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Magnesium battery

January 07, 2023

Magnesium batteries are batteries that utilize magnesium cations as the active charge transporting agents in solution and often as the elemental anode of an electrochemical cell. Both non-rechargeable primary cell and rechargeable secondary cell chemistries have been investigated. Magnesium primary cell batteries have been commercialised and have found use as reserve and general use batteries.

Magnesium secondary cell batteries are an active topic of research, specifically as a possible replacement or improvement over lithium-ion–based battery chemistries in certain applications. A significant advantage of magnesium cells is their use of a solid magnesium anode, allowing a higher energy density cell design than that made with lithium, which in many instances requires an intercalated lithium anode. Insertion-type anodes ('magnesium ion') have also been researched.

Primary cells

Primary magnesium cells have been developed since the early 20th century. In the reactive anode, they take advantage of the low stability and high energy of magnesium metal, whose bonding is weaker by more than 250 kJ/mol compared to iron and most other transition metals, which bond strongly via their partially filled d-orbitals. A number of chemistries for reserve battery types have been researched, with cathode materials including silver chloride, copper(I) chloride, palladium(II) chloride, copper(I) iodide, copper(I) thiocyanate, manganese dioxide and air (oxygen).[1] For example, a water-activated silver chloride/magnesium reserve battery became commercially available by 1943.[2]

The magnesium dry battery type BA-4386 was fully commercialised, with costs per unit approaching that of zinc batteries – in comparison to equivalent zinc-carbon cells the batteries had greater capacity by volume, and longer shelf life. The BA-4386 was widely used by the US military from 1968 until ca.1984 when it was replaced by a lithium thionyl chloride battery.[3][4]

A magnesium–air battery has a theoretical operating voltage of 3.1 V and energy density of 6.8 kWh/kg. General Electric produced a magnesium–air battery operating in neutral NaCl solution as early as the 1960s. The magnesium–air battery is a primary cell, but has the potential to be 'refuelable' by replacement of the anode and electrolyte. Some primary magnesium batteries have been commercialized and find use as land-based backup systems as well as undersea power sources, using seawater as the electrolyte.[5] The Mark 44 torpedo uses a water-activated magnesium battery.

Secondary cells

Overview

Secondary magnesium ion batteries, involving the reversible insertion and removal of Mg2+ ions in anodes and cathodes during charging and discharging, have been the subject of intensive research as a possible replacement or improvement on lithium-ion battery technologies in certain applications: In comparison to metallic lithium as an anode material, magnesium has a (theoretical) energy density per unit mass under half that of lithium (18.8 MJ/kg (~2205 mAh/g) vs. 42.3 MJ/kg), but a volumetric energy density around 50% higher (32.731 GJ/m3 (3833 mAh/mL) vs. 22.569 GJ/m3 ( 2046 mAh/mL).[6] In comparison to metallic lithium anodes, magnesium anodes do not exhibit dendrite formation, albeit only in certain nonaqueous solvents and at current densities below ca. 1 mA/cm2.[7] Such dendrite-free Mg deposition allows for magnesium metal to be used without an intercalation compound at the anode,[note 1] thus raising the theoretical maximum relative volumetric energy density to around 5 times that of a lithium graphite electrode.[10] Additionally, modeling and cell analysis have indicated that magnesium-based batteries may have a cost advantage over lithium due to the abundance of magnesium on earth and the relative scarcity of lithium deposits.[8][7]

Potential use of a Mg-based battery had been recognised as early as the 1990s based on V2O5, TiS2, or Ti2S4 cathode materials and magnesium metal anodes. However, observation of instabilities in the discharge state and uncertainties on the role of water in the electrolyte limited progress was reported.[11][12] In 2000, Israeli researchers reported dendrite-free Mg plating in AlCl3-ether electrolytes that show a fairy high (>2 V vs. Mg/Mg2+) anodic voltage stability limit.[13] In that work, however, a low voltage (and somewhat expensive) posode material (chevrel-type Mo6S8) was used for Mg2+ intercalation. Despite the decade-plus of research following that discovery, all attempts to develop a high-voltage Mg2+ intercalation posode for the chloroaluminate (and related, less corrosive, see below) electrolytes have failed.[14] It is worth noting, that electrochemical Mg2+ intercalation into many solid materials is well known, for example from aqueous electrolytes. The problem is to find posode materials that show intercalation from the same solutions, which display reversible Mg metal plating.

In contrast to the Mg-metal batteries, discussed in the previous paragraph, Mg-ion batteries do not use Mg-metal on the negode, but rather a solid material capable of intercalating Mg2+ ions. Such batteries usually use an aqueous or other polar electrolyte.[15] It is not clear if there is a commercially viable/competitive market niche for Mg-ion batteries.

Research

Anodes and electrolytes

A key drawback to using a metallic magnesium anode is the tendency to form a passivating (non-conducting) surface layer when recharging, blocking further charging (in contrast to lithium's behaviour).[16] The passivating layer was thought to originate from decomposition of the electrolyte during magnesium ion reduction. Common counter ions such as perchlorate and tetrafluoroborate were found to contribute to passivation, as were some common polar aprotic solvents such as carbonates and nitriles.[17] The formation of passivating layers on magnesium motivates the use of magnesium intermetallics as anode materials, as their lower reactivity with commonly used electrolytes makes them less prone to the formation of passivating layers. This is particularly true for the intermetallic compound Mg3Bi2, which constitutes a type of magnesium insertion electrode, based on reversible insertion of magnesium metal into a host compound.[18] In addition to bismuth, tin and antimony have also been used in compound insertion electrodes for magnesium ion batteries.[19] These have been shown to be able to prevent anode surface passivation, but suffered from anode destruction due to volumetric changes on insertion, as well as slow kinetics of insertion. Examples of insertion anode types researched include cycling between elemental Sn and Mg2Sn.[20][21][22]

Grignard based ethereal electrolytes have been shown not to passivate;[23] Magnesium organoborates also showed electroplating without passivation. The compound Mg(BPh2Bu2)2 was used in the first demonstrated rechargeable magnesium battery, but its usefulness was limited by electrochemical oxidation (i.e. a low anodic limit of the voltage window).[24] Other electrolytes researched include borohydrides, phenolates, alkoxides, amido based complexes (e.g. based on hexamethyldisilazane), carborane salts, fluorinated alkoxyborates, a Mg(BH4)(NH2) solid state electrolyte, and gel polymers containing Mg(AlCl2EtBu)2 in tetraglyme/PVDF.[25][26]

The current wave of interest in magnesium-metal batteries started in 2000, when an Israeli group reported reversible magnesium plating from mixed solutions of magnesium chloride and aluminium chloride in ethers, such as THF.[27][28] The primary advantage of this electrolyte is a significantly larger positive limit of the voltage window (and, thus, a higher battery voltage) than of the previously reported Mg plating electrolytes. Since then, several other Mg salts, less corrosive than chloride, have been reported.[29]

One drawback compared to lithium is magnesium's higher charge (+2) in solution, which tends to result in increased viscosity and reduced mobility in the electrolyte.[30] In solution a number of species may exist depending on counter ions/complexing agents – these often include singly charged species (e.g. MgCl+ in the presence of chloride) – though dimers are often formed (e.g. Mg2Cl3+).[31] The movement of the magnesium ion into cathode host lattices is also (as of 2014) problematically slow.[32]

In 2018 a chloride free electrolyte together with a quinone based polymer cathode demonstrated promising performance, with up to 243 Wh (870 kJ) per kg specific energy, up to 3.4 kW/kg specific power, and up to 87% retention at 2,500 cycles. The absence of chloride in the electrolyte was claimed to improve ion kinetics and so reduce the amount of electrolyte used, increasing performance.[33]

A promising approach could be the combination of a Mg anode with a sulfur/carbon cathode.[34] Then, a non-nucleophilic electrolyte is necessary which does not convert the sulfur into sulfide just by its reducing properties. Such electrolytes have been developed on the basis of chlorine-containing [35][36][37] and chlorine-free complex salts.[26] The electrolyte in [26] is a Mg salt containing Mg cation and two boron-hexafluoroisoproplylate groups as anions. This system is easy to synthesize, it shows an ionic conductivity similar to that of Li ion cells, its electrochemical stability window is up to 4.5 V, it is stable in air and versatile towards different solvents.[38]

Cathode materials

For cathode materials a number of different compounds have been researched for suitability, including those used in magnesium primary batteries. New cathode materials investigated or proposed include zirconium disulfide, cobalt(II,III) oxide, tungsten diselenide, vanadium pentoxide and vanadate based cathodes. Cobalt based spinels showed inferior kinetics to magnesium insertion compared to their behaviour with lithium.[8][1] In 2000 the chevrel phase form of Mo6S8 was shown to have good suitability as a cathode, enduring 2000 cycles at 100% discharge with a 15% loss; drawbacks were poor low temperature performance (reduced Mg mobility, compensated by substituting selenium), as well as a low voltage, ca. 1.2 V, and low energy density (110 mAh/g).[8] A molybdenum disulfide cathode showed improved voltage and energy density, 1.8 V and 170 mAh/g. Transition metal sulfides are considered promising candidates for magnesium ion battery cathodes.[39] A hybrid magnesium cell using a mixed magnesium/sodium electrolyte with sodium insertion into a nanocrystalline iron(II) disulfide cathode was reported in 2015.[40]

Manganese dioxide based cathodes have shown good properties, but deteriorated on cycling due a conversion mechanism to form MgO.[41] Materials with the spinel structure have been shown to be electrochemically active in a Mg-ion configuration using a carbon-based adsorption anode. High voltage Mg-ion materials, including MgMn2O4, MgV2O4, and MgCr2O4 have been studied in detail to understand the Mg-ion diffusion pathways. [42][43] Recent work has identified another framework structure type, termed ("post spinels", with the prototypical formula CaFe2O4), as an active topic of research for magnesium-ion insertion cathodes.[44]

In 2014 a rechargeable magnesium battery (conversion-type) was reported utilizing an ion exchanged, olivine type MgFeSiO4 cathode with a bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide/triglyme electrolyte – the cell showed a capacity of 300 mAh/g with a voltage of 2.4 V.[45] MgMnSiO4 has also been investigated as a potential Mg2+ insertion cathode.[46]

Cathodic materials other than non-inorganic metal oxide/sulfide types have also been investigated : in 2015 a cathode based on a polymer incorporating anthraquinone was reported;[47] and other organic, and organo-polymer cathode materials capable of undergoing redox reactions have also been investigated, such as poly-2,2'-dithiodianiline.[48] Quinone-based cathodes also formed the cathode a high energy density magnesium battery reported by researchers in 2019.[33]

In 2016 a porous carbon/iodine combination cathode was reported as a potential alternative to Mg2+ insertion cathodes - the chemistry was reported as being potentially suitable for a rechargeable flow battery.[49]

Commercialisation

In 2009-2016, an MIT spin-off, Pellion Technology, after receiving several million dollars from ARPA-E, unsuccessfully attempted to develop batteries based on Mg and other multivalent metals.[50]

In October 2016, Honda and Saitec (Saitama Industrial Technology Center) claimed to have a commercialisable Mg battery, based on a xerogel cathode of vanadium pentoxide/sulfur.[51][52] A commercialisation date of 2018 was also claimed.[51][needs update]

In 2021, a design called Wonderlight won a prize at the Cannes innovation festival.[53]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The requirement to intercalate the 'metallic' lithium greatly reduces the energy density of a lithium-ion battery compared to a metallic lithium battery i.e. 372 mAh/g vs. 3862 mAh/g (or 837 mAh/cm3 vs. 2061 mAh/cm3) for lithium/graphite (as LiC6) vs. Li metal.[8][9]

References

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  2. ^ Blake, Ivan C. (August 1952), "Silver Chloride-Magnesium Reserve Battery", Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 99 (8): 202C, doi:10.1149/1.2779735
  3. ^ Crompton, Thomas Roy (2000), Battery Reference Book, §39
  4. ^ Office, U. S. Government Accountability (26 Sep 1985), Army's Procurement of Batteries: Magnesium vs. Lithium, US Government Accountability Office
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  6. ^ Rechargeable Magnesium Ion Batteries Based on Nanostructured Tungsten Disulfide Cathodes Batteries 2022
  7. ^ a b Mohtadi & Mizuno 2014, p.1292, col.2.
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January 07, 2023
magnesium, battery, magnesium, batteries, batteries, that, utilize, magnesium, cations, active, charge, transporting, agents, solution, often, elemental, anode, electrochemical, cell, both, rechargeable, primary, cell, rechargeable, secondary, cell, chemistrie. Magnesium batteries are batteries that utilize magnesium cations as the active charge transporting agents in solution and often as the elemental anode of an electrochemical cell Both non rechargeable primary cell and rechargeable secondary cell chemistries have been investigated Magnesium primary cell batteries have been commercialised and have found use as reserve and general use batteries Magnesium secondary cell batteries are an active topic of research specifically as a possible replacement or improvement over lithium ion based battery chemistries in certain applications A significant advantage of magnesium cells is their use of a solid magnesium anode allowing a higher energy density cell design than that made with lithium which in many instances requires an intercalated lithium anode Insertion type anodes magnesium ion have also been researched Contents 1 Primary cells 2 Secondary cells 2 1 Overview 2 2 Research 2 2 1 Anodes and electrolytes 2 2 2 Cathode materials 2 3 Commercialisation 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 5 1 SourcesPrimary cells EditPrimary magnesium cells have been developed since the early 20th century In the reactive anode they take advantage of the low stability and high energy of magnesium metal whose bonding is weaker by more than 250 kJ mol compared to iron and most other transition metals which bond strongly via their partially filled d orbitals A number of chemistries for reserve battery types have been researched with cathode materials including silver chloride copper I chloride palladium II chloride copper I iodide copper I thiocyanate manganese dioxide and air oxygen 1 For example a water activated silver chloride magnesium reserve battery became commercially available by 1943 2 The magnesium dry battery type BA 4386 was fully commercialised with costs per unit approaching that of zinc batteries in comparison to equivalent zinc carbon cells the batteries had greater capacity by volume and longer shelf life The BA 4386 was widely used by the US military from 1968 until ca 1984 when it was replaced by a lithium thionyl chloride battery 3 4 A magnesium air battery has a theoretical operating voltage of 3 1 V and energy density of 6 8 kWh kg General Electric produced a magnesium air battery operating in neutral NaCl solution as early as the 1960s The magnesium air battery is a primary cell but has the potential to be refuelable by replacement of the anode and electrolyte Some primary magnesium batteries have been commercialized and find use as land based backup systems as well as undersea power sources using seawater as the electrolyte 5 The Mark 44 torpedo uses a water activated magnesium battery Secondary cells EditOverview Edit Secondary magnesium ion batteries involving the reversible insertion and removal of Mg2 ions in anodes and cathodes during charging and discharging have been the subject of intensive research as a possible replacement or improvement on lithium ion battery technologies in certain applications In comparison to metallic lithium as an anode material magnesium has a theoretical energy density per unit mass under half that of lithium 18 8 MJ kg 2205 mAh g vs 42 3 MJ kg but a volumetric energy density around 50 higher 32 731 GJ m3 3833 mAh mL vs 22 569 GJ m3 2046 mAh mL 6 In comparison to metallic lithium anodes magnesium anodes do not exhibit dendrite formation albeit only in certain nonaqueous solvents and at current densities below ca 1 mA cm2 7 Such dendrite free Mg deposition allows for magnesium metal to be used without an intercalation compound at the anode note 1 thus raising the theoretical maximum relative volumetric energy density to around 5 times that of a lithium graphite electrode 10 Additionally modeling and cell analysis have indicated that magnesium based batteries may have a cost advantage over lithium due to the abundance of magnesium on earth and the relative scarcity of lithium deposits 8 7 Potential use of a Mg based battery had been recognised as early as the 1990s based on V2O5 TiS2 or Ti2S4 cathode materials and magnesium metal anodes However observation of instabilities in the discharge state and uncertainties on the role of water in the electrolyte limited progress was reported 11 12 In 2000 Israeli researchers reported dendrite free Mg plating in AlCl3 ether electrolytes that show a fairy high gt 2 V vs Mg Mg2 anodic voltage stability limit 13 In that work however a low voltage and somewhat expensive posode material chevrel type Mo6S8 was used for Mg2 intercalation Despite the decade plus of research following that discovery all attempts to develop a high voltage Mg2 intercalation posode for the chloroaluminate and related less corrosive see below electrolytes have failed 14 It is worth noting that electrochemical Mg2 intercalation into many solid materials is well known for example from aqueous electrolytes The problem is to find posode materials that show intercalation from the same solutions which display reversible Mg metal plating In contrast to the Mg metal batteries discussed in the previous paragraph Mg ion batteries do not use Mg metal on the negode but rather a solid material capable of intercalating Mg2 ions Such batteries usually use an aqueous or other polar electrolyte 15 It is not clear if there is a commercially viable competitive market niche for Mg ion batteries Research Edit Anodes and electrolytes Edit A key drawback to using a metallic magnesium anode is the tendency to form a passivating non conducting surface layer when recharging blocking further charging in contrast to lithium s behaviour 16 The passivating layer was thought to originate from decomposition of the electrolyte during magnesium ion reduction Common counter ions such as perchlorate and tetrafluoroborate were found to contribute to passivation as were some common polar aprotic solvents such as carbonates and nitriles 17 The formation of passivating layers on magnesium motivates the use of magnesium intermetallics as anode materials as their lower reactivity with commonly used electrolytes makes them less prone to the formation of passivating layers This is particularly true for the intermetallic compound Mg3Bi2 which constitutes a type of magnesium insertion electrode based on reversible insertion of magnesium metal into a host compound 18 In addition to bismuth tin and antimony have also been used in compound insertion electrodes for magnesium ion batteries 19 These have been shown to be able to prevent anode surface passivation but suffered from anode destruction due to volumetric changes on insertion as well as slow kinetics of insertion Examples of insertion anode types researched include cycling between elemental Sn and Mg2Sn 20 21 22 Grignard based ethereal electrolytes have been shown not to passivate 23 Magnesium organoborates also showed electroplating without passivation The compound Mg BPh2Bu2 2 was used in the first demonstrated rechargeable magnesium battery but its usefulness was limited by electrochemical oxidation i e a low anodic limit of the voltage window 24 Other electrolytes researched include borohydrides phenolates alkoxides amido based complexes e g based on hexamethyldisilazane carborane salts fluorinated alkoxyborates a Mg BH4 NH2 solid state electrolyte and gel polymers containing Mg AlCl2EtBu 2 in tetraglyme PVDF 25 26 The current wave of interest in magnesium metal batteries started in 2000 when an Israeli group reported reversible magnesium plating from mixed solutions of magnesium chloride and aluminium chloride in ethers such as THF 27 28 The primary advantage of this electrolyte is a significantly larger positive limit of the voltage window and thus a higher battery voltage than of the previously reported Mg plating electrolytes Since then several other Mg salts less corrosive than chloride have been reported 29 One drawback compared to lithium is magnesium s higher charge 2 in solution which tends to result in increased viscosity and reduced mobility in the electrolyte 30 In solution a number of species may exist depending on counter ions complexing agents these often include singly charged species e g MgCl in the presence of chloride though dimers are often formed e g Mg2Cl3 31 The movement of the magnesium ion into cathode host lattices is also as of 2014 problematically slow 32 In 2018 a chloride free electrolyte together with a quinone based polymer cathode demonstrated promising performance with up to 243 Wh 870 kJ per kg specific energy up to 3 4 kW kg specific power and up to 87 retention at 2 500 cycles The absence of chloride in the electrolyte was claimed to improve ion kinetics and so reduce the amount of electrolyte used increasing performance 33 A promising approach could be the combination of a Mg anode with a sulfur carbon cathode 34 Then a non nucleophilic electrolyte is necessary which does not convert the sulfur into sulfide just by its reducing properties Such electrolytes have been developed on the basis of chlorine containing 35 36 37 and chlorine free complex salts 26 The electrolyte in 26 is a Mg salt containing Mg cation and two boron hexafluoroisoproplylate groups as anions This system is easy to synthesize it shows an ionic conductivity similar to that of Li ion cells its electrochemical stability window is up to 4 5 V it is stable in air and versatile towards different solvents 38 Cathode materials Edit For cathode materials a number of different compounds have been researched for suitability including those used in magnesium primary batteries New cathode materials investigated or proposed include zirconium disulfide cobalt II III oxide tungsten diselenide vanadium pentoxide and vanadate based cathodes Cobalt based spinels showed inferior kinetics to magnesium insertion compared to their behaviour with lithium 8 1 In 2000 the chevrel phase form of Mo6S8 was shown to have good suitability as a cathode enduring 2000 cycles at 100 discharge with a 15 loss drawbacks were poor low temperature performance reduced Mg mobility compensated by substituting selenium as well as a low voltage ca 1 2 V and low energy density 110 mAh g 8 A molybdenum disulfide cathode showed improved voltage and energy density 1 8 V and 170 mAh g Transition metal sulfides are considered promising candidates for magnesium ion battery cathodes 39 A hybrid magnesium cell using a mixed magnesium sodium electrolyte with sodium insertion into a nanocrystalline iron II disulfide cathode was reported in 2015 40 Manganese dioxide based cathodes have shown good properties but deteriorated on cycling due a conversion mechanism to form MgO 41 Materials with the spinel structure have been shown to be electrochemically active in a Mg ion configuration using a carbon based adsorption anode High voltage Mg ion materials including MgMn2O4 MgV2O4 and MgCr2O4 have been studied in detail to understand the Mg ion diffusion pathways 42 43 Recent work has identified another framework structure type termed post spinels with the prototypical formula CaFe2O4 as an active topic of research for magnesium ion insertion cathodes 44 In 2014 a rechargeable magnesium battery conversion type was reported utilizing an ion exchanged olivine type MgFeSiO4 cathode with a bis trifluoromethylsulfonyl imide triglyme electrolyte the cell showed a capacity of 300 mAh g with a voltage of 2 4 V 45 MgMnSiO4 has also been investigated as a potential Mg2 insertion cathode 46 Cathodic materials other than non inorganic metal oxide sulfide types have also been investigated in 2015 a cathode based on a polymer incorporating anthraquinone was reported 47 and other organic and organo polymer cathode materials capable of undergoing redox reactions have also been investigated such as poly 2 2 dithiodianiline 48 Quinone based cathodes also formed the cathode a high energy density magnesium battery reported by researchers in 2019 33 In 2016 a porous carbon iodine combination cathode was reported as a potential alternative to Mg2 insertion cathodes the chemistry was reported as being potentially suitable for a rechargeable flow battery 49 Commercialisation Edit In 2009 2016 an MIT spin off Pellion Technology after receiving several million dollars from ARPA E unsuccessfully attempted to develop batteries based on Mg and other multivalent metals 50 In October 2016 Honda and Saitec Saitama Industrial Technology Center claimed to have a commercialisable Mg battery based on a xerogel cathode of vanadium pentoxide sulfur 51 52 A commercialisation date of 2018 was also claimed 51 needs update In 2021 a design called Wonderlight won a prize at the Cannes innovation festival 53 See also EditList of battery types Magnesium sulfur batteryNotes Edit The requirement to intercalate the metallic lithium greatly reduces the energy density of a lithium ion battery compared to a metallic lithium battery i e 372 mAh g vs 3862 mAh g or 837 mAh cm3 vs 2061 mAh cm3 for lithium graphite as LiC6 vs Li metal 8 9 References Edit a b Mohtadi amp Mizuno 2014 3 Blake Ivan C August 1952 Silver Chloride Magnesium Reserve Battery Journal of the Electrochemical Society 99 8 202C doi 10 1149 1 2779735 Crompton Thomas Roy 2000 Battery Reference Book 39 Office U S Government Accountability 26 Sep 1985 Army s Procurement of Batteries Magnesium vs Lithium US Government Accountability Office Zhang Tianran Tao Zhanliang Chen Jun Mar 2014 Magnesium air batteries From principle to application Materials Horizons 1 2 196 206 doi 10 1039 c3mh00059a Rechargeable Magnesium Ion Batteries Based on Nanostructured Tungsten Disulfide Cathodes Batteries 2022 a b Mohtadi amp Mizuno 2014 p 1292 col 2 a b c d Gerbrand Ceder Pieremanuele Canepa February 2017 Odyssey of Multivalent Cathode Materials Open Questions and Future Challenges PDF Chemical Reviews 117 5 4287 4341 doi 10 1021 acs chemrev 6b00614 PMID 28269988 Mohtadi amp Mizuno 2014 p 1292 col 1 Orikasa et al 2014 Introduction Novak Petr Shklover V Nesper R 1994 Magnesium Insertion in Vanadium Oxides A Structural Study Zeitschrift fur Physikalische Chemie 185 51 68 doi 10 1524 zpch 1994 185 part 1 051 S2CID 101615877 Bruce Peter Krok F Nowinski Jan Gibson Vernon Tavvakoli K 1991 Chemical intercalation of magnesium into solid hosts Journal of Materials Chemistry 1 4 705 706 doi 10 1039 JM9910100705 Aurbach Doron Lu Z Schecter A Gizbar H Turgeman R Cohen Y Moskovich M Levi E 2000 Prototype systems for rechargeable magnesium batteries Nature 407 6805 724 727 Bibcode 2000Natur 407 724A doi 10 1038 35037553 PMID 11048714 S2CID 4394214 Bella Federico et al 2021 An overview on anodes for magnesium batteries challenges towards a promising storage solution for renewables Nanomaterials 11 3 810 doi 10 3390 nano11030810 PMC 8004101 PMID 33809914 Bella Federico Stefano De Luca Lucia Fagiolari Daniele Versaci Julia Amici Carlotta Francia and Silvia Bodoardo 2021 An Overview on Anodes for Magnesium Batteries Challenges towards a Promising Storage Solution for Renewables Nanomaterials 11 no 3 810 https doi org 10 3390 nano11030810 Bucur Claudiu B Gregory Thomas Oliver Allen G Muldoon John 2015 Confession of a Magnesium Battery J Phys Chem Lett 6 18 3578 3591 doi 10 1021 acs jpclett 5b01219 PMID 26722727 Mohtadi amp Mizuno 2014 1 1 Computational study of Mg3Bi2 anodes Chemical Physics Letters 2022 Mohtadi amp Mizuno 2014 1 2 Singh N Arthur Timothy S Ling C Matsui M Mizuno F 2013 A high energy density tin anode for rechargeable magnesium ion batteries Chemical Communications 49 2 149 151 doi 10 1039 c2cc34673g PMID 23168386 S2CID 13471874 Nguyen D T Song S W 2016 Magnesium Storage Performance and Surface Film Formation Behavior of Tin Anode Material ChemElectroChem 3 11 1813 1819 doi 10 1002 celc 201600400 Nguyen D T Song S W 2017 Magnesium stannide as a high capacity anode material for magnesium ion batteries Journal of Power Sources 368 11 17 doi 10 1016 j jpowsour 2017 09 054 Mohtadi amp Mizuno 2014 2 Fig 1 p 1293 Mohtadi amp Mizuno 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Magnesium Sulfur Batteries with Efficient and Practical Mg B hfip 4 2 Electrolyte ACS Energy Letters 3 8 2005 2013 doi 10 1021 acsenergylett 8b01061 S2CID 105109724 Mohtadi amp Mizuno 2014 3 3 Walter Marc Kravchyk Kostiantyn V Ibanez Maria Kovalenko Maksym V 2015 Efficient and Inexpensive Sodium Magnesium Hybrid Battery Chem Mater 27 21 7452 7458 doi 10 1021 acs chemmater 5b03531 Mohtadi amp Mizuno 2014 3 4 Bayliss R Key Baris Gautam G S Canepa P Kwon B J Lapidus Saul Dogan F Adil A A Lipton A Baker P J Ceder G Vaughey J Cabana J 2020 Probing Mg Migration in Spinel Oxides Chemistry of Materials 32 2 663 670 doi 10 1021 acs chemmater 9b02450 S2CID 214407047 Kwon Bob Jin Yin Liang Park Haesun Parajuli Prakash Kumar Khagesh Kim Sanghyeon Yang Mengxi Murphy Megan Zapol Peter Liao Chen Fister Timothy T Klie Robert F Cabana Jordi Vaughey John T Lapidus Saul H Key Baris August 11 2020 High Voltage Mg Ion Battery Cathode via a Solid Solution Cr Mn Spinel Oxide Chemistry of Materials 32 15 6577 6587 doi 10 1021 acs chemmater 0c01988 OSTI 1756770 S2CID 225363993 via DOI org Crossref Hancock J Griffith K J Choi Y Bartel C Lapidus S Vaughey J Ceder G Poeppelmeier K 2022 Expanding the Ambient Pressure Phase Space of CaFe2O4 Type Sodium Postspinel Host Guest Compounds ACS Org Inorg Au 8 8 22 doi 10 1021 acsorginorgau 1c00019 S2CID 239241672 Orikasa et al 2014 NuLi Yanna Yang Jun Wang Jiulin Li Yun 2009 Electrochemical Intercalation of Mg2 in Magnesium Manganese Silicate and Its Application as High Energy Rechargeable Magnesium Battery Cathode J Phys Chem C 113 28 12594 12597 doi 10 1021 jp903188b Bitenc Jan Pirnat Klemen Bancic Tanja Gaberscek Miran Genorio Bostjan Randon Vitanova Anna Dominko Robert 21 Dec 2015 Anthraquinone Based Polymer as Cathode in Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries ChemSusChem 8 24 4128 4132 doi 10 1002 cssc 201500910 PMID 26610185 Zhang Zhengcheng Zhang Sheng Shui eds 2015 Rechargeable Batteries Materials Technologies and New Trends Green Energy and Technology 629 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 15458 9 ISBN 978 3 319 15457 2 Tian Huajun Gao Tao Li Xiaogang Wang Xiwen Luo Chao Fan Xiulin Yang Chongyin Suo Liumin Ma Zhaohui Han Weiqiang Wang Chunsheng 10 January 2017 High power rechargeable magnesium iodine battery chemistry Nature Communications 8 14083 2017 14083 Bibcode 2017NatCo 814083T doi 10 1038 ncomms14083 PMC 5234091 PMID 28071666 The death of a promising battery startup exposes harsh market realities 27 September 2019 a b Charged EVs Honda and Saitec develop magnesium ion battery with vanadium oxide cathode chargedevs com 25 October 2016 Retrieved 2017 05 30 Inamoto Masashi Kurihara Hideki Yajima Tatsuhiko 2014 Electrode Performance of Sulfur Doped Vanadium Pentoxide Gel Prepared by Microwave Irradiation for Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries Current Physical Chemistry 4 3 238 243 doi 10 2174 1877946805666150311234806 The Clean Energy Revolution Is Here Wunderman Thompson Sources Edit Mohtadi Rana Mizuno Fuminori 2014 Magnesium batteries Current state of the art issues and future perspectives Beilstein J Nanotechnol 5 1291 1311 doi 10 3762 bjnano 5 143 PMC 4168907 PMID 25247113 Orikasa Yuki Masese Titus Koyama Yukinori Mori Takuya Hattori Masashi Yamamoto Kentaro Okado Tetsuya Huang Zhen Dong Minato Taketoshi Tassel Cedric Kim Jungeun Kobayashi Yoji Abe Takeshi Kageyama Hiroshi Uchimoto Yoshiharu 2014 High energy density rechargeable magnesium battery using earth abundant and non toxic elements Scientific Reports 4 5622 Bibcode 2014NatSR 4E5622O doi 10 1038 srep05622 PMC 4092329 PMID 25011939 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Magnesium battery amp oldid 1112818645 Secondary cells, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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