fbpx
Wikipedia

Causes of sexual violence

Sexual violence refers to a range of completed or attempted sexual acts in which the affected party does not or is unable to consent.[1][2] Theories on the causes of sexual violence are numerous and have come out of many different disciplines, such as women's studies, public health, and criminal justice.[3] Proposed causes include military conquest, socioeconomics, anger, power, sadism, traits, ethical standards, laws, and evolutionary pressures. Most of the research on the causes of sexual violence has focused on male offenders.[4]

Types of rapists edit

Clinical psychologist[5] Nicholas Groth has described several different types of rape.[6] A detailed conceptual analysis shows that objectification might underlie denial of agency and personhood that leads to rape.[7]

Anger rapists edit

The goal of these rapists is to humiliate, debase and hurt their victims. They use an excessive amount of force, whether or not victims resist. Also, they express their contempt for their victims through physical violence and profane language. For these rapists, sex is a weapon to defile and degrade the victim, rape constitutes the ultimate expression of their anger. This rapist considers rape the ultimate offense they can commit against the victim. Friends and acquaintances of anger rapists may report a dark side to their personalities or lifestyles.[8]

Anger rape is characterized by physical brutality: much more physical force is used during the assault than would be necessary if the intent were simply to overpower the victim and achieve penetration. This type of offender attacks their victim by grabbing, striking and knocking the victim to the ground, beating them, tearing their clothes, and raping them.

The experience for the offender is one of conscious anger and rage.[6]

Power assertive rapist edit

For these rapists, rape becomes a way to compensate for their underlying feelings of inadequacy and feeds their issues of mastery, control, dominance, strength, intimidation, authority and capability. The intent of the power rapist is to assert their competency. The power rapist relies upon verbal threats, intimidation with a weapon, and only uses the amount of force necessary to subdue the victims. Rapes committed by this perpetrator are more impulsive, spontaneous, and unplanned. Victims are frequently encountered by coincidence, such as at pubs, clubs, or parties. Their attack is characterized by a modest level of force applied over a brief period of time. Unlike the power reassurance rapist, the power assertive rapist sees himself as a "macho man" who wants to prove his virility to women. His language is abrasive and laced with profanities.[9]

The power rapist often will assume that the assault was not an assault because of their rape supportive attitudes. Power rapists are often in a mind set that they are entitled to their own pleasure regardless of the victims feelings or lack of desire. In the article, "Sexual Perpetrators' Justifications for Their Actions", it says, "One perpetrator who forced his steady dating partner to have sex after she willingly touched his penis, said 'I felt as if I had gotten something that I was entitled to. And I felt like I was repaying her for sexually arousing me'."[10]

There is a clear tendency for a rapist to have fantasies about sexual experiences and assume that they are enjoying it or grateful for it even when they resist.[10] Because this is only a fantasy, the rapist does not feel reassured for long by either their own performance or the victim's response. The rapist feels that they must find another victim, convinced that this victim will be "the right one". Hence, their offenses may become repetitive and compulsive. They may commit a series of rapes over a short period of time.[11]

Sadistic rapists edit

These rapists have a sexual association with anger and power so that aggression and the infliction of pain itself are eroticized. For this rapist, sexual excitement is associated with the inflicting of pain upon their victim. The offender finds the intentional maltreatment of their victim intensely gratifying and takes pleasure in the victim's torment, pain, anguish, distress, helplessness, and suffering;[12] they find the victim's struggling with them to be an erotic experience.

The sadistic rapist's assaults are deliberate, calculated, and preplanned. They will often wear a disguise or will blindfold their victims.[12] Prostitutes or other people whom they perceive to be vulnerable are often the sadistic rapist's targets. The victims of a sadistic rapist may not survive the attack. For some offenders, the ultimate satisfaction is gained from murdering the victim.[6]

The propensity models of sexual aggression edit

The propensity approach to sexual aggression focuses on the traits (features that are stable and fixed over time) that can increase the probability that someone will commit an act of sexual violence.[13]

Cognitive and attitudinal biases edit

The cognitive traits and attitudinal biases associated with a propensity to commit acts of sexual aggression come from socio-cultural research and says that forms of sexual aggression come from false beliefs of gender relations, misdirected objectives (i.e. only dating to have sex), and erroneous impressions of social interactions (linked to gender relations).[14] Research focusing specifically on gender relations within the context of sexual assault have found that conformance to notions of male entitlement, suspicion of the opposite sex, perceiving violence as a reasonable method for solving problems, and holding the traditional patriarchal attitudes that specific societal roles belong to specific genders are found to adhere to the concept of male entitlement/superiority (in the context of gender relations).[15] The cognitive biases that add to one's propensity to commit acts of sexual violence include a feeling of entitlement (entitlement to sex), and the beliefs that women are sex objects, men's sexual drive is uncontrollable, society is dangerous, and women are unpredictable and dangerous.[16]

Neuropsychological processes edit

The neuropsychological deficits that may contribute to a propensity for sexual assault include difficulties in self-regulation, executive functioning problems, perception/memory system problems, arousal/motivation system deficits, and problems in the action selection system.[17] The difficulties arise when sexual aggressors are not able to understand their emotional states so that when confronted with a situation that trigger their arousal/motivation systems, they become confused and may have issues controlling their behavior.[18] An inability to adapt plans to deal with unforeseen situations or having limited problem-solving skills (the action selection system) and maintaining maladaptive beliefs categorized by erroneous interpretations of social encounters (perception/memory systems) can also contribute to a greater tendency to commit acts of sexual violence.[19]

Deviant sexual preferences edit

Research focusing on the deviant sexual preferences propensity model suggests that people who perpetrate acts of sexual violence are sexually aroused by non-consensual sexual interactions more than consensual sexual interactions. The research that seeks to support this model (penile plethysmography) has not been able to reliably find differences in the two different groups of males (those who have committed acts of sexual aggression and those who have not).[20] Instead, the studies are providing more evidence for the cognitive, attitudinal, neuropsychological, and lifestyle differences that impact sexual arousal in certain situations, rather than a deviant sexual preference leading to a higher propensity for sexual violence.[21][22]

Personality disorders and traits edit

The last propensity model of sexual violence views the perpetrators of sexual violence through three lenses of different personality traits, with interpersonal functioning being the most important factor in whether a person will have a higher propensity for sexual violence. This model is based on the idea that sexual aggression is indicative of problems starting and managing enjoyable intimate relationships.[23]

Insecure attachment lens edit

The insecure attachment style lens stems from research done on sexual aggressors that characterized them as people who had insecure attachment styles (as a result of child abuse, parental divorce, etc.) manifested as low self-esteem, an inability to develop relationships with others, and significant emotional loneliness.[24] Through the lens of this model, sexual aggression is used as a faulty means of fulfilling intimacy needs.

Antisocial personality traits/quadripartite lens edit

The antisocial personality lens stems from a study done by Hall and Hirschman (1991)[25] and emphasizes the subsequent consequences of experiencing adversities/abuses in childhood, which can lead to the development of antisocial personality traits in adulthood. The antisocial personality traits combine with contextual, emotional (rage/anger), cognitive (irrational thoughts that influence emotions), and physiological (deviant sexual arousal) factors that increase the probability of committing sexual violence.[23]

Narcissistic personality lens edit

Lastly, the narcissistic lens emphasizes the assumption that individuals with narcissistic personality traits are more likely to interpret refusal of sexual advances as insults, and in turn will have an adverse reaction to such insults (narcissistic injury).[23] This lens is best used when describing sexual violence that includes known victims (such as incest, date rape, domestic abuse, etc.) because it is not able to adequately explain sexual violence such as stranger rape.[26]

Individual factors edit

Known victim edit

Data on sexually violent individuals show that most direct their acts at individuals whom they already know.[27][28]

Drug-facilitated sexual assault edit

Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA), also known as predator rape, is a sexual assault carried out after the victim has become incapacitated due to having consumed alcoholic beverages or other drugs. Alcohol has been shown to play a disinhibiting role in certain types of sexual assault,[29] as have some other drugs, notably cocaine.[30] Alcohol has a psychopharmacological effect of reducing inhibitions, clouding judgements and impairing the ability to interpret cues.[31] The biological links between alcohol and violence are, however, complex.[29] Research on the social anthropology of alcohol consumption suggests that connections between violence, drinking and drunkenness are socially learned rather than universal.[32] Some researchers have noted[33] that alcohol may act as a cultural break time, providing the opportunity for antisocial behavior. Judgments are more likely to act violently when drunk because they do not consider that they will be held accountable for their behavior. Some forms of group sexual violence are also associated with drinking. In these settings, consuming alcohol is an act of group bonding, where inhibitions are collectively reduced and individual judgment ceded in favor of the group.

Sexual gratification edit

In 1994, Richard Felson and James Tedeschi coauthored the controversial book Aggression and Coercive Actions: A Social-Interactionist Perspective, which argues that rapists are motivated by sexual entitlement, rather than the aggressive desire to dominate the victim.[34] Felson believes that rape is an aggressive form of sexual coercion and the goals of rape are sexual entitlement and gaining a sense of power. Meta-analyses indicate that convicted rapists demonstrate greater sexual arousal to scenes of sexual coercion involving force than do non-rapists.[35] In one study, male rapists evaluated with penile plethysmography demonstrated more arousal to forced sex and less discrimination between forced and consensual sex than non-rapist control subjects, though both groups responded more strongly to consensual sex scenarios.[36]

Psychological factors edit

There has been considerable research in recent times on the role of cognitive variables among the set of factors that can lead to rape. A detailed conceptual analysis shows that objectification might underlie denial of agency and personhood that leads to rape.[7] Sexually violent men have been shown to be more likely to consider victims responsible for the rape and less knowledgeable about the impact of rape on victims.[37] Such men may misread cues given out by women in social situations and may lack the inhibitions that act to suppress associations between sex and aggression.[37] They may have coercive sexual fantasies,[38] and overall are more hostile towards women than men who are not sexually violent.[39][40][41] In addition to these factors, sexually violent men are believed to differ from other men in terms of impulsivity and antisocial tendencies.[42] They also tend to have an exaggerated sense of masculinity. Sexual violence is also associated with a preference for impersonal sexual relationships as opposed to emotional bonding[dubious ], with having many sexual partners and with the inclination to assert personal interests at the expense of others.[41][43] A further association is with adversarial attitudes on gender, which hold that women are opponents to be challenged and conquered.[44]

Research on convicted rapists edit

The research on convicted rapists has found several important motivational factors in the sexual aggression of males. Those motivational factors repeatedly implicated are having anger at women and having the need to control or dominate them.[45]

A study by Marshall et al. (2001) found that male rapists had less empathy toward women who had been sexually assaulted by an unknown assailant and more hostility toward women than non-sex-offenders and nonoffender males/females.[46]

Meta-analyses indicate that convicted rapists demonstrate greater sexual arousal to scenes of sexual coercion involving force than do non-rapists.[35]

Societal and economic factors edit

Factors operating at a societal level that influence sexual violence include laws and national policies relating to gender equality in general and to sexual violence more specifically, as well as norms relating to the use of violence. While the various factors operate largely at local level, within families, schools, workplaces and communities, there are also influences from the laws and norms working at national and even international levels.

War and natural disasters edit

Lawlessness during wars and civil conflicts can create a culture of impunity towards human rights abuses of civilians. Some irregular armies and militias tacitly endorse looting of civilian areas as a way for troops to supplement their meagre incomes, and promote pillaging and rape of civilians as a reward for victory.[47][48] In 2008, the United Nations Security Council argued that "women and girls are particularly targeted by the use of sexual violence, including as a tactic of war to humiliate, dominate, instil fear in, disperse and/or forcibly relocate civilian members of a community or ethnic group."[49]

Refugees and internally displaced people who flee their homes during war and major disasters can experience human trafficking for sexual or labour exploitation due to the breakdown of economies and law and order.[50] Speaking at the UN General Assembly in 2010, the UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, its Causes and Consequences noted women's particular vulnerability and increased risk of experiencing violence following disasters.[51] Following the 2010 Haiti earthquake, large numbers of women and girls living in Internally Displaced Persons camps experienced sexual violence.[52] The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights recognized the need for state actors to respond to gender-based violence committed by private actors, in response to a petition by Haitian groups and human rights lawyers calling on the Haitian government and international actors to take immediate measures—like increasing lighting, security, and access to medical care—to address sexual violence against women and girls in the IDP camps.[53]

Poverty and economic instability edit

Poverty has been identified as a contributing factor to both the perpetration and victimization of sexual violence. Significant correlations have been found between sexual violence victimization and unmet physical needs, such as housing and food insecurity.[54][55] Some development and policy scholars have also described the fiscal and social-emotional costs of sexual violence, such as medical expenses and mental health issues. These costs can increase a victim's risk of falling into poverty or make it more difficult to get out of it.[56][57][58]

Several authors have argued that the relationship between poverty and perpetration of sexual violence is mediated through forms of crisis of masculine identity.[59][60][61][62][63] For example, Philippe Bourgois wrote about how young men in East Harlem, New York felt pressured by models of successful masculinity and family structure passed down from their parents' and grandparents' generations, alongside modern-day ideals of manhood that emphasize material consumption. In this context, gang rape and sexual conquest are normalized, as men turn their aggression against women they can no longer control patriarchally or support economically.[61]

National and international economic shifts have been correlated with changes in the rate of sexual violence regionally and globally. For example, the global trend towards free trade has been accompanied by an increase in the trafficking women and girls, including sex trafficking.[64] Some development researchers have claimed that globalization has increased poverty and unemployment in a number of countries, thus increasing the likelihood of sex trafficking and other forms of sexual violence.[65] Central America, the Caribbean, and parts of Africa have been cited as examples.[66][67]

Social norms edit

Women in various countries face serious risks if they report rape. These risks include being subjected to violence (including honor killings) by their families, being prosecuted for sex outside marriage, or being forced to marry their rapist.[68][69][70] This creates a culture of impunity that allows rape to go unpunished. "Delegation clauses" used in many nursing home contracts have been blamed for effectively permitting the rape of residents.[71]

Sexual violence committed by men is to a large extent rooted in ideologies of male sexual entitlement. How deeply entrenched in a community beliefs in male superiority and entitlement to sex are will greatly affect the likelihood of sexual violence taking place, as will the general tolerance in the community of sexual assault and the strength of sanctions, if any, against perpetrators.[27][72][73] These belief systems grant women extremely few legitimate options to refuse sexual advances.[62][74][75] Some men thus simply exclude the possibility that their sexual advances towards a woman might be rejected or that a woman has the right to make an autonomous decision about participating in sex. In some cultures women, as well as men, regard marriage as entailing the obligation on women to be sexually available virtually without limit,[76][77] though sex may be culturally proscribed at certain times, such as after childbirth or during menstruation.[78]

Societal norms around the use of violence as a means to achieve objectives have been strongly associated with the prevalence of rape. In societies with a machismo ideology - emphasizing dominance, physical strength and male honor - rape is more common.[79] Countries with a culture of violence, or where violent conflict is taking place, experience an increase in almost all forms of violence, including sexual violence.[79][80]

Family and other social supports edit

Early childhood environments edit

There is evidence to suggest that sexual violence is also a learned behavior in some adults, particularly in regard to child sexual abuse. Studies on sexually abused boys have shown that around one in five later molest children themselves.[81]

Childhood environments that are physically violent, emotionally unsupportive and characterized by competition for scarce resources have been associated with sexual violence.[42][82] Sexually aggressive behavior in young men, for instance, has been linked to witnessing family violence, and having emotionally distant and uncaring fathers.[39] Men raised in families with strongly patriarchal structures are also more likely to become violent, to rape and use sexual coercion against women, as well as to abuse their intimate partners, than men raised in homes that are more egalitarian.[42]

Family honor and sexual purity edit

Another factor involving social relationships is a family's response that blames women without punishing men, concentrating instead on restoring lost family honor. Such a response creates an environment in which rape can occur with impunity.

While families will often try to protect female members from rape and may also put their daughters on contraception to prevent visible signs should it occur,[83] there is rarely much social pressure to control young men or persuade them that coercing sex is wrong.[where?] Instead, in some countries, there is frequently support for family members to do whatever is necessary, including murder, to alleviate the shame associated with a rape or other sexual transgression. In a review of all honor killings occurring in Jordan in 1995,[84] researchers found that in over 60% of the cases, the victim died from multiple gunshot wounds, mostly at the hands of a brother. In cases where the victim was a single pregnant woman, the offender was either acquitted of murder or received a reduced sentence.

Social climate theories edit

Feminist theories of male-female rape edit

A feminist theory of male-female rape is summarized by Susan Brownmiller's statement: "rape is nothing more or less than a conscious process of intimidation by which all men keep all women in a state of fear".[85] Some feminists assert that male domination of women in socio-political and economic domains is the ultimate cause of most rapes, and consider male-female rape to be a crime of power that has little or nothing to do with sex itself.[86] However, a 1983 study comparing 14 indicators of male dominance and the incidence of rape in 26 American cities found no correlations, except one where greater male dominance actually decreased the incidence of rape.[87] Social learning theory of rape is similar to the feminist theory and links cultural traditions such as imitation, sex-violence linkages, rape myths (e.g., "women secretly desire to be raped"), and desensitization to be the core causes of rape.

Rape culture edit

Rape culture is a term used within women's studies and feminism, describing a culture in which rape and other sexual violence (usually against women) are common and in which prevalent attitudes, norms, practices, and media condone, normalize, excuse, or encourage sexualized violence.

Within the paradigm, acts of sexism are commonly employed to validate and rationalize normative misogynistic practices; for instance, sexist jokes may be told to foster disrespect for women and an accompanying disregard for their well-being, which ultimately make their rape and abuse seem "acceptable". Examples of behaviors said to typify rape culture include victim blaming, trivializing prison rape, and sexual objectification.

Rape culture as a concept and social reality was explored in detail in the 1975 film Rape Culture, produced by Margaret Lazarus and Renner Wunderlich for Cambridge Documentary Films.

Gender based socialization and sexual scripts edit

Studies of college-aged sexually active men and women show they often conceptualize men as sexual initiators and women as sexual gatekeepers.[88][89][90]

It has been argued that sexual assault trials,[91] as well as rape itself, may be influenced by cultural narratives of men as sexual instigators.[92][93] Boys are brought up to be sexually aggressive, dominant and conquering, as a way of affirming their masculinity. Catharine MacKinnon argues that men rape "for reasons that they share in common even with those who don't, namely masculinity and their identification with masculine norms and in particular being the people who initiate sex and being the people who socially experience themselves as being affirmed by aggressive initiation of sexual interaction".[94] According to Check and Malamuth (1983), men are taught to take the initiative and persist in sexual encounters, while women are supposed to set the limits.[95] This classical sexual script is often popularized through television shows, popular films and pornography, which depict the man making a sexual advance and the woman initially resisting, but then finally positively responding by falling in love with him or experiencing orgasm (Cowen, Lee, Levy, and Snyder, 1988; Malamuth and Check, 1981; Smith, 1976; Waggett, 1989). The implied message is that men should persist beyond a woman's protest and women should say "no" even if they desire sex (Muehlenhard and McCoy, 1991). The more traditional the society, the closer the adherence to this sexual script.[95] For this reason, many men do not believe that a woman means "no" when she says "no", and continue to pressure the woman, and ultimately coerce or force her into sex; consent often becomes confused with submission.[96]

In many societies, men who do not act in a traditionally masculine way are ostracized by their peers and considered effeminate[97] In studies, young males from Cambodia, Mexico, Peru and South Africa reported that they have participated in incidents where girls were coerced into sex (such as gang rapes) and that they did so as a way to prove their masculinity to their friends, or under peer pressure and fear that they would be rejected if they did not participate in the assault.[98]

Sex industry and sexual assault edit

Some theorists charge that the acceptance of these sexual practices increase sexual violence against women, by reinforcing stereotypical views about women, who are seen as sex objects which can be used and abused by men, and by desensitizing men; this being one of the reasons why some theorists oppose the sex industry. They argue that pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment. The anti-pornography feminist, Andrea Dworkin, has famously argued this point in her controversial Pornography: Men Possessing Women (1981).

Evolutionary explanations edit

Males who under some circumstances used force may have had greater reproductive success in the ancestral environment than males who did not employ force.[86] Sociobiological theories of rape are theories that explore to what degree, if any, evolutionary adaptations influence the psychology of rapists. Such theories are highly controversial, as traditional theories typically do not consider rape to be a behavioral adaptation. Some object to such theories on ethical, religious, political as well as scientific grounds. Others argue that a correct knowledge of the causes of rape is necessary in order to develop effective preventive measures. There is extensive research on sexual coercion.[99]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Basile, Kathleen C.; Smith, Sharon G.; Breiding, Matthew J.; Black, Michele C.; Mahendra, Reshma (2014). "Sexual Violence Surveillance: Uniform Definitions and Recommended Data Elements" (PDF). CDC. Retrieved November 16, 2023.
  2. ^ Postmus, Judy L. (2013). Postmus, Judy L. (ed.). Sexual Violence and Abuse: An Encyclopedia of Prevention, Impacts, and Recovery. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-59884-755-0.
  3. ^ Postmus, Judy L. (2013). Postmus, Judy L. (ed.). Sexual Violence and Abuse: An Encyclopedia of Prevention, Impacts, and Recovery. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. xxv. ISBN 978-1-59884-755-0.
  4. ^ Stemple, Lara; Meyer, Ilan H. (June 2014). "The Sexual Victimization of Men in America: New Data Challenge Old Assumptions". American Journal of Public Health. 104 (6): e19–e26. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2014.301946. PMC 4062022. PMID 24825225.
  5. ^ Male Rape 2018-04-12 at the Wayback Machine. secasa.com.au
  6. ^ a b c . Center for Sex Offender Management. Archived from the original on 2018-01-09. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
  7. ^ a b Awasthi B (2017). "From Attire to Assault: Clothing, Objectification, and De-humanization – A Possible Prelude to Sexual Violence?". Frontiers in Psychology. 8: 338. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00338. PMC 5344900. PMID 28344565.
  8. ^ Pardue, Angela; Arrigo, Bruce A. (August 2008). "Power, Anger, and Sadistic Rapists: Toward a Differentiated Model of Offender Personality". International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 52 (4): 378–400. doi:10.1177/0306624X07303915. ISSN 0306-624X. PMID 17684122. S2CID 6964656.
  9. ^ "Power Assertive Rapist". Ebrary. Retrieved 2022-06-09.
  10. ^ a b Wegner, Rhiana; Abbey, Antonia; Pierce, Jennifer; Pegram, Sheri E.; Woerner, Jacqueline (August 2015). "Sexual Assault Perpetrators' Justifications for Their Actions: Relationships to Rape Supportive Attitudes, Incident Characteristics, and Future Perpetration". Violence Against Women. 21 (8): 1018–1037. doi:10.1177/1077801215589380. PMC 4491036. PMID 26056162.
  11. ^ "Center for Sex Offender Management Lecture Content & Teaching Notes Supervision of Sex Offenders in the Community: An Overview". Center for Sex Offender Management. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
  12. ^ a b Groth, Nicholas (1979). Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the Offender. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-0-306-40268-5.
  13. ^ Lussier, Patrick; Cale, Jesse (November 2016). "Understanding the origins and the development of rape and sexual aggression against women: Four generations of research and theorizing". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 31: 66–81. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2016.07.008. hdl:20.500.11794/11108.
  14. ^ Burt, Martha R. (1980). "Cultural myths and supports for rape". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 38 (2): 217–230. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.217. PMID 7373511.
  15. ^ Malamuth, N.M. (1998). "An evolutionary-based model integrating research on the characteristics of sexually coercive men". Advances in Psychological Science: 151–184.
  16. ^ Polaschek, Devon L. L.; Gannon, Theresa A. (October 2004). "The Implicit Theories of Rapists: What Convicted Offenders Tell Us". Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment. 16 (4): 299–314. doi:10.1023/B:SEBU.0000043325.94302.40. PMID 15560413. S2CID 195293085.
  17. ^ Joyal, Christian C.; Black, Deborah N.; Dassylva, Benoit (2 June 2007). "The Neuropsychology and Neurology of Sexual Deviance: A Review and Pilot Study". Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment. 19 (2): 155–173. doi:10.1007/s11194-007-9045-4. PMID 17546499. S2CID 36392851.
  18. ^ Ward, Tony; Beech, Anthony (January 2006). "An integrated theory of sexual offending". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 11 (1): 44–63. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2005.05.002.
  19. ^ Lussier, Patrick; Leclerc, Benoit; Cale, Jesse; Proulx, Jean (30 June 2016). "Developmental Pathways of Deviance in Sexual Aggressors". Criminal Justice and Behavior. 34 (11): 1441–1462. doi:10.1177/0093854807306350. S2CID 146532064.
  20. ^ Lalumière, Martin L.; Quinsey, Vernon L.; Harris, Grant T.; Rice, Marnie E.; Trautrimas, Caroline (24 January 2006). "Are Rapists Differentially Aroused by Coercive Sex in Phallometric Assessments?". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 989 (1): 211–224. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07307.x. PMID 12839900. S2CID 43828606.
  21. ^ Marshall, W.L; Fernandez, Yolanda M (October 2000). "Phallometric testing with sexual offenders". Clinical Psychology Review. 20 (7): 807–822. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00013-6. PMID 11057373.
  22. ^ Barbaree, Howard E.; Marshall, William L. (1991). "The role of male sexual arousal in rape: Six models". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 59 (5): 621–630. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.59.5.621. PMID 1955598.
  23. ^ a b c Bamford, Jennifer; Chou, Shihning; Browne, Kevin D. (May 2016). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of the characteristics of multiple perpetrator sexual offences". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 28: 82–94. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2016.04.001.
  24. ^ Marshall, W.L. (1989). "Intimacy, loneliness and sexual offenders". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 27 (5): 491–504. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(89)90083-1. PMID 2684132.
  25. ^ Hall, Gordon C. Nagayama; Hirschman, Richard (1991). "Toward a theory of sexual aggression: A quadripartite model". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 59 (5): 662–669. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.59.5.662. PMID 1955601.
  26. ^ Baumeister, Roy F.; Catanese, Kathleen R.; Wallace, Harry M. (March 2002). "Conquest by Force: A Narcissistic Reactance Theory of Rape and Sexual Coercion". Review of General Psychology. 6 (1): 92–135. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.1.92. S2CID 144066728.
  27. ^ a b Heise L, Moore K, Toubia N. Sexual coercion and women's reproductive health: a focus on research. New York, NY, Population Council, 1995.
  28. ^ . Geneva, World Health Organization, 1997 (document WHO/FRH/WHD/97.8).
  29. ^ a b Miczek KA et al. (1993) "Alcohol, drugs of abuse, aggression and violence". In: Reiss AJ, Roth JA, eds. Understanding and preventing violence. Vol. 3. Social influences. Washington, DC, National Academy Press, pp. 377–570.
  30. ^ Grisso, JA; Schwarz, DF; Hirschinger, N; Sammel, M; Brensinger, C; Santanna, J; Lowe, RA; Anderson, E; Shaw, LM (1999). "Violent injuries among women in an urban area". The New England Journal of Medicine. 341 (25): 1899–1905. doi:10.1056/NEJM199912163412506. PMID 10601510.
  31. ^ Abby A, Ross LT, McDuffie D. Alcohol's role in sexual assault. In: Watson RR, ed. Drug and alcohol reviews. Vol. 5. Addictive behaviors in women. Totowa, NJ, Humana Press, 1995.
  32. ^ McDonald M, ed. Gender, drink and drugs. Oxford, Berg Publishers, 1994.
  33. ^ Young, R.; Sweeting, H.; West, P. (2008-01-23). "A longitudinal study of alcohol use and antisocial behaviour in young people". Alcohol and Alcoholism. 43 (2): 204–214. doi:10.1093/alcalc/agm147. ISSN 0735-0414. PMC 2367698. PMID 17977868.
  34. ^ Are rapists on pleasure or power trips? – book by James Tedeschi and Richard Felson, 'Aggression and Coercive Actions: A Social-Interactionist Perspective,' advocates rape as an act for sexual pleasure. Findarticles.com (1994-09-05). Retrieved on 2011-10-01.
  35. ^ a b McKibbin, William F.; Shackelford, Todd K.; Goetz, Aaron T.; Starratt, Valerie G. (March 2008). "Why Do Men Rape? An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective". Review of General Psychology. 12 (1): 86–97. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.12.1.86. S2CID 804014.
  36. ^ Baxter DJ, Barbaree HE, Marshall WL (1986). "Sexual responses to consenting and forced sex in a large sample of rapists and nonrapists". Behav Res Ther. 24 (5): 513–20. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(86)90031-8. PMID 3753378.
  37. ^ a b Drieschner K, Lange A (1999). "A review of cognitive factors in the aetiology of rape: theories, empirical studies and implications". Clinical Psychology Review. 19 (1): 57–77. doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(98)00016-6. PMID 9987584.
  38. ^ Dean KE, Malamuth NM (1997). "Characteristics of men who aggress sexually and of men who imagine aggressing: risk and moderating variables". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 72 (2): 449–55. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.449. PMID 9107010.
  39. ^ a b Ouimette PC, Riggs D (1998). "Testing a mediational model of sexually aggressive behavior in nonincarcerated perpetrators". Violence and Victims. 13 (2): 117–130. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.13.2.117. PMID 9809392. S2CID 33967482.
  40. ^ Koss, MP; Dinero, TE (1989). "Discriminant analysis of risk factors for sexual victimisation among a national sample of college women". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 57 (2): 242–50. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.57.2.242. PMID 2708612.
  41. ^ a b Malamuth NM (1998). "A multidimensional approach to sexual aggression: combining measures of past behavior and present likelihood" (PDF). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 528: 113–146. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1988.tb50855.x. PMID 3421587. S2CID 38845793.[dead link]
  42. ^ a b c Crowell NA, Burgess AW (eds.) Understanding violence against women. Washington, DC, National Academy Press, 1996.[page needed]
  43. ^ Malamuth NM, et al. (1991). "The characteristics of aggressors against women: testing a model using a national sample of college students". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 59 (5): 670–681. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.59.5.670. PMID 1955602.
  44. ^ Lisak, David; Roth, Susan (1990). "Motives and psychodynamics of selfreported, unincarcerated rapists". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 60 (2): 584–589. doi:10.1037/h0079178. PMID 2188510.
  45. ^ Lisak, D.; Roth, S. (1988). "Motivational factors in nonincarcerated sexually aggressive men". J Pers Soc Psychol. 55 (5): 795–802. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.795. PMID 3210146.
  46. ^ Marshall WL, Moulden H (2001). "Hostility toward women and victim empathy in rapists". Sex Abuse. 13 (4): 249–55. doi:10.1177/107906320101300403. PMID 11677926. S2CID 23027856.
  47. ^ (PDF). Nobel Women's initiative. May 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-12. Retrieved 2015-11-10.
  48. ^ Brown C (2012). "Rape as a weapon of war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo". Torture. 22 (1): 24–37. PMID 23086003.
  49. ^ "Rape: Weapon of war". OHCHR.
  50. ^ "Syrian child refugees face exploitation, UNICEF says". Reuters. 10 Oct 2013.
  51. ^ MADRE, et al. Gender-Based Violence Against Haitian Women & Girls in Internal Displacement Camps[permanent dead link]; Submitted to the 12th Session of the Universal Periodic Review. 2011. p. 5.
  52. ^ MADRE, et al. Gender-Based Violence Against Haitian Women & Girls in Internal Displacement Camps[permanent dead link]; Submitted to the 12th Session of the Universal Periodic Review. 2011. pp. 2–3
  53. ^ MADRE, et al. Our Bodies Are Still Trembling: Haitian Women Continue to Fight Against Rape 2011-08-15 at the Wayback Machine. 2011. pp. 11–12.
  54. ^ Breiding, Matthew J.; Basile, Kathleen C.; Klevens, Joanne; Smith, Sharon G. (2017). "Economic Insecurity and Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Victimization". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 53 (4): 457, 460. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2017.03.021. PMC 6426442. PMID 28501239 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  55. ^ Loya, Rebecca M. (2014). "The Role of Sexual Violence in Creating and Maintaining Economic Insecurity Among Asset-Poor Women of Color". Violence Against Women. 20 (11): 1299, 1308–1309. doi:10.1177/1077801214552912. PMID 25288596. S2CID 44525662 – via Sage Journals.
  56. ^ Terry, Geraldine (January 19, 2007). "Poverty Reduction and Violence Against Women: Exploring Links, Assessing Impact". Development in Practice. 14 (4): 473–474. doi:10.1080/09614520410001686070. S2CID 153867545 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  57. ^ Post, Lori A.; Mezey, Nancy J.; Maxwell, Christopher; Novales Wilbert, Wilma (2002). "The Rape Tax: Tangible and Intangible Costs of Sexual Violence". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 17 (7): 777, 779. doi:10.1177/0886260502017007005. S2CID 145374580 – via Sage Journals.
  58. ^ Loya, Rebecca M. (2014). "The Role of Sexual Violence in Creating and Maintaining Economic Insecurity Among Asset-Poor Women of Color". Violence Against Women. 20 (11): 1299, 1303–1308. doi:10.1177/1077801214552912. PMID 25288596. S2CID 44525662.
  59. ^ Morrell R, ed. Changing men in Southern Africa. Pietermaritzburg, University of Natal Press, 2001.
  60. ^ Jewkes R (2002). "Intimate partner violence: causes and prevention". Lancet. 359 (9315): 1423–1429. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08357-5. PMID 11978358. S2CID 18574662.
  61. ^ a b Bourgois P (1996). "In search of masculinity: violence, respect and sexuality among Puerto Rican crack dealers in East Harlem". British Journal of Criminology. 36 (3): 412–427. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a014103.
  62. ^ a b Wood K, Jewkes R. "'Dangerous' love: reflections on violence among Xhosa township youth". In: Morrell R, ed. Changing Men in Southern Africa. Pietermaritzburg, University of Natal Press, 2001.
  63. ^ Silberschmidt M (2001). "Disempowerment of men in rural and urban East Africa: implications for male identity and sexual behavior" (PDF). World Development. 29 (4): 657–671. doi:10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00122-4.
  64. ^ Watts C, Zimmerman C (2002). "Violence against women: global scope and magnitude". Lancet. 359 (9313): 1232–1237. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08221-1. PMID 11955557. S2CID 38436965.
  65. ^ Antrobus P. "Reversing the impact of structural adjustment on women's health". In: Antrobus P et al., eds. We speak for ourselves: population and development. Washington, DC, Panos Institute, 1994:6–8.
  66. ^ Omorodion FI, Olusanya O (1998). "The social context of reported rape in Benin City, Nigeria". African Journal of Reproductive Health. 2: 37–43.
  67. ^ Faune MA. Centroamerica: los costos de la guerra y la paz. [Central America: the costs of war and of peace.] Perspectivas, 1997, 8:14–15.
  68. ^ Libya rape victims 'face honor killings' – BBC News. Bbc.co.uk (2011-06-14). Retrieved on 2015-11-30.
  69. ^ Maldives girl to get 100 lashes for pre-marital sex – BBC News. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved on 2015-11-30.
  70. ^ Morocco protest after raped Amina Filali kills herself – BBC News. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved on 2015-11-30.
  71. ^ Edwards, Haley Sweetland (November 16, 2017). "An 87-Year-Old Nun Said She Was Raped in Her Nursing Home. Here's Why She Couldn't Sue". Time.
  72. ^ Rozée, Patricia D. (December 1993). "Forbidden or forgiven?: Rape in cross-cultural perspective". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 17 (4): 499–514. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1993.tb00658.x. S2CID 146700562.
  73. ^ Coy, Maddy; Kelly, Liz; Horvath, Miranda A.H. (2012), "Troubling notions of male entitlement: men consuming, boasting and confessing about paying for sex", in Coy, Maddy (ed.), Prostitution, harm and gender inequality: theory, research and policy, Farnham, Surrey, England Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate, pp. 121–140, ISBN 9781409405450.
  74. ^ Ariffin, Rohana; Women's Crisis Centre (Pinang, Malaysia) (1997). Shame, secrecy, and silence: study on rape in Penang. Women's Crisis Centre. ISBN 978-983-99348-0-9.
  75. ^ Bennett L, Manderson L, Astbury J. Mapping a global pandemic: review of current literature on rape, sexual assault and sexual harassment of women 2012-11-02 at the Wayback Machine. University of Melbourne, 2000.
  76. ^ Jewkes R, Abrahams N (2002). "The epidemiology of rape and sexual coercion in South Africa: an overview". Social Science & Medicine. 55 (7): 1231–44. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(01)00242-8. PMID 12365533.
  77. ^ Sen P. (1999) Ending the Presumption of Consent: Nonconsensual Sex in Marriage. London, Centre for Health and Gender Equity
  78. ^ Buckley T, Gottlieb A. (1998) Blood Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation. Berkeley, CA, University of California.
  79. ^ a b Sanday P (1981). "The socio-cultural context of rape: a cross-cultural study". Journal of Social Issues. 37 (4): 5–27. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1981.tb01068.x.
  80. ^ Smutt M, Miranda JLE. "El Salvador: socializacio´n y violencia juvenil". [El Salvador: socialization and juvenile violence.] In: Ramos CG, ed. America Central en los noventa: problemas de juventud. [Central America in the 90s: Youth Problems.] San Salvador, Latin American Faculty of Social Sciences, 1998:151–187.
  81. ^ Watkins B, Bentovim A (1992). "The sexual abuse of male children and adolescents: a review of current research". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 33 (1): 197–248. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1992.tb00862.x. PMID 1737828.
  82. ^ Dobash E, Dobash R. Women, violence and social change. London, Routledge, 1992.[page needed]
  83. ^ Wood K, Maepa J, Jewkes R. Adolescent sex and contraceptive experiences: perspectives of teenagers and clinic nurses in the Northern Province. Pretoria, Medical Research Council, 1997 (Technical Report).
  84. ^ Hadidi M, Kulwicki A, Jahshan H (2001). "A review of 16 cases of honour killings in Jordan in 1995". International Journal of Legal Medicine. 114 (6): 357–359. doi:10.1007/s004140000166. PMID 11508804. S2CID 30655492.
  85. ^ Brownmiller, Susan (1993). Against our will: men, women, and rape. New York: Fawcett Columbine. ISBN 978-0-449-90820-4.
  86. ^ a b Ellis, Lee (1989). Theories of rape: inquiries into the causes of sexual aggression. Washington, D.C: Hemisphere Pub. Corp. ISBN 978-0-89116-172-1.
  87. ^ Lee Ellisa; Charles Beattie (1983). "The feminist explanation for rape: An empirical test". Journal of Sex Research. 19: 74–93. doi:10.1080/00224498309551170.
  88. ^ Jozkowski, Kristen N.; Peterson, Zoë D. (2013). "College Students and Sexual Consent: Unique Insights". Journal of Sex Research. 50 (6): 517–523. doi:10.1080/00224499.2012.700739. ISSN 0022-4499. PMID 23039912. S2CID 46481762.
  89. ^ "Sexual pressure and young people's negotiation of consent" (PDF). Australian Centre for the Study of Sexual Assault Newsletter. Australian Institute of Family Studies. 14 June 2007.
  90. ^ Struckman-Johnson, David; Struckman-Johnson, Cindy (1991). "Men and women's acceptance of coercive sexual strategies varied by initiator gender and couple intimacy". Sex Roles. 25 (11–12): 661–676. doi:10.1007/BF00289570. S2CID 144757765.
  91. ^ Bolotnikova, Marina N. (2012-03-26) Rape and The Gatekeeper Narrative | Opinion | The Harvard Crimson. Thecrimson.com. Retrieved on 2015-11-30.
  92. ^ Emmers-Sommer, Tara M.; Allen, Mike (2004). Safer Sex in Personal Relationships: The Role of Sexual Scripts in HIV Infection and Prevention. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-1-4106-1168-0.
  93. ^ Gender Stratification 2011-07-06 at the Wayback Machine. Wps.pearsoned.ca. Retrieved on 2011-10-01.
  94. ^ Interview with Catherine MacKinnon : Are Women Human ?. Sisyphe.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-01.
  95. ^ a b Sexual Scripts, Sexual Double Standards, Rape Myth Acceptance, and Perceptions of Acquaintance Rape Among University Students at Vilnius University, Vilnius Lithuania – Stromberg. Lituanus.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-01.
  96. ^ The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality: Thailand 2008-07-29 at the Wayback Machine. hu-berlin.de. Retrieved on 2011-10-01.
  97. ^ Trend, David (2016-04-28). Elsewhere in America: The Crisis of Belonging in Contemporary Culture. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-22543-0.
  98. ^ Sexual Coercion: Young men's experiences as victims and perpetrators 2011-07-25 at the Wayback Machine. popcouncil.org. June 2004
  99. ^ Smuts, Barbara B. Male Aggression and Sexual Coercion of Females in Nonhuman Primates and Other Mammals: Evidence and Theoretical Implications. Advances in the Study of Behavior 22 (1993)

Further reading edit

External links edit

  • Rape Crisis Information Pathfinder – Find journal articles, statistics and online resources on rape and sexual assault. Includes male survivor information
  • Sexual Violence Facts from the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control

causes, sexual, violence, this, article, written, like, personal, reflection, personal, essay, argumentative, essay, that, states, wikipedia, editor, personal, feelings, presents, original, argument, about, topic, please, help, improve, rewriting, encyclopedic. This article is written like a personal reflection personal essay or argumentative essay that states a Wikipedia editor s personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style June 2020 Learn how and when to remove this message Sexual violence refers to a range of completed or attempted sexual acts in which the affected party does not or is unable to consent 1 2 Theories on the causes of sexual violence are numerous and have come out of many different disciplines such as women s studies public health and criminal justice 3 Proposed causes include military conquest socioeconomics anger power sadism traits ethical standards laws and evolutionary pressures Most of the research on the causes of sexual violence has focused on male offenders 4 Contents 1 Types of rapists 1 1 Anger rapists 1 2 Power assertive rapist 1 3 Sadistic rapists 2 The propensity models of sexual aggression 2 1 Cognitive and attitudinal biases 2 2 Neuropsychological processes 2 3 Deviant sexual preferences 2 4 Personality disorders and traits 2 4 1 Insecure attachment lens 2 4 2 Antisocial personality traits quadripartite lens 2 4 3 Narcissistic personality lens 3 Individual factors 3 1 Known victim 3 2 Drug facilitated sexual assault 3 3 Sexual gratification 3 4 Psychological factors 3 5 Research on convicted rapists 4 Societal and economic factors 4 1 War and natural disasters 4 2 Poverty and economic instability 4 3 Social norms 5 Family and other social supports 5 1 Early childhood environments 5 2 Family honor and sexual purity 6 Social climate theories 6 1 Feminist theories of male female rape 6 2 Rape culture 6 3 Gender based socialization and sexual scripts 6 4 Sex industry and sexual assault 7 Evolutionary explanations 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External linksTypes of rapists editMain articles Types of rape and Types of rapists Clinical psychologist 5 Nicholas Groth has described several different types of rape 6 A detailed conceptual analysis shows that objectification might underlie denial of agency and personhood that leads to rape 7 Anger rapists edit See also Corrective rape The goal of these rapists is to humiliate debase and hurt their victims They use an excessive amount of force whether or not victims resist Also they express their contempt for their victims through physical violence and profane language For these rapists sex is a weapon to defile and degrade the victim rape constitutes the ultimate expression of their anger This rapist considers rape the ultimate offense they can commit against the victim Friends and acquaintances of anger rapists may report a dark side to their personalities or lifestyles 8 Anger rape is characterized by physical brutality much more physical force is used during the assault than would be necessary if the intent were simply to overpower the victim and achieve penetration This type of offender attacks their victim by grabbing striking and knocking the victim to the ground beating them tearing their clothes and raping them The experience for the offender is one of conscious anger and rage 6 Power assertive rapist edit For these rapists rape becomes a way to compensate for their underlying feelings of inadequacy and feeds their issues of mastery control dominance strength intimidation authority and capability The intent of the power rapist is to assert their competency The power rapist relies upon verbal threats intimidation with a weapon and only uses the amount of force necessary to subdue the victims Rapes committed by this perpetrator are more impulsive spontaneous and unplanned Victims are frequently encountered by coincidence such as at pubs clubs or parties Their attack is characterized by a modest level of force applied over a brief period of time Unlike the power reassurance rapist the power assertive rapist sees himself as a macho man who wants to prove his virility to women His language is abrasive and laced with profanities 9 The power rapist often will assume that the assault was not an assault because of their rape supportive attitudes Power rapists are often in a mind set that they are entitled to their own pleasure regardless of the victims feelings or lack of desire In the article Sexual Perpetrators Justifications for Their Actions it says One perpetrator who forced his steady dating partner to have sex after she willingly touched his penis said I felt as if I had gotten something that I was entitled to And I felt like I was repaying her for sexually arousing me 10 There is a clear tendency for a rapist to have fantasies about sexual experiences and assume that they are enjoying it or grateful for it even when they resist 10 Because this is only a fantasy the rapist does not feel reassured for long by either their own performance or the victim s response The rapist feels that they must find another victim convinced that this victim will be the right one Hence their offenses may become repetitive and compulsive They may commit a series of rapes over a short period of time 11 Sadistic rapists edit These rapists have a sexual association with anger and power so that aggression and the infliction of pain itself are eroticized For this rapist sexual excitement is associated with the inflicting of pain upon their victim The offender finds the intentional maltreatment of their victim intensely gratifying and takes pleasure in the victim s torment pain anguish distress helplessness and suffering 12 they find the victim s struggling with them to be an erotic experience The sadistic rapist s assaults are deliberate calculated and preplanned They will often wear a disguise or will blindfold their victims 12 Prostitutes or other people whom they perceive to be vulnerable are often the sadistic rapist s targets The victims of a sadistic rapist may not survive the attack For some offenders the ultimate satisfaction is gained from murdering the victim 6 The propensity models of sexual aggression editThe propensity approach to sexual aggression focuses on the traits features that are stable and fixed over time that can increase the probability that someone will commit an act of sexual violence 13 Cognitive and attitudinal biases edit The cognitive traits and attitudinal biases associated with a propensity to commit acts of sexual aggression come from socio cultural research and says that forms of sexual aggression come from false beliefs of gender relations misdirected objectives i e only dating to have sex and erroneous impressions of social interactions linked to gender relations 14 Research focusing specifically on gender relations within the context of sexual assault have found that conformance to notions of male entitlement suspicion of the opposite sex perceiving violence as a reasonable method for solving problems and holding the traditional patriarchal attitudes that specific societal roles belong to specific genders are found to adhere to the concept of male entitlement superiority in the context of gender relations 15 The cognitive biases that add to one s propensity to commit acts of sexual violence include a feeling of entitlement entitlement to sex and the beliefs that women are sex objects men s sexual drive is uncontrollable society is dangerous and women are unpredictable and dangerous 16 Neuropsychological processes edit The neuropsychological deficits that may contribute to a propensity for sexual assault include difficulties in self regulation executive functioning problems perception memory system problems arousal motivation system deficits and problems in the action selection system 17 The difficulties arise when sexual aggressors are not able to understand their emotional states so that when confronted with a situation that trigger their arousal motivation systems they become confused and may have issues controlling their behavior 18 An inability to adapt plans to deal with unforeseen situations or having limited problem solving skills the action selection system and maintaining maladaptive beliefs categorized by erroneous interpretations of social encounters perception memory systems can also contribute to a greater tendency to commit acts of sexual violence 19 Deviant sexual preferences edit Research focusing on the deviant sexual preferences propensity model suggests that people who perpetrate acts of sexual violence are sexually aroused by non consensual sexual interactions more than consensual sexual interactions The research that seeks to support this model penile plethysmography has not been able to reliably find differences in the two different groups of males those who have committed acts of sexual aggression and those who have not 20 Instead the studies are providing more evidence for the cognitive attitudinal neuropsychological and lifestyle differences that impact sexual arousal in certain situations rather than a deviant sexual preference leading to a higher propensity for sexual violence 21 22 Personality disorders and traits edit The last propensity model of sexual violence views the perpetrators of sexual violence through three lenses of different personality traits with interpersonal functioning being the most important factor in whether a person will have a higher propensity for sexual violence This model is based on the idea that sexual aggression is indicative of problems starting and managing enjoyable intimate relationships 23 Insecure attachment lens edit The insecure attachment style lens stems from research done on sexual aggressors that characterized them as people who had insecure attachment styles as a result of child abuse parental divorce etc manifested as low self esteem an inability to develop relationships with others and significant emotional loneliness 24 Through the lens of this model sexual aggression is used as a faulty means of fulfilling intimacy needs Antisocial personality traits quadripartite lens edit The antisocial personality lens stems from a study done by Hall and Hirschman 1991 25 and emphasizes the subsequent consequences of experiencing adversities abuses in childhood which can lead to the development of antisocial personality traits in adulthood The antisocial personality traits combine with contextual emotional rage anger cognitive irrational thoughts that influence emotions and physiological deviant sexual arousal factors that increase the probability of committing sexual violence 23 Narcissistic personality lens edit Lastly the narcissistic lens emphasizes the assumption that individuals with narcissistic personality traits are more likely to interpret refusal of sexual advances as insults and in turn will have an adverse reaction to such insults narcissistic injury 23 This lens is best used when describing sexual violence that includes known victims such as incest date rape domestic abuse etc because it is not able to adequately explain sexual violence such as stranger rape 26 Individual factors editKnown victim edit Data on sexually violent individuals show that most direct their acts at individuals whom they already know 27 28 Drug facilitated sexual assault edit Main article Drug facilitated sexual assault Drug facilitated sexual assault DFSA also known as predator rape is a sexual assault carried out after the victim has become incapacitated due to having consumed alcoholic beverages or other drugs Alcohol has been shown to play a disinhibiting role in certain types of sexual assault 29 as have some other drugs notably cocaine 30 Alcohol has a psychopharmacological effect of reducing inhibitions clouding judgements and impairing the ability to interpret cues 31 The biological links between alcohol and violence are however complex 29 Research on the social anthropology of alcohol consumption suggests that connections between violence drinking and drunkenness are socially learned rather than universal 32 Some researchers have noted 33 that alcohol may act as a cultural break time providing the opportunity for antisocial behavior Judgments are more likely to act violently when drunk because they do not consider that they will be held accountable for their behavior Some forms of group sexual violence are also associated with drinking In these settings consuming alcohol is an act of group bonding where inhibitions are collectively reduced and individual judgment ceded in favor of the group Sexual gratification edit In 1994 Richard Felson and James Tedeschi coauthored the controversial book Aggression and Coercive Actions A Social Interactionist Perspective which argues that rapists are motivated by sexual entitlement rather than the aggressive desire to dominate the victim 34 Felson believes that rape is an aggressive form of sexual coercion and the goals of rape are sexual entitlement and gaining a sense of power Meta analyses indicate that convicted rapists demonstrate greater sexual arousal to scenes of sexual coercion involving force than do non rapists 35 In one study male rapists evaluated with penile plethysmography demonstrated more arousal to forced sex and less discrimination between forced and consensual sex than non rapist control subjects though both groups responded more strongly to consensual sex scenarios 36 Psychological factors edit There has been considerable research in recent times on the role of cognitive variables among the set of factors that can lead to rape A detailed conceptual analysis shows that objectification might underlie denial of agency and personhood that leads to rape 7 Sexually violent men have been shown to be more likely to consider victims responsible for the rape and less knowledgeable about the impact of rape on victims 37 Such men may misread cues given out by women in social situations and may lack the inhibitions that act to suppress associations between sex and aggression 37 They may have coercive sexual fantasies 38 and overall are more hostile towards women than men who are not sexually violent 39 40 41 In addition to these factors sexually violent men are believed to differ from other men in terms of impulsivity and antisocial tendencies 42 They also tend to have an exaggerated sense of masculinity Sexual violence is also associated with a preference for impersonal sexual relationships as opposed to emotional bonding dubious discuss with having many sexual partners and with the inclination to assert personal interests at the expense of others 41 43 A further association is with adversarial attitudes on gender which hold that women are opponents to be challenged and conquered 44 Research on convicted rapists edit The research on convicted rapists has found several important motivational factors in the sexual aggression of males Those motivational factors repeatedly implicated are having anger at women and having the need to control or dominate them 45 A study by Marshall et al 2001 found that male rapists had less empathy toward women who had been sexually assaulted by an unknown assailant and more hostility toward women than non sex offenders and nonoffender males females 46 Meta analyses indicate that convicted rapists demonstrate greater sexual arousal to scenes of sexual coercion involving force than do non rapists 35 Societal and economic factors editFactors operating at a societal level that influence sexual violence include laws and national policies relating to gender equality in general and to sexual violence more specifically as well as norms relating to the use of violence While the various factors operate largely at local level within families schools workplaces and communities there are also influences from the laws and norms working at national and even international levels War and natural disasters edit Main article Wartime sexual violence Lawlessness during wars and civil conflicts can create a culture of impunity towards human rights abuses of civilians Some irregular armies and militias tacitly endorse looting of civilian areas as a way for troops to supplement their meagre incomes and promote pillaging and rape of civilians as a reward for victory 47 48 In 2008 the United Nations Security Council argued that women and girls are particularly targeted by the use of sexual violence including as a tactic of war to humiliate dominate instil fear in disperse and or forcibly relocate civilian members of a community or ethnic group 49 Refugees and internally displaced people who flee their homes during war and major disasters can experience human trafficking for sexual or labour exploitation due to the breakdown of economies and law and order 50 Speaking at the UN General Assembly in 2010 the UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women its Causes and Consequences noted women s particular vulnerability and increased risk of experiencing violence following disasters 51 Following the 2010 Haiti earthquake large numbers of women and girls living in Internally Displaced Persons camps experienced sexual violence 52 The Inter American Commission on Human Rights recognized the need for state actors to respond to gender based violence committed by private actors in response to a petition by Haitian groups and human rights lawyers calling on the Haitian government and international actors to take immediate measures like increasing lighting security and access to medical care to address sexual violence against women and girls in the IDP camps 53 Poverty and economic instability edit Poverty has been identified as a contributing factor to both the perpetration and victimization of sexual violence Significant correlations have been found between sexual violence victimization and unmet physical needs such as housing and food insecurity 54 55 Some development and policy scholars have also described the fiscal and social emotional costs of sexual violence such as medical expenses and mental health issues These costs can increase a victim s risk of falling into poverty or make it more difficult to get out of it 56 57 58 Several authors have argued that the relationship between poverty and perpetration of sexual violence is mediated through forms of crisis of masculine identity 59 60 61 62 63 For example Philippe Bourgois wrote about how young men in East Harlem New York felt pressured by models of successful masculinity and family structure passed down from their parents and grandparents generations alongside modern day ideals of manhood that emphasize material consumption In this context gang rape and sexual conquest are normalized as men turn their aggression against women they can no longer control patriarchally or support economically 61 National and international economic shifts have been correlated with changes in the rate of sexual violence regionally and globally For example the global trend towards free trade has been accompanied by an increase in the trafficking women and girls including sex trafficking 64 Some development researchers have claimed that globalization has increased poverty and unemployment in a number of countries thus increasing the likelihood of sex trafficking and other forms of sexual violence 65 Central America the Caribbean and parts of Africa have been cited as examples 66 67 Social norms edit Further information Adultery Honor killing and Stoning Women in various countries face serious risks if they report rape These risks include being subjected to violence including honor killings by their families being prosecuted for sex outside marriage or being forced to marry their rapist 68 69 70 This creates a culture of impunity that allows rape to go unpunished Delegation clauses used in many nursing home contracts have been blamed for effectively permitting the rape of residents 71 Sexual violence committed by men is to a large extent rooted in ideologies of male sexual entitlement How deeply entrenched in a community beliefs in male superiority and entitlement to sex are will greatly affect the likelihood of sexual violence taking place as will the general tolerance in the community of sexual assault and the strength of sanctions if any against perpetrators 27 72 73 These belief systems grant women extremely few legitimate options to refuse sexual advances 62 74 75 Some men thus simply exclude the possibility that their sexual advances towards a woman might be rejected or that a woman has the right to make an autonomous decision about participating in sex In some cultures women as well as men regard marriage as entailing the obligation on women to be sexually available virtually without limit 76 77 though sex may be culturally proscribed at certain times such as after childbirth or during menstruation 78 Societal norms around the use of violence as a means to achieve objectives have been strongly associated with the prevalence of rape In societies with a machismo ideology emphasizing dominance physical strength and male honor rape is more common 79 Countries with a culture of violence or where violent conflict is taking place experience an increase in almost all forms of violence including sexual violence 79 80 Family and other social supports editEarly childhood environments edit There is evidence to suggest that sexual violence is also a learned behavior in some adults particularly in regard to child sexual abuse Studies on sexually abused boys have shown that around one in five later molest children themselves 81 Childhood environments that are physically violent emotionally unsupportive and characterized by competition for scarce resources have been associated with sexual violence 42 82 Sexually aggressive behavior in young men for instance has been linked to witnessing family violence and having emotionally distant and uncaring fathers 39 Men raised in families with strongly patriarchal structures are also more likely to become violent to rape and use sexual coercion against women as well as to abuse their intimate partners than men raised in homes that are more egalitarian 42 Family honor and sexual purity edit Another factor involving social relationships is a family s response that blames women without punishing men concentrating instead on restoring lost family honor Such a response creates an environment in which rape can occur with impunity While families will often try to protect female members from rape and may also put their daughters on contraception to prevent visible signs should it occur 83 there is rarely much social pressure to control young men or persuade them that coercing sex is wrong where Instead in some countries there is frequently support for family members to do whatever is necessary including murder to alleviate the shame associated with a rape or other sexual transgression In a review of all honor killings occurring in Jordan in 1995 84 researchers found that in over 60 of the cases the victim died from multiple gunshot wounds mostly at the hands of a brother In cases where the victim was a single pregnant woman the offender was either acquitted of murder or received a reduced sentence Social climate theories editFeminist theories of male female rape edit A feminist theory of male female rape is summarized by Susan Brownmiller s statement rape is nothing more or less than a conscious process of intimidation by which all men keep all women in a state of fear 85 Some feminists assert that male domination of women in socio political and economic domains is the ultimate cause of most rapes and consider male female rape to be a crime of power that has little or nothing to do with sex itself 86 However a 1983 study comparing 14 indicators of male dominance and the incidence of rape in 26 American cities found no correlations except one where greater male dominance actually decreased the incidence of rape 87 Social learning theory of rape is similar to the feminist theory and links cultural traditions such as imitation sex violence linkages rape myths e g women secretly desire to be raped and desensitization to be the core causes of rape Rape culture edit Main article Rape culture Rape culture is a term used within women s studies and feminism describing a culture in which rape and other sexual violence usually against women are common and in which prevalent attitudes norms practices and media condone normalize excuse or encourage sexualized violence Within the paradigm acts of sexism are commonly employed to validate and rationalize normative misogynistic practices for instance sexist jokes may be told to foster disrespect for women and an accompanying disregard for their well being which ultimately make their rape and abuse seem acceptable Examples of behaviors said to typify rape culture include victim blaming trivializing prison rape and sexual objectification Rape culture as a concept and social reality was explored in detail in the 1975 film Rape Culture produced by Margaret Lazarus and Renner Wunderlich for Cambridge Documentary Films Gender based socialization and sexual scripts edit Studies of college aged sexually active men and women show they often conceptualize men as sexual initiators and women as sexual gatekeepers 88 89 90 It has been argued that sexual assault trials 91 as well as rape itself may be influenced by cultural narratives of men as sexual instigators 92 93 Boys are brought up to be sexually aggressive dominant and conquering as a way of affirming their masculinity Catharine MacKinnon argues that men rape for reasons that they share in common even with those who don t namely masculinity and their identification with masculine norms and in particular being the people who initiate sex and being the people who socially experience themselves as being affirmed by aggressive initiation of sexual interaction 94 According to Check and Malamuth 1983 men are taught to take the initiative and persist in sexual encounters while women are supposed to set the limits 95 This classical sexual script is often popularized through television shows popular films and pornography which depict the man making a sexual advance and the woman initially resisting but then finally positively responding by falling in love with him or experiencing orgasm Cowen Lee Levy and Snyder 1988 Malamuth and Check 1981 Smith 1976 Waggett 1989 The implied message is that men should persist beyond a woman s protest and women should say no even if they desire sex Muehlenhard and McCoy 1991 The more traditional the society the closer the adherence to this sexual script 95 For this reason many men do not believe that a woman means no when she says no and continue to pressure the woman and ultimately coerce or force her into sex consent often becomes confused with submission 96 In many societies men who do not act in a traditionally masculine way are ostracized by their peers and considered effeminate 97 In studies young males from Cambodia Mexico Peru and South Africa reported that they have participated in incidents where girls were coerced into sex such as gang rapes and that they did so as a way to prove their masculinity to their friends or under peer pressure and fear that they would be rejected if they did not participate in the assault 98 Sex industry and sexual assault edit Some theorists charge that the acceptance of these sexual practices increase sexual violence against women by reinforcing stereotypical views about women who are seen as sex objects which can be used and abused by men and by desensitizing men this being one of the reasons why some theorists oppose the sex industry They argue that pornography eroticizes the domination humiliation and coercion of women and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment The anti pornography feminist Andrea Dworkin has famously argued this point in her controversial Pornography Men Possessing Women 1981 Evolutionary explanations editMain article Sociobiological theories of rape Males who under some circumstances used force may have had greater reproductive success in the ancestral environment than males who did not employ force 86 Sociobiological theories of rape are theories that explore to what degree if any evolutionary adaptations influence the psychology of rapists Such theories are highly controversial as traditional theories typically do not consider rape to be a behavioral adaptation Some object to such theories on ethical religious political as well as scientific grounds Others argue that a correct knowledge of the causes of rape is necessary in order to develop effective preventive measures There is extensive research on sexual coercion 99 See also editFactors associated with being a victim of sexual violence Types of rape Sexual violence Women s fear of crimeReferences edit Basile Kathleen C Smith Sharon G Breiding Matthew J Black Michele C Mahendra Reshma 2014 Sexual Violence Surveillance Uniform Definitions and Recommended Data Elements PDF CDC Retrieved November 16 2023 Postmus Judy L 2013 Postmus Judy L ed Sexual Violence and Abuse An Encyclopedia of Prevention Impacts and Recovery Vol 1 Santa Barbara CA ABC CLIO p 128 ISBN 978 1 59884 755 0 Postmus Judy L 2013 Postmus Judy L ed Sexual Violence and Abuse An Encyclopedia of Prevention Impacts and Recovery Vol 1 Santa Barbara CA ABC CLIO pp xxv ISBN 978 1 59884 755 0 Stemple Lara Meyer Ilan H June 2014 The Sexual Victimization of Men in America New Data Challenge Old Assumptions American Journal of Public Health 104 6 e19 e26 doi 10 2105 AJPH 2014 301946 PMC 4062022 PMID 24825225 Male Rape Archived 2018 04 12 at the Wayback Machine secasa com au a b c Center for Sex Offender Management Lecture Content amp Teaching Notes Supervision of Sex Offenders in the Community An Overview Center for Sex Offender Management Archived from the original on 2018 01 09 Retrieved 2008 05 26 a b Awasthi B 2017 From Attire to Assault Clothing Objectification and De humanization A Possible Prelude to Sexual Violence Frontiers in Psychology 8 338 doi 10 3389 fpsyg 2017 00338 PMC 5344900 PMID 28344565 Pardue Angela Arrigo Bruce A August 2008 Power Anger and Sadistic Rapists Toward a Differentiated Model of Offender Personality International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 52 4 378 400 doi 10 1177 0306624X07303915 ISSN 0306 624X PMID 17684122 S2CID 6964656 Power Assertive Rapist Ebrary Retrieved 2022 06 09 a b Wegner Rhiana Abbey Antonia Pierce Jennifer Pegram Sheri E Woerner Jacqueline August 2015 Sexual Assault Perpetrators Justifications for Their Actions Relationships to Rape Supportive Attitudes Incident Characteristics and Future Perpetration Violence Against Women 21 8 1018 1037 doi 10 1177 1077801215589380 PMC 4491036 PMID 26056162 Center for Sex Offender Management Lecture Content amp Teaching Notes Supervision of Sex Offenders in the Community An Overview Center for Sex Offender Management Retrieved 2008 05 26 a b Groth Nicholas 1979 Men Who Rape The Psychology of the Offender New York Plenum Press pp 44 45 ISBN 978 0 306 40268 5 Lussier Patrick Cale Jesse November 2016 Understanding the origins and the development of rape and sexual aggression against women Four generations of research and theorizing Aggression and Violent Behavior 31 66 81 doi 10 1016 j avb 2016 07 008 hdl 20 500 11794 11108 Burt Martha R 1980 Cultural myths and supports for rape Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38 2 217 230 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 38 2 217 PMID 7373511 Malamuth N M 1998 An evolutionary based model integrating research on the characteristics of sexually coercive men Advances in Psychological Science 151 184 Polaschek Devon L L Gannon Theresa A October 2004 The Implicit Theories of Rapists What Convicted Offenders Tell Us Sexual Abuse A Journal of Research and Treatment 16 4 299 314 doi 10 1023 B SEBU 0000043325 94302 40 PMID 15560413 S2CID 195293085 Joyal Christian C Black Deborah N Dassylva Benoit 2 June 2007 The Neuropsychology and Neurology of Sexual Deviance A Review and Pilot Study Sexual Abuse A Journal of Research and Treatment 19 2 155 173 doi 10 1007 s11194 007 9045 4 PMID 17546499 S2CID 36392851 Ward Tony Beech Anthony January 2006 An integrated theory of sexual offending Aggression and Violent Behavior 11 1 44 63 doi 10 1016 j avb 2005 05 002 Lussier Patrick Leclerc Benoit Cale Jesse Proulx Jean 30 June 2016 Developmental Pathways of Deviance in Sexual Aggressors Criminal Justice and Behavior 34 11 1441 1462 doi 10 1177 0093854807306350 S2CID 146532064 Lalumiere Martin L Quinsey Vernon L Harris Grant T Rice Marnie E Trautrimas Caroline 24 January 2006 Are Rapists Differentially Aroused by Coercive Sex in Phallometric Assessments Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 989 1 211 224 doi 10 1111 j 1749 6632 2003 tb07307 x PMID 12839900 S2CID 43828606 Marshall W L Fernandez Yolanda M October 2000 Phallometric testing with sexual offenders Clinical Psychology Review 20 7 807 822 doi 10 1016 S0272 7358 99 00013 6 PMID 11057373 Barbaree Howard E Marshall William L 1991 The role of male sexual arousal in rape Six models Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 59 5 621 630 doi 10 1037 0022 006X 59 5 621 PMID 1955598 a b c Bamford Jennifer Chou Shihning Browne Kevin D May 2016 A systematic review and meta analysis of the characteristics of multiple perpetrator sexual offences Aggression and Violent Behavior 28 82 94 doi 10 1016 j avb 2016 04 001 Marshall W L 1989 Intimacy loneliness and sexual offenders Behaviour Research and Therapy 27 5 491 504 doi 10 1016 0005 7967 89 90083 1 PMID 2684132 Hall Gordon C Nagayama Hirschman Richard 1991 Toward a theory of sexual aggression A quadripartite model Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 59 5 662 669 doi 10 1037 0022 006X 59 5 662 PMID 1955601 Baumeister Roy F Catanese Kathleen R Wallace Harry M March 2002 Conquest by Force A Narcissistic Reactance Theory of Rape and Sexual Coercion Review of General Psychology 6 1 92 135 doi 10 1037 1089 2680 6 1 92 S2CID 144066728 a b Heise L Moore K Toubia N Sexual coercion and women s reproductive health a focus on research New York NY Population Council 1995 Violence against women a priority health issue Geneva World Health Organization 1997 document WHO FRH WHD 97 8 a b Miczek KA et al 1993 Alcohol drugs of abuse aggression and violence In Reiss AJ Roth JA eds Understanding and preventing violence Vol 3 Social influences Washington DC National Academy Press pp 377 570 Grisso JA Schwarz DF Hirschinger N Sammel M Brensinger C Santanna J Lowe RA Anderson E Shaw LM 1999 Violent injuries among women in an urban area The New England Journal of Medicine 341 25 1899 1905 doi 10 1056 NEJM199912163412506 PMID 10601510 Abby A Ross LT McDuffie D Alcohol s role in sexual assault In Watson RR ed Drug and alcohol reviews Vol 5 Addictive behaviors in women Totowa NJ Humana Press 1995 McDonald M ed Gender drink and drugs Oxford Berg Publishers 1994 Young R Sweeting H West P 2008 01 23 A longitudinal study of alcohol use and antisocial behaviour in young people Alcohol and Alcoholism 43 2 204 214 doi 10 1093 alcalc agm147 ISSN 0735 0414 PMC 2367698 PMID 17977868 Are rapists on pleasure or power trips book by James Tedeschi and Richard Felson Aggression and Coercive Actions A Social Interactionist Perspective advocates rape as an act for sexual pleasure Findarticles com 1994 09 05 Retrieved on 2011 10 01 a b McKibbin William F Shackelford Todd K Goetz Aaron T Starratt Valerie G March 2008 Why Do Men Rape An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective Review of General Psychology 12 1 86 97 doi 10 1037 1089 2680 12 1 86 S2CID 804014 Baxter DJ Barbaree HE Marshall WL 1986 Sexual responses to consenting and forced sex in a large sample of rapists and nonrapists Behav Res Ther 24 5 513 20 doi 10 1016 0005 7967 86 90031 8 PMID 3753378 a b Drieschner K Lange A 1999 A review of cognitive factors in the aetiology of rape theories empirical studies and implications Clinical Psychology Review 19 1 57 77 doi 10 1016 s0272 7358 98 00016 6 PMID 9987584 Dean KE Malamuth NM 1997 Characteristics of men who aggress sexually and of men who imagine aggressing risk and moderating variables Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72 2 449 55 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 72 2 449 PMID 9107010 a b Ouimette PC Riggs D 1998 Testing a mediational model of sexually aggressive behavior in nonincarcerated perpetrators Violence and Victims 13 2 117 130 doi 10 1891 0886 6708 13 2 117 PMID 9809392 S2CID 33967482 Koss MP Dinero TE 1989 Discriminant analysis of risk factors for sexual victimisation among a national sample of college women Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 57 2 242 50 doi 10 1037 0022 006x 57 2 242 PMID 2708612 a b Malamuth NM 1998 A multidimensional approach to sexual aggression combining measures of past behavior and present likelihood PDF Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 528 113 146 doi 10 1111 j 1749 6632 1988 tb50855 x PMID 3421587 S2CID 38845793 dead link a b c Crowell NA Burgess AW eds Understanding violence against women Washington DC National Academy Press 1996 page needed Malamuth NM et al 1991 The characteristics of aggressors against women testing a model using a national sample of college students Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 59 5 670 681 doi 10 1037 0022 006X 59 5 670 PMID 1955602 Lisak David Roth Susan 1990 Motives and psychodynamics of selfreported unincarcerated rapists Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60 2 584 589 doi 10 1037 h0079178 PMID 2188510 Lisak D Roth S 1988 Motivational factors in nonincarcerated sexually aggressive men J Pers Soc Psychol 55 5 795 802 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 55 5 795 PMID 3210146 Marshall WL Moulden H 2001 Hostility toward women and victim empathy in rapists Sex Abuse 13 4 249 55 doi 10 1177 107906320101300403 PMID 11677926 S2CID 23027856 War on Women Time for action to end sexual violence in conflict PDF Nobel Women s initiative May 2011 Archived from the original PDF on 2018 07 12 Retrieved 2015 11 10 Brown C 2012 Rape as a weapon of war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Torture 22 1 24 37 PMID 23086003 Rape Weapon of war OHCHR Syrian child refugees face exploitation UNICEF says Reuters 10 Oct 2013 MADRE et al Gender Based Violence Against Haitian Women amp Girls in Internal Displacement Camps permanent dead link Submitted to the 12th Session of the Universal Periodic Review 2011 p 5 MADRE et al Gender Based Violence Against Haitian Women amp Girls in Internal Displacement Camps permanent dead link Submitted to the 12th Session of the Universal Periodic Review 2011 pp 2 3 MADRE et al Our Bodies Are Still Trembling Haitian Women Continue to Fight Against Rape Archived 2011 08 15 at the Wayback Machine 2011 pp 11 12 Breiding Matthew J Basile Kathleen C Klevens Joanne Smith Sharon G 2017 Economic Insecurity and Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Victimization American Journal of Preventive Medicine 53 4 457 460 doi 10 1016 j amepre 2017 03 021 PMC 6426442 PMID 28501239 via Elsevier Science Direct Loya Rebecca M 2014 The Role of Sexual Violence in Creating and Maintaining Economic Insecurity Among Asset Poor Women of Color Violence Against Women 20 11 1299 1308 1309 doi 10 1177 1077801214552912 PMID 25288596 S2CID 44525662 via Sage Journals Terry Geraldine January 19 2007 Poverty Reduction and Violence Against Women Exploring Links Assessing Impact Development in Practice 14 4 473 474 doi 10 1080 09614520410001686070 S2CID 153867545 via Taylor amp Francis Online Post Lori A Mezey Nancy J Maxwell Christopher Novales Wilbert Wilma 2002 The Rape Tax Tangible and Intangible Costs of Sexual Violence Journal of Interpersonal Violence 17 7 777 779 doi 10 1177 0886260502017007005 S2CID 145374580 via Sage Journals Loya Rebecca M 2014 The Role of Sexual Violence in Creating and Maintaining Economic Insecurity Among Asset Poor Women of Color Violence Against Women 20 11 1299 1303 1308 doi 10 1177 1077801214552912 PMID 25288596 S2CID 44525662 Morrell R ed Changing men in Southern Africa Pietermaritzburg University of Natal Press 2001 Jewkes R 2002 Intimate partner violence causes and prevention Lancet 359 9315 1423 1429 doi 10 1016 S0140 6736 02 08357 5 PMID 11978358 S2CID 18574662 a b Bourgois P 1996 In search of masculinity violence respect and sexuality among Puerto Rican crack dealers in East Harlem British Journal of Criminology 36 3 412 427 doi 10 1093 oxfordjournals bjc a014103 a b Wood K Jewkes R Dangerous love reflections on violence among Xhosa township youth In Morrell R ed Changing Men in Southern Africa Pietermaritzburg University of Natal Press 2001 Silberschmidt M 2001 Disempowerment of men in rural and urban East Africa implications for male identity and sexual behavior PDF World Development 29 4 657 671 doi 10 1016 S0305 750X 00 00122 4 Watts C Zimmerman C 2002 Violence against women global scope and magnitude Lancet 359 9313 1232 1237 doi 10 1016 S0140 6736 02 08221 1 PMID 11955557 S2CID 38436965 Antrobus P Reversing the impact of structural adjustment on women s health In Antrobus P et al eds We speak for ourselves population and development Washington DC Panos Institute 1994 6 8 Omorodion FI Olusanya O 1998 The social context of reported rape in Benin City Nigeria African Journal of Reproductive Health 2 37 43 Faune MA Centroamerica los costos de la guerra y la paz Central America the costs of war and of peace Perspectivas 1997 8 14 15 Libya rape victims face honor killings BBC News Bbc co uk 2011 06 14 Retrieved on 2015 11 30 Maldives girl to get 100 lashes for pre marital sex BBC News Bbc co uk Retrieved on 2015 11 30 Morocco protest after raped Amina Filali kills herself BBC News Bbc co uk Retrieved on 2015 11 30 Edwards Haley Sweetland November 16 2017 An 87 Year Old Nun Said She Was Raped in Her Nursing Home Here s Why She Couldn t Sue Time Rozee Patricia D December 1993 Forbidden or forgiven Rape in cross cultural perspective Psychology of Women Quarterly 17 4 499 514 doi 10 1111 j 1471 6402 1993 tb00658 x S2CID 146700562 Coy Maddy Kelly Liz Horvath Miranda A H 2012 Troubling notions of male entitlement men consuming boasting and confessing about paying for sex in Coy Maddy ed Prostitution harm and gender inequality theory research and policy Farnham Surrey England Burlington Vermont Ashgate pp 121 140 ISBN 9781409405450 Ariffin Rohana Women s Crisis Centre Pinang Malaysia 1997 Shame secrecy and silence study on rape in Penang Women s Crisis Centre ISBN 978 983 99348 0 9 Bennett L Manderson L Astbury J Mapping a global pandemic review of current literature on rape sexual assault and sexual harassment of women Archived 2012 11 02 at the Wayback Machine University of Melbourne 2000 Jewkes R Abrahams N 2002 The epidemiology of rape and sexual coercion in South Africa an overview Social Science amp Medicine 55 7 1231 44 doi 10 1016 s0277 9536 01 00242 8 PMID 12365533 Sen P 1999 Ending the Presumption of Consent Nonconsensual Sex in Marriage London Centre for Health and Gender Equity Buckley T Gottlieb A 1998 Blood Magic The Anthropology of Menstruation Berkeley CA University of California a b Sanday P 1981 The socio cultural context of rape a cross cultural study Journal of Social Issues 37 4 5 27 doi 10 1111 j 1540 4560 1981 tb01068 x Smutt M Miranda JLE El Salvador socializacio n y violencia juvenil El Salvador socialization and juvenile violence In Ramos CG ed America Central en los noventa problemas de juventud Central America in the 90s Youth Problems San Salvador Latin American Faculty of Social Sciences 1998 151 187 Watkins B Bentovim A 1992 The sexual abuse of male children and adolescents a review of current research Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 33 1 197 248 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7610 1992 tb00862 x PMID 1737828 Dobash E Dobash R Women violence and social change London Routledge 1992 page needed Wood K Maepa J Jewkes R Adolescent sex and contraceptive experiences perspectives of teenagers and clinic nurses in the Northern Province Pretoria Medical Research Council 1997 Technical Report Hadidi M Kulwicki A Jahshan H 2001 A review of 16 cases of honour killings in Jordan in 1995 International Journal of Legal Medicine 114 6 357 359 doi 10 1007 s004140000166 PMID 11508804 S2CID 30655492 Brownmiller Susan 1993 Against our will men women and rape New York Fawcett Columbine ISBN 978 0 449 90820 4 a b Ellis Lee 1989 Theories of rape inquiries into the causes of sexual aggression Washington D C Hemisphere Pub Corp ISBN 978 0 89116 172 1 Lee Ellisa Charles Beattie 1983 The feminist explanation for rape An empirical test Journal of Sex Research 19 74 93 doi 10 1080 00224498309551170 Jozkowski Kristen N Peterson Zoe D 2013 College Students and Sexual Consent Unique Insights Journal of Sex Research 50 6 517 523 doi 10 1080 00224499 2012 700739 ISSN 0022 4499 PMID 23039912 S2CID 46481762 Sexual pressure and young people s negotiation of consent PDF Australian Centre for the Study of Sexual Assault Newsletter Australian Institute of Family Studies 14 June 2007 Struckman Johnson David Struckman Johnson Cindy 1991 Men and women s acceptance of coercive sexual strategies varied by initiator gender and couple intimacy Sex Roles 25 11 12 661 676 doi 10 1007 BF00289570 S2CID 144757765 Bolotnikova Marina N 2012 03 26 Rape and The Gatekeeper Narrative Opinion The Harvard Crimson Thecrimson com Retrieved on 2015 11 30 Emmers Sommer Tara M Allen Mike 2004 Safer Sex in Personal Relationships The Role of Sexual Scripts in HIV Infection and Prevention Taylor and Francis ISBN 978 1 4106 1168 0 Gender Stratification Archived 2011 07 06 at the Wayback Machine Wps pearsoned ca Retrieved on 2011 10 01 Interview with Catherine MacKinnon Are Women Human Sisyphe org Retrieved on 2011 10 01 a b Sexual Scripts Sexual Double Standards Rape Myth Acceptance and Perceptions of Acquaintance Rape Among University Students at Vilnius University Vilnius Lithuania Stromberg Lituanus org Retrieved on 2011 10 01 The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality Thailand Archived 2008 07 29 at the Wayback Machine hu berlin de Retrieved on 2011 10 01 Trend David 2016 04 28 Elsewhere in America The Crisis of Belonging in Contemporary Culture Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 22543 0 Sexual Coercion Young men s experiences as victims and perpetrators Archived 2011 07 25 at the Wayback Machine popcouncil org June 2004 Smuts Barbara B Male Aggression and Sexual Coercion of Females in Nonhuman Primates and Other Mammals Evidence and Theoretical Implications Advances in the Study of Behavior 22 1993 Further reading editMarnie E Rice Lalumiere Martin L Vernon L Quinsey 2005 The Causes Of Rape Understanding Individual Differences In Male Propensity For Sexual Aggression The Law and Public Policy American Psychological Association ISBN 978 1 59147 186 8 External links editRape Crisis Information Pathfinder Find journal articles statistics and online resources on rape and sexual assault Includes male survivor information Sexual Violence Facts from the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Causes of sexual violence amp oldid 1219764610 Physical environment, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.