigs in 1841 when he vetoed two Whig sponsored bills to establish a new national bank Jackson and other Democrats praised Tyler 356 but Tyler s entire cabinet except Daniel Webster resigned 357 The tomb of Andrew and Rachel Jackson at the Hermitage designed by David Morrison 1832 Jackson lobbied for the annexation of Texas insisting that it belonged to the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase 358 He thought that annexation would cause national division over slavery but feared the British could use Texas as a base to threaten the United States 359 Jackson wrote several letters to Texas president Sam Houston urging him to wait for the Senate to approve annexation and explaining how much Texas would benefit as a part of the United States 360 Tyler signed a treaty of annexation in April 1844 but it became associated with the expansion of slavery and was not ratified Henry Clay the Whig nominee for the 1844 presidential election and Van Buren Jackson s preferred candidate for the Democratic Party both opposed annexation Disappointed by Van Buren Jackson convinced Polk who was to be Van Buren s running mate to run as the Democratic Party s presidential nominee instead Polk defeated Van Buren for the nomination and Jackson convinced Tyler not to run as an independent by bringing him back into the Democratic Party Polk won the election the Senate passed a bill to annex Texas and it was signed on March 1 1845 361 Jackson died of dropsy and heart failure 362 at 78 years of age on June 8 1845 He was surrounded by family and friends at his deathbed and his last words were Oh do not cry Be good children and we will all meet in Heaven 363 He was buried in the same tomb as his wife Rachel 364 Personal lifeFamily Jackson and Rachel had no children together but adopted Andrew Jackson Jr the son of Rachel s deceased brother Severn Donelson The Jacksons acted as guardians for Donelson s other children John Samuel Daniel Smith and Andrew Jackson They were also guardians for Andrew Jackson Hutchings Rachel s orphaned grand nephew and the orphaned children of a friend Edward Butler Caroline Eliza Edward and Anthony who lived with the Jacksons after their father died 365 Jackson also had three Creek children living with them Lyncoya a Creek orphan Jackson had adopted after the Battle of Tallushatchee 366 and two boys they called Theodore 367 and Charley 368 Jackson as a Tennessee Gentleman by Ralph E W Earl c 1831 the Hermitage Tennessee For the only time in U S history two women acted simultaneously as unofficial First Lady for the widower Jackson Rachel s niece Emily Donelson was married to Andrew Jackson Donelson who acted as Jackson s private secretary and served as hostess at the White House The president and Emily became estranged for over a year during the Petticoat affair but they eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess Sarah Yorke Jackson the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr became co hostess of the White House in 1834 and took over all hostess duties after Emily died from tuberculosis in 1836 369 Temperament Jackson had a reputation for being short tempered and violent 370 which terrified his opponents 371 He was able to use his temper strategically to accomplish what he wanted 372 He could keep it in check when necessary his behavior was friendly and urbane when he went to Washington as senator during the campaign leading up to the 1824 election According to Van Buren he remained calm in times of difficulty and made his decisions deliberatively 373 He had the tendency to take things personally If someone crossed him he would often become obsessed with crushing them 374 For example on the last day of his presidency Jackson declared he had only two regrets that he had not hanged Henry Clay or shot John C Calhoun 375 He also had a strong sense of loyalty He considered threats to his friends as threats to himself but he demanded unquestioning loyalty in return 376 Jackson was self confident 377 without projecting a sense of self importance 378 This self confidence gave him the ability to persevere in the face of adversity 379 Once he decided on a plan of action he would adhere to it 380 His reputation for being both quick tempered and confident worked to his advantage 381 it misled opponents to see him as simple and direct leading them to often understimate his political shrewdness 382 Religious faith In 1838 Jackson became an official member of the First Presbyterian Church in Nashville 383 Both his mother and his wife had been devout Presbyterians all their lives but Jackson stated that he had postponed officially entering the church until after his retirement to avoid accusations that he had done so for political reasons 384 Legacy Equestrian statue of Jackson by Charles Keck in front of the Jackson County Courthouse Kansas City Missouri 1934 Commissioned by Judge Harry S Truman See also List of memorials to Andrew Jackson Jackson s legacy his impact on American politics his Native American policy and his personality remains controversial 385 386 Jackson s contemporary Alexis de Tocqueville described Jackson as the spokesperson of the majority and their local passions 387 The year after Jackson s death Benjamin Dusenbery who collected eulogies to him wrote that Jackson s opponents have ever been his most bitter enemies and his friends almost his worshippers 388 Opinions about Jackson are polarized 389 He has been described as a frontiersman personifying the independence of the American West 390 a slave owning member of the Southern gentry 391 a populist who promoted faith in the wisdom of the ordinary citizen and the will of the majority 392 and an autocratic demagogue who incited violence for political ends 393 He has been represented as a statesman who substantially advanced the spirit of democracy 394 and upheld the foundations of American constitutionalism 395 as well as a dominating personality who knew how to wield power to crush opposition and trampled the law 396 In the 1920s Jackson s rise to power became associated with the idea of the common man 397 a connection that remains strong today 398 This idea defined the age as a populist rejection of social elites and a vindication of every person s value independent of class and status 399 Jackson was seen as its personification 400 an individual free of societal constraints who can achieve great things 401 In 1945 Arthur M Schlesinger Jr s influential Age of Jackson redefined Jackson s legacy through the lens of Franklin D Roosevelt s New Deal 402 describing the common man as a member of the working class struggling against exploitation by business concerns 403 404 Schlesinger quotes Roosevelt as saying that Jackson s heritage is his unending contributions to the vitality of our democracy 405 In the twenty first century Jackson s Indian Removal Act has been described as ethnic cleansing 406 the use of force terror and violence to make an area ethnically homogeneous 407 To achieve the goal of separating Native Americans from the whites 408 coercive force such as threats and bribes were used to effect removal 409 and unauthorized military force was used when there was resistance 231 as in the case of the Second Seminole War 410 It s role in the long term destruction of Native American societies and their cultures continues to be debated 411 His legacy has been variously used by later presidents Abraham Lincoln referenced Jackson s ideas when negotiating the challenges to the Union that he faced during 1861 including Jackson s understanding of the constitution during the nullification crisis and the president s right to interpret the constitution 412 Franklin D Roosevelt used Jackson to redefine the Democratic Party describing him as a defender of the exploited and downtrodden and as a fighter for social justice and human rights 413 414 Donald Trump used Jackson s legacy to present himself as the president of the common man 415 praising Jackson for saving the country from a rising aristocracy and protecting American workers with a tariff 416 In 2016 President Barack Obama s administration announced it was removing Jackson s portrait from the 20 bill and replacing it with one of Harriet Tubman 417 Though the plan was put on hold during Trump s presidency President Joe Biden s administration resumed it in 2021 418 Jackson s contradictory legacy is seen in opinion polls In a 2014 survey asking political scientists to rate presidential greatness Jackson was the ninth highest rated president but the second most polarizing He was also rated the second most overrated president 419 Jackson usually scores in the top half of presidents in public opinion polls looking at their performance but his ratings have been dropping In a C SPAN poll Jackson was ranked the 13th in 2009 18th in 2017 and 22nd in 2021 420 421 Writings Andrew Jackson by Thomas Sully 1845 Corcoran Gallery of Art Washington D C Modeled after 1824 version Jackson is portrayed as the hero of New Orleans Feller Daniel Coens Thomas Moss Laura Eve Moser Harold D Alexander Erik B Smith Sam B Owsley Harriet C Hoth David R Hoemann George H McPherson Sharon Clift J Clint Wells Wyatt C eds 1980 2019 The Papers of Andrew Jackson University of Tennessee 11 volumes to date 17 volumes projected Ongoing project to print all of Jackson s papers Vol I 1770 1803 Vol II 1804 1813 Vol III 1814 1815 Vol IV 1816 1820 Vol V 1821 1824 Vol VI 1825 1828 Vol VII 1829 Vol VIII 1830 Vol IX 1831 Vol X 1832 Vol XI 1833 Bassett John S ed 1926 1935 Correspondence of Andrew Jackson Carnegie Institution 7 volumes 2 available online Vol III 1820 1828 registration required Vol IV 1829 1832 registration required Richardson James D ed 1897 Andrew Jackson Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents Vol III Bureau of National Literature and Art pp 996 1359 Reprints Jackson s major messages and reports Notes Vice President Calhoun resigned from office As this was prior to the adoption of the Twenty fifth Amendment in 1967 a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next ensuing election and inauguration References Brands 2005 pp 11 15 Andrew Jackson Cottage and US Rangers Centre Northern Ireland Tourist Board Archived from the original on October 25 2007 Retrieved April 11 2017 Gullan 2004 pp xii 308 a b Remini 1977 p 2 a b Nowlan 2012 p 257 a b c Brands 2005 p 16 Remini 1977 pp 4 5 Wilentz 2005 p 16 Remini 1977 p 6 Booraem 2001 p 47 Remini 1977 pp 15 Brands 2005 p 24 Remini 1977 p 17 Meacham 2008 p 12 a b Wilentz 2005 pp 22 23 Booraem 2001 p 104 Remini 1977 pp 23 24 Wilentz 2005 p 17 Remini 1977 pp 24 Brands 2005 pp 30 31 Wilentz 2005 p 9 Remini 1977 p 27 Booraem 2001 pp 133 136 Remini 1977 p 29 Brands 2005 p 37 Case Steven 2009 Andrew Jackson State Library of North Carolina Archived from the original on June 18 2017 Retrieved July 20 2017 Remini 1977 p 34 Remini 1977 p 37 Booraem 2001 pp 190 191 Wilentz 2005 p 18 a b Wilentz 2005 p 19 Remini 1977 p 53 Remini 1977 p 87 Clifton 1952 p 24 Durham 1990 pp 218 219 Owsley 1977 pp 481 482 Brands 2005 p 63 Meacham 2008 pp 22 23 Howe 2007 p 277 Brands 2005 p 65 Remini 1977 p 68 Brands 2005 p 73 Wilentz 2005 pp 18 19 Remini 1977 pp 92 94 Brands 2005 pp 79 81 Remini 1977 p 112 a b Andrew Jackson Biographical Directory of the U S Congress Archived from the original on December 18 2013 Retrieved April 13 2017 Remini 1977 p 113 Brands 2005 pp 104 105 a b Meacham 2008 p 25 Remini 1977 p 123 a b Wilentz 2005 p 21 Sellers 1954 pp 76 77 a b Remini 1977 pp 131 132 Remini 1977 p 379 Andrew Jackson s Enslaved Laborers The Hermitage Archived from the original on September 12 2014 Retrieved April 13 2017 Enslaved Families Understanding the Enslaved Families at the Hermitage thehermitage com Retrieved August 23 2022 Warshauer 2006 p 224 Cheathem 2011 p 328 329 Feller Daniel Mullin Marsha August 1 2019 The Enslaved Household of President Andrew Jackson White House Historical Association Brown DeNeen L May 1 2017 Hunting down runaway slaves The cruel ads of Andrew Jackson and the master class The Washington Post Archived from the original on April 11 2017 Remini 1977 p 55 Meacham 2008 p 35 Brands 2005 p 138 Remini 1977 p 143 a b c Meacham 2008 p 27 Remini 1977 p 149 Remini 1977 p 148 Brands 2005 p 120 Remini 1977 p 151 Remini 1977 p 153 Brands 2005 p 127 128 Hickey 1989 p 46 Hickey 1989 p 72 Brands 2005 p 175 Remini 1977 p 166 Remini 1977 p 173 Brands 2005 p 179 General orders Andrew Jackson Major General 2d Division Tennessee November 24 1812 Jackson Papers LOC Retrieved June 27 2017 Wilentz 2005 pp 23 25 Jackson Andrew Journal of trip down the Mississippi River January 1813 to March 1813 Jackson Papers LOC Retrieved July 3 2017 Brands 2005 p 184 Meacham 2008 p 23 Wilentz 2005 p 23 Owsley 1981 pp 61 62 Davis 2002 pp 631 632 Owsley 1981 pp 38 39 Owsley 1981 p 40 Remini 1977 pp 192 193 Brands 2005 p 197 Owsley 1981 pp 63 64 Remini 1977 pp 196 197 Owsley 1981 pp 72 73 a b Kanon 1999 p 4 Owsley 1981 pp 75 76 Kanon 1999 p 6 Owsley 1981 p 79 Anderson amp Cayton 2005 p 231 Kanon 1999 p 10 a b Owsley 1981 p 81 Brands 2005 p 220 Wilentz 2005 pp 27 Owsley 1981 p 87 Remini 1977 p 222 Wilentz 2005 pp 27 28 Remini 1977 pp 236 237 Remini 1977 p 238 Owsley 1981 pp 116 117 Wilentz 2005 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Schwartz 1993 pp 73 74 Brown DeNeen L August 18 2017 Removing a slavery defender s statue Roger B Taney wrote one of Supreme Court s worst rulings The Washington Post Archived from the original on January 10 2018 Retrieved December 29 2017 Arkansas Became a State June 15 1836 The Library of Congress Archived from the original on December 9 2016 Retrieved July 4 2017 Michigan Became a State January 26 1837 The Library of Congress Archived from the original on January 10 2017 Retrieved July 4 2017 Remini 1984 pp 375 376 Latner 2002 p 121 Lansford amp Woods 2008 p 1046 Timberlake 1960 p 93 98 Brands 2005 p 475 Remini 1984 pp 462 470 Remini 1984 pp 463 464 Remini 1984 p 470 Remini 1984 pp 475 476 McCormick 2002 p 143 Remini 1984 p 492 Wilentz 2005 pp 161 163 Remini 1984 p 493 Wilentz 2005 p 163 Marx Rudolph The Health Of The President Andrew Jackson healthguidance org Archived from the original on December 22 2017 Retrieved December 18 2017 Meacham 2008 p 345 Remini 1984 p 526 Remini 1977 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p 337 338 Adams 2013 pp 3 4 Cheathem 2013 p 5 Cole 1986 p 151 Schlesinger 1945 Forward second page Anderson 2016 p 416 Carson 2008 pp 9 10 Garrison 2002 pp 2 3 Howe 2007 p 423 Kakel 2011 p 158 Lynn 2019 p 78 Ethnic Cleansing United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect Archived from the original on February 28 2019 Perdue 2012 p 6 Remini 1990 pp 56 59 Cave 2003 p 1337 Howe 2007 p 348 Missall amp Missall 2004 p xv xvii Ostler 2019 pp 365 366 Perdue 2012 p 3 Willentz Sean February 24 2012 Abraham Lincoln and Jacksonian Democracy The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History Archived from the original on May 11 2015 Brands 2008 p 449 450 Franklin Roosevelt Jackson Day Dinner Address Washington D C January 8 1936 The American Presidency Project Archived from the original on June 29 2019 Brown 2022 p 367 Remarks by the President on the 250th anniversary of the Birth of Andrew Jackson whitehouse gov March 15 2017 Archived from the original on December 19 2017 Thompson amp Barchiesi 2018 p 1 Crutsinger Martin January 25 2021 Effort to put Tubman on 20 bill restarted under Biden AP News Archived from the original on January 25 2021 Rottinghaus amp Vaughn 2017 Total Scores Overall Rankings C SPAN Survey on Presidents 2021 C SPAN org www c span org Retrieved July 1 2021 Feller Daniel February 24 2012 Andrew Jackson s Shifting Legacy The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History Retrieved August 6 2022 BibliographyFurther information Bibliography of Andrew Jackson Biographies Brands H W 2005 Andrew Jackson His Life and Times New York NY Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group ISBN 978 1 4000 3072 9 OCLC 1285478081 Brown David S 2022 The First Populist The Defiant Life of Andrew Jackson New York NY Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 1 9821 9109 2 OCLC 1303813425 Latner Richard B 2002 Andrew Jackson In Graff Henry ed The Presidents A Reference History 3 ed New York NY Charles Scribner s Sons pp 106 127 ISBN 978 0 684 31226 2 OCLC 49029341 Meacham Jon 2008 American Lion Andrew Jackson in the White House New York NY Random House Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8129 7346 4 OCLC 1145796050 Remini Robert V 1977 Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire 1767 1821 New York NY Harper amp Row Publishers Inc ISBN 978 0 8018 5912 0 OCLC 1145801830 Remini Robert V 1981 Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom 1822 1832 New York NY Harper amp Row Publishers Inc ISBN 978 0 8018 5913 7 OCLC 1145807972 Remini Robert V 1984 Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy 1833 1845 New York NY Harper amp Row Publishers Inc ISBN 978 0 8018 5913 7 OCLC 1285459723 Wilentz Sean 2005 Andrew Jackson New York NY Henry Holt and Company ISBN 978 0 8050 6925 9 OCLC 863515036 Books Adams Sean P 2013 Introduction The President and his Era In Adams Sean P ed A Companion to the Era of Andrew Jackson Wiley pp 1 11 ISBN 9781444335415 OCLC 1152040405 Anderson Fred Cayton Andrew 2005 The Dominion of War New York NY Penguin Group ISBN 978 1 101 11879 5 OCLC 883307112 Aptheker Herbert 1974 1943 The Turner Cataclysm and Some Repercussions American Negro Slave Revolts International Publishers pp 293 394 ISBN 9780717800032 OCLC 1028031914 Baptist Edward E 2016 The Half has Never Been Told Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism New York NY Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 00296 2 OCLC 1302085747 Booraem Hendrik 2001 Young Hickory The Making of Andrew Jackson Lanham MD Taylor Trade Publishing ISBN 978 0 8783 3263 2 Boller Paul F Jr 2004 Presidential Campaigns From George Washington to George W Bush New York NY Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19516 716 0 OCLC 1285570008 Borneman Walter R 2008 Polk The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America New York NY Random House ISBN 978 1 4000 6560 8 OCLC 1150943134 Brands Henry W 2008 Traitor to his Class The Privileged Life and radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt Doubleday ISBN 9780385519588 OCLC 759509803 Breen Patrick H 2015 The Land Shall be Deluged in Blood A New History of the Nat Turner Revolt Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199828005 OCLC 929856251 Burstein Andrew 2003 The Passions of Andrew Jackson Knopf ISBN 0375714049 OCLC 1225864865 Cheathem Mark R 2013 The Shape of Democracy Historical Interpretations of Jacksonian Democracy In McKnight Brian D Humphreys James S eds Interpreting American History The Age of Andrew Jackson Kent State University Press pp 1 21 ISBN 9781606350980 OCLC 700709151 Cheathem Mark R 2014a Andrew Jackson Southerner Ebook ISBN 9780807151006 OCLC 858995561 Clark Thomas D Guice John D W 1996 The Old Southwest 1765 1830 Frontiers in conflict University of Oklahoma Press ISBN 9780806128368 OCLC 1285743152 Durham Walter T 1990 Before Tennessee the Southwest Territory 1790 1796 a narrative history of the Territory of the United States South of the River Ohio Piney Flats TN Rocky Mount Historical Association ISBN 978 0 9678 3071 1 Ellis Richard E 1974 Andrew Jackson 1829 1837 In Woodward C Vann ed Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct Dell pp 51 656 OCLC 1036817744 Ellis Richard E 1989 The Union at Risk Jacksonian Democracy States Rights and the Nullification Crisis Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195345155 OCLC 655900280 Feerick John D 1965 From Failing Hands the Story of Presidential Succession New York City Fordham University Press Fish Carl R 1927 The Rise of the Common Man 1830 1850 MacMillian OCLC 1151151619 Freehling William 1966 Prelude to Civil War The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina 1816 1836 Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195076813 OCLC 1151067281 Garrison Tim Allen 2002 The Legal Ideology of Removal The Southern Judiciary and the Sovereignty of Native American Nations Athens GA University of Georgia Press ISBN 978 0 8203 3417 2 OCLC 53956489 Gatell Frank Otto 1967 The Jacksonians and the Money Power Chicago Rand McNally OCLC 651767466 Greeley Horace 1864 The American Conflict A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States of America 1860 64 It s Causes Incidents and Results O D Case and Company Gullan Harold I 2004 Dramatic Departure Andrew Jackson Sr Abraham Van Buren First fathers the men who inspired our Presidents Hoboken NJ John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 0 471 46597 3 OCLC 53090968 Hammond Bray 1957 Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War Princeton NJ Princeton University Press OCLC 1147712456 Hickey Donald R 1989 The War of 1812 A Forgotten Conflict University of Illinois Press ISBN 0252060598 OCLC 1036973138 Howe Daniel Walker 2007 What Hath God Wrought the Transformation of America 1815 1848 Oxford NY Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 974379 7 OCLC 646814186 Kakel Carroll 2011 The American West and the Nazi East A Comparative and Interpretive Perspective Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 9780230307063 OCLC 743799760 Lane Carl 2014 A Nation Wholly Free The Elimination of the National Debt in the Age of Jackson Westholme ISBN 9781594162091 OCLC 1150853554 Lansford Tom Woods Thomas E eds 2008 Exploring American History From Colonial Times to 1877 Vol 10 New York Marshall Cavendish ISBN 978 0 7614 7758 7 Lynn John A 2019 Another Kind of War The Nature and History of Terrorism Yale University Press ISBN 9780300189988 OCLC 1107042059 Mahon John K 1962 The Treaty of Moultrie Creek 1823 The Florida Historical Quarterly 40 4 350 372 JSTOR 30139875 Marszalek John F 1997 The Petticoat Affair Manners Mutiny and Sex in Andrew Jackson s White House Free Press ISBN 0684828014 OCLC 36767691 McCormick Richard p 2002 William Henry Harrison and John Tyler In Graff Henry ed The Presidents A Reference History 3 ed New York NY Charles Scribner s Sons pp 106 127 ISBN 978 0 684 31226 2 OCLC 49029341 McGrane Reginald C 1965 The Panic of 1837 University of Chicago Press OCLC 1150938709 Meyers Marvin 1960 The Jacksonian Persuasion Politics amp Belief Vintage Books OCLC 1035884705 Missall John Missall Mary Lou 2004 The Seminole Wars America s Longest Indian Conflict University Press of Florida ISBN 0813027152 OCLC 1256504949 Moser Harold D Macpherson Sharon eds 1984 The Papers of Andrew Jackson Volume II 1804 1813 University of Tennessee Press Retrieved May 25 2022 Moser Harold D Hoth David R Macpherson Sharon Reinbold John H eds 1991 The Papers of Andrew Jackson Volume III 1814 1815 University of Tennessee Press p 35 Retrieved May 25 2022 I have not heard whether Genl Coffee has taken on to him little Lyncoya I have got another Pett given to me by the chief Jame Fife The Indian children were probably Theodore and Charley Murphy Sharon A 2013 The Myth and Reality of andrew Jackson s Rise in the Election of 1824 In Adams Sean P ed A Companion to the Era of Andrew Jackson Wiley pp 260 279 ISBN 9781444335415 OCLC 1152040405 Nester William R 2013 The Age of Jackson and the Art of Power ISBN 9781612346052 OCLC 857769985 Niven John 1988 John C Calhoun and the Price of Union A Biography Baton Rouge LA LSU Press ISBN 978 0 8071 1858 0 OCLC 1035889000 Nowlan Robert A 2012 The American Presidents Washington to Tyler Jefferson NC McFarland Publishing ISBN 978 0 7864 6336 7 OCLC 692291434 Ogg Frederic Austin 1919 The Reign of Andrew Jackson Vol 20 Chronicles of America Series New Haven CT Yale University Press OCLC 928924919 Olson James Stuart 2002 Robert L Shadle ed Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America Westport CT Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 30830 7 OCLC 1033573148 Owsley Frank Lawrence Jr 1981 Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans 1812 1815 University Presses of Florida ISBN 0813006627 OCLC 1151350587 Ostler Jeffrey 2019 Surviving Genocide ISBN 978 0 300 24526 4 OCLC 1099434736 Parins James W Littlefield Daniel F 2011 Introduction In Parins James W Littlefield Daniel F eds Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal 2 Volumes ABC CLIO ISBN 9780313360428 OCLC 720586004 Remini Robert V 1990 The Legacy of Andrew Jackson Essays on Democracy Indian Removal and Slavery Louisiana State University Press ISBN 9780807116425 OCLC 1200479832 Rogin Michael P 1975 Fathers and Children Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian Knopf ISBN 0394482042 OCLC 1034678255 Sabato Larry O Connor Karen 2002 American Government Continuity and Change New York Pearson Longman ISBN 978 0 321 31711 7 OCLC 1028046888 Satz Ronald N 1974 American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era University of Nebraska ISBN 9780803208230 Schlesinger Arthur M Jr 1945 The Age of Jackson Little Brown and Company ISBN 9780316773430 OCLC 1024176654 Schwartz Bernard 1993 A History of the Supreme Court New York NY Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 509387 2 OCLC 1035668728 Temin Peter 1969 Jacksonian Economy Norton OCLC 1150111725 Turner Frederick Jackson 1920 The Frontier in American History Henry Holt OCLC 1045610195 Unger Harlow G 2012 John Quincy Adams De Capo ISBN 9780306822650 OCLC 1035758771 Van Deusen Glyndon G 1963 The Jacksonian Era 1828 1848 Harper amp Row ISBN 9780061330285 OCLC 1176180758 Wallace Anthony F C 1993 The long bitter trail andrew Jackson and the Indians Hill and Wang ISBN 9780809066315 OCLC 1150209732 Ward John W 1962 The Age of the Common Man In Higham John ed The Reconstruction of American History Hutchison pp 82 97 OCLC 1151080132 Journal articles and dissertations Anderson Gary Clayton 2016 The Native Peoples of the American West Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing Western Historical Quarterly Oxford University Press 47 4 416 doi 10 1093 whq whw126 ISSN 0043 3810 JSTOR 26782720 Bergeron Paul H 1976 The nullification controversy revisited Tennessee Historical Quarterly 35 3 263 275 JSTOR 42623589 Berutti Ronald A 1992 The Cherokee Cases The Fight to Save the Supreme Court and the Cherokee Indians American Indian Law Review 17 1 291 308 doi 10 2307 20068726 JSTOR 20068726 Brogdon Matthew S 2011 Defending the Union Andrew Jackson s Nullifaction Proclamation and American federalism Review of Politics 73 2 245 273 doi 10 1017 S0034670511000064 JSTOR 42623589 S2CID 145679939 Campbell Stephen W 2016 Funding the Bank War Nicholas Biddle and the public relations campaign to recharter the second bank of the U S 1828 1832 American Nineteenth Century History 17 3 279 299 doi 10 1080 14664658 2016 1230930 S2CID 152280055 Cave Alfred A 2003 Abuse of Power Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830 The Historian 65 6 1330 1353 doi 10 2307 2205966 JSTOR 2205966 Cheathem Mark R 2011 Andrew Jackson Slavery and Historians PDF History Compass 9 4 326 338 doi 10 1111 j 1478 0542 2011 00763 x ISSN 1478 0542 Archived from the original PDF on October 12 2022 Cheathem Mark 2014 Frontiersman or Southern Gentleman Newspaper Coverage of Andrew Jackson during the 1828 Presidential Campaign The Readex Report 9 3 Archived from the original on January 12 2015 Carson James T 2008 The obituary of nations Ethnic cleansing memory and the origins of the Old South Southern Culture 14 4 6 31 doi 10 1353 scu 0 0026 JSTOR 26391777 S2CID 144154298 Clifton Frances 1952 John Overton as Andrew Jackson s friend Tennessee Historical Quarterly 11 1 23 40 JSTOR 42621095 Cole Donald B 1986 Review The Age of Jackson After Forty Years Reviews in American History 14 1 149 159 doi 10 2307 2702131 JSTOR 2702131 Cole Donald P 1997 A yankee in Kentucky The early years of Amos Kendall 1789 1828 Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society Third Series 109 1 24 36 JSTOR 25081127 Davis Ethan 2010 An administrative Trail of Tears Indian removal The American Journal of Legal History 50 1 1330 1353 doi 10 2307 2205966 JSTOR 2205966 Davis Karl 2002 Remember Fort Mims Reinterpeting the origins of the Creek War Journal of the Early Republic 22 4 611 636 doi 10 2307 3124760 JSTOR 3124760 Ericson David F 1995 The nullification crisis American republicanism and the Force Bill debate Journal of Southern History 81 2 249 270 doi 10 2307 2211577 JSTOR 2211577 Friedrich Carl Joachim 1937 The rise and decline of the spoils tradition The Annals of the American Academy of Political and 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1 42 56 JSTOR 1901307 Howell William Huntting 2010 Read Pause and Reflect Journal of the Early Republic 30 2 293 300 doi 10 1353 jer 0 0149 JSTOR 40662272 S2CID 144448483 Jackson Carlton 1966 The internal improvement vetoes of Andrew Jackson Tennessee Historical Quarterly 25 3 531 550 doi 10 2307 3115344 JSTOR 3115344 S2CID 55379727 Jackson Carlton 1967 Another Time Another Place The attempted assassination of President Andrew Jackson Tennessee Historical Quarterly 26 2 184 190 JSTOR 42622937 Kanon Thomas 1999 A slow laborious slaughter The battle of Horshoe Bend Tennessee Historical Quarterly 58 1 2 15 JSTOR 42627446 Koenig Louis W 1964 American Politics The First Half Century Current History 47 278 193 198 doi 10 1525 curh 1964 47 278 193 JSTOR 45311183 Knodell Jane 2006 Rethinking the Jacksonian economy The impact of the 1832 bank veto on commercial banking Journal of Economic History 66 3 641 574 doi 10 1017 S0022050706000258 JSTOR 3874852 S2CID 155084029 Mahon John K 1998 The 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Quarterly 76 3 236 237 JSTOR 26540290 Warshauer Matthew 2006 Andrew Jackson Chivalric slave master Tennessee Historical Quarterly 65 3 203 229 JSTOR 42627964 Whapples Robert 2014 Were Andrew Jackson s policies Good for the Economy The Independent Review 18 4 545 558 JSTOR 24563169 Wood Kirsten E 1997 One woman so dangerous to public morals Gender and power in the Eaton Affair Journal of the Early Republic 17 2 237 275 doi 10 2307 3124447 JSTOR 3124447 Wright J Leitch Jr 1968 A note on the First Seminole War as seen by the Indians negroes and their British advisors The Journal of Southern History 34 4 565 576 doi 10 2307 2204387 JSTOR 2204387 Primary Sources Binns John 1828 Some account of some of the bloody deeds of General Jackson Library of Congress Archived from the original on January 16 2014 Retrieved January 15 2014 Dusenbery Benjamin M 1846 Monument to the Memory of General Andrew Jackson Containing Twenty five Eulogies and Sermons Delivered on Occasion of his Death Walker amp Gillis OCLC 1049691249 Expunged Senate censure motion against President Andrew Jackson January 16 1837 Andrew Jackson National Archives and Records Administration Records of the U S Senate The U S National Archives and Records Administration Archived from the original on November 3 2014 Retrieved February 21 2014 Jackson Andrew 1829 Andrew Jackson s First Annual Message to Congress The American Presidency Project Archived from the original on February 26 2008 Retrieved March 14 2008 Jackson Andrew 1832 President Jackson s Proclamation Regarding Nullification December 10 1832 The Avalon Project Archived from the original on August 24 2006 Retrieved August 10 2006 South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification November 24 1832 The Avalon Project Archived from the original on August 19 2016 Retrieved August 22 2016 Taliaferro John 1828 Supplemental account of some of the bloody deeds of General Jackson being a supplement to the Coffin handbill Library of Congress Archived from the original on June 28 2017 de Toqueville Alexis 1969 1840 Democracy in America Translated by Lawrence George Harper amp Row ISBN 9780385081702 OCLC 1148815334 External linksAndrew Jackson at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Scholarly coverage of Jackson at Miller Center U of VirginiaWorks by Andrew Jackson at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Andrew Jackson at Internet Archive Works by Andrew Jackson at LibriVox public domain audiobooks The Papers of Andrew Jackson at the Avalon Project The Hermitage home of President Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson Papers Library of Congress A digital archive providing access to manuscript images of many of Jackson s documents Portals Biography Politics Law United States Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Andrew Jackson amp oldid 1136451470, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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