List of African-American United States senators
This is a list of African Americans who have served in the United States Senate. The Senate has had 12 African-American elected or appointed officeholders. Two each served during both the 19th and 20th centuries.[1]
Three of the 12 African American senators held Illinois's Class 3 seat, including Barack Obama, who went on to become President of the United States. This makes Illinois the state with the most African-American U.S. senators to date.
In 2016, Kamala Harris became the first African American to be elected a U.S. senator from California. Harris would go on to become the first African-American Vice President of the United States and first African-American president of the United States Senate.
Of the 12 African-American senators, seven were popularly elected (including one that previously had been appointed by his state's governor), two were elected by the state legislature prior to the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913 (which mandated the direct election of U.S. senators by the people of each state), and three were appointed by a state governor and have not subsequently been elected.[citation needed]
Background edit
The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, which is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. The U.S. Census Bureau defines "African Americans" as citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa.[2] The term is generally used for Americans with at least partial ancestry in any of the original peoples of sub-Saharan Africa.[citation needed]
During the founding of the federal government, African Americans were consigned to a status of second-class citizenship or enslaved.[3] No African American served in federal elective office before the ratification in 1870 of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, although some (including Alexander Twilight, as state senator in Vermont) served in state elective offices concurrently with slavery. The Fifteenth Amendment prohibits the federal and state governments from denying any citizen the right to vote because of that citizen's race, color, or previous condition of servitude.[citation needed]
History edit
Reconstruction to Obama: 1870–2011 edit
The first two African-American senators represented the state of Mississippi during the Reconstruction era, following the American Civil War. Hiram Rhodes Revels, the first African American to serve in the Senate, was elected in 1870[4] by the Mississippi State Legislature to succeed Albert G. Brown, who resigned during the Civil War. Some Democratic members of the United States Senate opposed his being seated based on the court case Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) by the Supreme Court of the United States, claiming that Revels did not meet the nine-year citizenship requirement, but the majority of senators voted to seat him.[4]
In 1872, the Louisiana state legislature elected P. B. S. Pinchback to the Senate. However, the 1872 elections in Louisiana were challenged by white Democrats, and Pinchback was never seated in Congress.
The Mississippi state legislature elected Blanche Bruce in 1875, but Republicans lost power of the Mississippi state legislature in 1876. Bruce was not elected to a second term in 1881.[4] In 1890, the Democratic-dominated state legislature passed a new constitution disfranchising most black voters. Every other Southern state also passed disfranchising constitutions by 1908, thus excluding African Americans from the political system in the entire former Confederacy. This situation persisted well into the 1960s, when federal enforcement of constitutional rights under the Voting Rights Act of 1965 commenced.
The next black United States senator, Edward Brooke of Massachusetts, took office in 1967. He was the first African American to be elected by popular vote after the ratification in 1913 of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which established direct election of United States senators instead of indirect election by a state legislature. A Republican, Brooke was the first black senator to serve two terms in the Senate, holding office until 1979.[4] From 1979 to 1993, there were no black members of the United States Senate.
Between 1993 and 2010, three black members of the Illinois Democratic Party would hold Illinois's Class 3 Senate seat at different times. Carol Moseley Braun entered the Senate in 1993 and was the first African-American woman in the Senate.[4] She served one term. Barack Obama entered the Senate in 2005 and, in 2008, became the first African American to be elected president of the United States.[5] Obama was still a senator when he was elected president and Roland Burris, also an African American, was appointed to fill the remainder of Obama's Senate term. Burris only briefly ran for election and did not enter the Democratic primary.[6] From 2011 to 2013, there were no black senators for the first time since Obama was elected in 2004.
Contemporary Period: 2013–present edit
Following Obama's election as president, the next two black senators, Tim Scott of South Carolina and Mo Cowan of Massachusetts, were both appointed by governors to fill the terms of Jim DeMint and John Kerry, respectively, who had resigned their positions.[4] Thus, 2013 marked the first time in history that more than one African American served in the Senate at the same time.[7] On October 16 of that year, citizens of New Jersey elected Cory Booker in a special election to fill the seat of the late senator Frank R. Lautenberg.[8] Sworn into office, Booker was the first African-American senator to be elected since Obama and the first to represent New Jersey. He was later elected to a full six-year term in the 2014 mid-term elections. Scott retained his seat in a special election in 2014 and also secured a full six-year term in 2016.
In 2017, Scott and Booker were joined by Kamala Harris of California.[9] Harris was the second African-American woman to serve in the Senate, and, in 2020, was elected as the first female vice president of the United States. In 2021, Raphael Warnock of Georgia was elected as the first African-American Democrat to represent a former Confederate state in the Senate.
As of January 20, 2021, there have been 1,994 members of the United States Senate,[10] of which 11 have been African American.[1]
List of African-American U.S. senators edit
| Image | Senator | State | Tenure | Party | Congress | Notes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Start | End | Duration | |||||||
| Hiram Rhodes Revels (1827–1901) | Mississippi | February 25, 1870 | March 3, 1871 | 1 year, 7 days | Republican | 41st (1869–1871) | Elected to complete an unfinished term after Mississippi was readmitted to the Union on February 23, 1870. First African American to serve in the United States Senate and Congress. First African American to serve in Congress from Mississippi. Retired[11][12] | ||
| Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) | Mississippi | March 4, 1875 | March 4, 1881 | 6 years, 0 days | Republican | 44th (1875–1877) | First African American to serve a full six-year term as a United States senator. The only senator to be a former slave. Retired.[13][14] | ||
| 45th (1877–1879) | |||||||||
| 46th (1879–1881) | |||||||||
| Edward Brooke (1919–2015) | Massachusetts | January 3, 1967 | January 3, 1979 | 12 years, 0 days | Republican | 90th (1967–1969) | First African American elected to the Senate by direct election. First African American to serve in Congress from Massachusetts. Lost reelection.[15] | ||
| 91st (1969–1971) | |||||||||
| 92nd (1971–1973) | |||||||||
| 93rd (1973–1975) | |||||||||
| 94th (1975–1977) | |||||||||
| 95th (1977–1979) | |||||||||
| Carol Moseley Braun (born 1947) | Illinois | January 3, 1993 | January 3, 1999 | 6 years, 0 days | Democratic | 103rd (1993–1995) | First African-American female and African-American Democrat to serve in the United States Senate. First African-American to serve in the Senate from Illinois. Lost reelection.[16][17] | ||
| 104th (1995–1997) | |||||||||
| 105th (1997–1999) | |||||||||
| Barack Obama (born 1961) | Illinois | January 3, 2005 | November 16, 2008 | 3 years, 318 days | Democratic | 109th (2005–2007) | First African-American senator to be elected President of the United States. Resigned following election as president.[5][18] | ||
| 110th (2007–2009) | |||||||||
| Roland Burris (born 1937) | Illinois | January 15, 2009 | November 29, 2010 | 1 year, 318 days | Democratic | 111th (2009–2011) | Appointed by Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich to fill vacancy caused by the resignation of President-elect Barack Obama. First African American to succeed another African American in the Senate. Not a candidate during special election following his appointment.[6] | ||
| Tim Scott (born 1965) | South Carolina | January 2, 2013 | Incumbent | 11 years, 44 days | Republican | 112th (2011–2013) | Appointed by South Carolina Governor Nikki Haley to fill vacancy caused by the resignation of Jim DeMint. First African American to serve in the Senate from South Carolina. First African American to serve in both chambers of the United States Congress. [19][20] | ||
| 113th (2013–2015) | |||||||||
| 114th (2015–2017) | |||||||||
| 115th (2017–2019) | |||||||||
| 116th (2019–2021) | |||||||||
| 117th (2021–2023) | |||||||||
| 118th (2023–present) | |||||||||
| Mo Cowan (born 1969) | Massachusetts | February 1, 2013 | July 16, 2013 | 165 days | Democratic | 113th (2013–2015) | Appointed by Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick to fill vacancy caused by the resignation of John Kerry. Not a candidate during special election following his appointment. First African-American senator appointed by an African-American governor. The first African American to serve alongside another African-American senator: Tim Scott. Retired.[21][22] | ||
| Cory Booker (born 1969) | New Jersey | October 31, 2013 | Incumbent | 10 years, 107 days | Democratic | 113th (2013–2015) | First African American to serve in the Senate from New Jersey. First African American to be elected to the Senate by special election.[8][23][24] | ||
| 114th (2015–2017) | |||||||||
| 115th (2017–2019) | |||||||||
| 116th (2019–2021) | |||||||||
| 117th (2021–2023) | |||||||||
| 118th (2023–present) | |||||||||
| Kamala Harris (born 1964) | California | January 3, 2017 | January 18, 2021 | 4 years, 15 days | Democratic | 115th (2017–2019) | First African-American to serve in the Senate from California. First African-American senator to be elected as Vice President. Resigned following election as Vice President of the United States.[note 1][27][28] | ||
| 116th (2019–2021) | |||||||||
| 117th (2021–2023) | |||||||||
| Raphael Warnock (born 1969) | Georgia | January 20, 2021 | Incumbent | 3 years, 26 days | Democratic | 117th (2021–2023) | First African American to serve in the Senate from Georgia.[29] | ||
| 118th (2023–present) | |||||||||
| Laphonza Butler (born 1979) | California | October 3, 2023 | Incumbent | 135 days | Democratic | 118th (2023–present) | Appointed by Governor Gavin Newsom to fill the vacancy created by the death of Senator Dianne Feinstein.[30] First openly LGBT African-American Senator.[31] | ||
African Americans elected to the United States Senate, but not seated edit
| Image | Senator-elect | State | Year elected | Party | Congress | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| P. B. S. Pinchback (1837–1921) | Louisiana | 1873 | Republican | 44th (1875–1877) | Denied seat due to a contested election that involved William L. McMillen.[32] | ||
List of states represented by African Americans edit
Seven states have been represented by black senators. As of October 2023, four states are represented by black senators.
| State | Current | Previous | Total | First black senator | Years represented by black senators | Year first elected a black senator |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alabama | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Alaska | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Arizona | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Arkansas | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| California | 1 | 1 | 2 | Kamala Harris | 2017–2021, 2023–present | 2016 |
| Colorado | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Connecticut | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Delaware | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Florida | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Georgia | 1 | 0 | 1 | Raphael Warnock | 2021–present | 2021 |
| Hawaii | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Idaho | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Illinois | 0 | 3 | 3 | Carol Moseley-Braun | 1993–1999, 2005–2008, 2009–2010 | 1992 |
| Indiana | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Iowa | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Kansas | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Kentucky | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Louisiana | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Maine | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Maryland | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Massachusetts | 0 | 2 | 2 | Edward Brooke | 1967–1979, 2013 | 1966 |
| Michigan | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Minnesota | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Mississippi | 0 | 2 | 2 | Hiram Rhodes Revels | 1870–1871, 1875–1881 | Prior to 17th Amendment |
| Missouri | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Montana | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Nebraska | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Nevada | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| New Hampshire | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| New Jersey | 1 | 0 | 1 | Cory Booker | 2013–present | 2013 |
| New Mexico | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| New York | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| North Carolina | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| North Dakota | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Ohio | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Oklahoma | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Oregon | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Pennsylvania | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Rhode Island | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| South Carolina | 1 | 0 | 1 | Tim Scott | 2013–present | 2014 |
| South Dakota | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Tennessee | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Texas | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Utah | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Vermont | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Virginia | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Washington | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| West Virginia | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Wisconsin | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
| Wyoming | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Graphs edit
The histogram below sets forth the number of African Americans who served in the United States Senate during the periods provided.
| Starting | Total | Graph |
|---|---|---|
| March 4, 1789 | 0 | |
| February 25, 1870 | 1 | ❚ |
| March 4, 1871 | 0 | |
| March 4, 1875 | 1 | ❚ |
| March 4, 1881 | 0 | |
| January 3, 1967 | 1 | ❚ |
| January 4, 1979 | 0 | |
| January 3, 1993 | 1 | ❚ |
| January 4, 1999 | 0 | |
| January 3, 2005 | 1 | ❚ |
| November 17, 2008 | 0 | |
| January 15, 2009 | 1 | ❚ |
| November 30, 2010 | 0 | |
| January 2, 2013 | 1 | ❚ |
| February 1, 2013 | 2 | ❚❚ |
| July 17, 2013 | 1 | ❚ |
| October 31, 2013 | 2 | ❚❚ |
| January 3, 2017 | 3 | ❚❚❚ |
| January 18, 2021 | 2 | ❚❚ |
| January 20, 2021 | 3 | ❚❚❚ |
| October 3, 2023 | 4 | ❚❚❚❚ |
Elections with two African-American major-party nominees edit
| Elections with two African-American major-party nominees | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Election year | State | Winner | Second-place finisher |
| 2004 | Illinois | Barack Obama | Alan Keyes |
| 2014 | South Carolina | Tim Scott | Joyce Dickerson |
| 2016 | South Carolina | Tim Scott | Thomas Dixon |
| 2022 | Georgia | Raphael Warnock | Herschel Walker |
| South Carolina | Tim Scott | Krystle Matthews | |
| Note: Incumbent Senators are in bold | |||
See also edit
- Federal government
- African Americans in the United States Congress
- List of African-American United States Cabinet members
- List of African American firsts
- State and local government
Notes edit
- ^ Harris is the child of a black, Caribbean-born father and an India-born mother.[25] Other African Americans who were elected to Congress and were born in the Caribbean or to Caribbean-born parents include Rep. Shirley Chisholm, Rep. Yvette D. Clarke, Del. Stacey Plaskett, Rep. Mia Love, Del. Melvin H. Evans, Del. Donna Christian-Christensen, and Del. Victor O. Frazer. Shirley Chisholm was the child of Caribbean-born parents and was the first African-American woman to be elected to Congress.[26]
References edit
- ^ a b "Ethnic Diversity in the Senate". Senate Historical Office. Retrieved January 20, 2021.
- ^ "The Black Population: 2010" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2019. Retrieved December 18, 2015.
- ^ "Time Line of African American History, 1881–1900". Library of Congress. from the original on January 17, 1999. Retrieved October 22, 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f Wiersema, Alisa (February 1, 2013). "Reconstruction and Beyond: The 8 African-American Senators". ABC News. from the original on February 13, 2013. Retrieved February 9, 2013.
- ^ a b "Obama, Barack, (1961–)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. from the original on August 5, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
- ^ a b "Burris, Roland, (1937–)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. from the original on January 30, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
- ^ "U.S. Senate: African American Senators".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ a b Walshe, Shushannah (January 30, 2013). "Cory Booker Wins Race for US Senate Seat in New Jersey". ABC News. from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved October 16, 2013.
- ^ Willon, Phil (November 9, 2016). "Kamala Harris is Elected California's New U.S. senator". LA Times. from the original on November 14, 2016. Retrieved November 18, 2016.
- ^ "Senators of the United States: 1789–present" (PDF). Senate Historical Office. January 20, 2021. p. 82. Retrieved January 20, 2021.
- ^ "Revels, Hiram Rhodes, (1827–1901)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. from the original on January 24, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
- ^ "First African American Senator". Historical Minutes Essays, 1878–1920. Senate Historical Office. from the original on December 17, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
- ^ "Bruce, Blanche Kelso, (1841–1898)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. from the original on January 25, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
- ^ "Former Slave Presides over Senate". Historical Minutes Essays, 1878–1920. Senate Historical Office. from the original on January 21, 2013. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
- ^ "Brooke, Edward William, III, (1919–)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. from the original on November 2, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
- ^ "Moseley Braun, Carol, (1947–)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. from the original on October 15, 2012. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
- ^ . Senate Historical Office. Archived from the original on December 17, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
- ^ "Barack Obama". Senate Historical Office. from the original on December 18, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
- ^ "Scott, Tim, (1965–)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. from the original on November 2, 2012. Retrieved November 18, 2014.
- ^ Blake, Aaron; Cillizza, Chris (December 17, 2012). "Nikki Haley appoints Rep. Tim Scott to Senate". The Washington Post. from the original on January 7, 2013. Retrieved January 5, 2013.
- ^ "Cowan, William (Mo), (1969–)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. from the original on December 6, 2014. Retrieved November 18, 2014.
- ^ Phillips, Frank (January 30, 2013). "William 'Mo' Cowan is Governor Deval Patrick's pick to serve as interim US senator". Boston Globe. from the original on January 31, 2013. Retrieved January 30, 2013.
- ^ "Booker, Cory Anthony, (1969–)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. from the original on November 26, 2014. Retrieved November 18, 2014.
- ^ Giambusso, David (October 23, 2013). "Cory Booker planning to be sworn in to Senate on Halloween". The Star-Ledger. NJ.com. from the original on October 26, 2013. Retrieved October 26, 2013.
- ^ Wire, Sarah D. (November 8, 2016). "Kamala Harris Will Be the First Indian American U.S. senator and California's First Black Senator". Los Angeles Times. from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
Harris' mother, Dr. Shyamala Harris, emigrated from India. Her father, Donald Harris, emigrated from Jamaica.
- ^ Wasniewski, Matthew, ed. (2008). "Shirley A. Chisholm 1924 — 2005". Black Americans in Congress, 1870–2007. United States Government Printing Office. p. 340. ISBN 9780160801945. from the original on 2016-05-22. Retrieved 2017-05-23.
- ^ "Harris, Kamala Devi, (1964 – )". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. United States Congress. from the original on January 6, 2017. Retrieved June 27, 2018.
- ^ Sources for label "African American" or "Black" include:
- "African American Senators". United States Senate. from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
Kamala D. Harris (D-CA) became the first African American to represent California in the United States Senate on January 3, 2017.
- "Kamala Harris's File". PolitiFact. from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
Harris, a Democrat, was elected to the U.S. Senate in 2016. She became California's attorney general in January 2011. She was the first woman and the first African-American to hold the office in California's history.
- Weigel, David (January 9, 2018). "Democrats Add Harris, Booker to Senate Judiciary Committee". The Washington Post. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
The Senate Judiciary Committee will welcome its first African American members in this century after Democrats added Sens. Kamala D. Harris (D-Calif.) and Cory Booker (D-N.J.) to the panel that handles judicial nominations and appointments to the Justice Department.
- Wire, Sarah D. (November 8, 2016). "Kamala Harris Will Be the First Indian American U.S. senator and California's First Black Senator". Los Angeles Times. from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
She will also be just the second black woman to serve in the U.S. Senate, and the first black senator from California.
- McPhate, Mike (September 29, 2016). "California Today: A Snooze of a Senate Race". The New York Times. from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
The race to succeed Senator Barbara L. Boxer of California was supposed to be one of the marquee contests of the year ... It offers a window into the ethnic kaleidoscope that is California: Pitting a Latino, Representative Loretta Sanchez, against an African-American, Kamala Harris, the state attorney general.
- DeMarche, Edmund (April 6, 2018). "Sen. Kamala Harris Raises Eyebrows on 'Ellen' With Trump Joke". Fox News. from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
Harris, California's first African-American senator, has not responded to the conservative response online.
- "African American Senators". United States Senate. from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
- ^ Peoples, Steve; Barrow, Bill; Bynum, Russ (January 6, 2021). "Warnock, Ossoff Win in Georgia, Handing Dems Senate Control". Associated Press. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
- ^ Cadelago, Christopher (October 1, 2023). "Newsom picks Laphonza Butler as Feinstein replacement". Politico. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
- ^ Reston, Maeve; Pager, Tyler (2023-10-02). "Newsom taps Emily's List leader to fill Feinstein's Senate seat". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2023-10-02.
- ^ Office of the Historian. "'Crafting an Identity,' Fifteenth Amendment in Flesh and Blood". Office of the Clerk, House of Representatives of the United States. from the original on November 11, 2013. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
Further reading edit
- Christopher, Maurine (1971). America's Black Congressmen. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. ISBN 9780690085853.
- Clay, William L. (1992). Just Permanent Interests: Black Americans in Congress, 1870–1991. Amistad Press. ISBN 1-56743-000-7.
- Dray, Philip (2008). Capitol Men: The Epic Story of Reconstruction Through the Lives of the First Black Congressmen. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-56370-8.
- Foner, Eric (1996). Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction. LSU Press. ISBN 9780807120828.
- Freedman, Eric; Jones, Stephen A. (2008). African Americans In Congress: A Documentary History. CQ Press. ISBN 9780872893856.
- Gill, LaVerne McCain (1997). African American Women in Congress: Forming and Transforming History. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9780813523538.
- Hahn, Steven (2005). A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674017658.
- Haskins, James (1999). Distinguished African American Political and Governmental Leaders. Oryx Press. ISBN 9781573561266.
- Lynch, Matthew (2012). Before Obama: A Reappraisal of Black Reconstruction Era Politicians. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313397929.
- Middleton, Stephen (2002). Black Congressmen During Reconstruction: A Documentary Sourcebook. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313322815.
- Rabinowitz, Howard N., ed. (1982). Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252009723.
- Walton, Hanes Jr.; Puckett, Sherman C.; Deskins, Donald R. Jr. (2012). The African American Electorate: A Statistical History. Congressional Quarterly Press. ISBN 9780872895089.
- Wasniewski, Matthew, ed. (2008). Black Americans in Congress, 1870-2007. United States Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780160801945. The website, Black Americans in Congress maintained by the Clerk of the United States House of Representatives, serves as an ongoing supplement to the book. To download a free copy of the entire publication or a specific portion of the publication, see H. Doc. 108–224 – Black Americans in Congress 1870 – 2007. Made available by the United States Government Printing Office (GPO).
External links edit
- "African American Senators" – United States Senate official website
- "African American Members of the United States Congress: 1870–2012" – 66-page history produced by the Congressional Research Service, a legislative branch agency within the Library of Congress
- – perform search of desired representative or delegate by last name, first name, position, state, party, by year or congress
- "Black Americans in Congress, 1870–2007" – 164-minute C-SPAN video with Matt Wasniewski, historian of the United States House of Representatives, as the presenter discussing the history of African Americans in Congress from 1870 to 2007
- "Black Americans in Congress" – maintained by the Clerk of the United States House of Representatives, serves as an ongoing supplement to the book Black Americans in Congress: 1870–2007
- "Major African American Office Holders Since 1641" – maintained by Blackpast.org, includes a listing for the United States Senate