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United States invasion of Panama

The United States invasion of Panama, codenamed Operation Just Cause, lasted over a month between mid-December 1989 and late January 1990. It occurred during the administration of President George H. W. Bush and ten years after the Torrijos–Carter Treaties were ratified to transfer control of the Panama Canal from the United States to Panama by January 1, 2000. The primary purpose of the invasion was to depose the de facto Panamanian leader, General Manuel Noriega. He was wanted by the United States for racketeering and drug trafficking. Following the operation, the Panama Defense Forces were dissolved and President-elect Guillermo Endara was sworn into office. The United Nations General Assembly and the Organization of American States condemned the invasion as a violation of international law.

United States invasion of Panama
Part of the War on Drugs and the Cold War

Clockwise from top:
DateDecember 20, 1989 (1989-12-20) – January 31, 1990[1]
(1 month, 1 week and 4 days)
Location
Result

American victory[2]

Belligerents
 Panama  United States
Panamanian opposition
Commanders and leaders
Manuel Noriega
Marcos Justine
Francisco A. Rodríguez
George H. W. Bush
Dick Cheney
Maxwell R. Thurman
Guillermo Endara
Strength
16,000 27,000
Casualties and losses
314 killed[3]
1,908 captured
23 killed[4]
325 wounded

Panamanian civilians killed according to:[3]
U.S. military: 202
Americas Watch: 300
United Nations: 500
Central American Human Rights Commission: 2,000–3,000[5][6]

1 Spanish journalist killed[7][8]

Background

The United States had maintained numerous military bases and a substantial garrison throughout the Canal Zone to protect the American-owned Panama Canal and to maintain American control of this strategically important area. On September 7, 1977, U.S. President Jimmy Carter and the de facto leader of Panama, General Omar Torrijos, signed the Torrijos–Carter Treaties, which set in motion the process of handing over the Panama Canal to Panamanian control by 2000. Although the canal was destined for Panamanian administration, the military bases remained and one condition of the transfer was that the canal would remain open to American shipping. The U.S. had long-standing relations with General Noriega, who served as a U.S. intelligence asset and paid informant of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1967, including the period when Bush was head of the CIA (1976–77).[9]

Noriega had sided with the U.S. rather than the USSR in Central America, notably in sabotaging the forces of the Sandinista government in Nicaragua, and the revolutionaries of the FMLN group in El Salvador. Noriega received upward of $100,000 per year from the 1960s until the 1980s, when his salary was increased to $200,000 per year.[10] Although he worked with the Drug Enforcement Administration to restrict illegal drug shipments, he was known to simultaneously accept significant financial support from drug dealers,[9] because he facilitated the laundering of drug money, and through Noriega, they received protection from DEA investigations due to his special relationship with the CIA.[11]

In the mid-1980s, relations between Noriega and the United States began to deteriorate. In 1986, U.S. President Ronald Reagan opened negotiations with General Noriega, requesting that the Panamanian leader step down after he was publicly exposed in The New York Times by Seymour Hersh, and was later implicated in the Iran-Contra Scandal.[12] Reagan pressured him with several drug-related indictments in U.S. courts; however, since extradition laws between Panama and the U.S. were weak, Noriega deemed this threat not credible and did not submit to Reagan's demands.[13] In 1988, Elliot Abrams and others in the Pentagon began pushing for a U.S. invasion, but Reagan refused, due to Bush's ties to Noriega through his previous positions in the CIA and the Task Force on Drugs, and their potentially negative impact on Bush's presidential campaign.[14] Later negotiations involved dropping the drug-trafficking indictments. In March 1988, Noriega's forces resisted an attempted coup against the government of Panama. As relations continued to deteriorate, Noriega appeared to shift his Cold War allegiance toward the Soviet bloc, soliciting and receiving military aid from Cuba, Nicaragua, and Libya.[15] American military planners began preparing contingency plans to invade Panama.

In May 1989, during the Panamanian national elections, an alliance of parties opposed to the Noriega dictatorship counted results from the country's election precincts, before they were sent to the district centers. Their tally showed their candidate, Guillermo Endara, defeating Carlos Duque, candidate of a pro-Noriega coalition, by nearly 3–1. Endara was physically assaulted by Noriega supporters the next day in his motorcade.[9] Noriega declared the election null and maintained power by force, making him unpopular among Panamanians. Noriega's government insisted that it had won the presidential election and that irregularities had been on the part of U.S.-backed candidates from opposition parties.[16] Bush called on Noriega to honor the will of the Panamanian people.[9] The United States reinforced its Canal Zone garrison, and increased the tempo of training and other activities intended to put pressure on Noriega.[17]

In October 1989, Noriega foiled a second coup attempt by members of the Panamanian Defense Forces (PDF), led by Major Moisés Giroldi.[18] Pressure mounted on Bush.[9] Bush declared that the U.S. would not negotiate with a drug trafficker and denied knowledge of Noriega's involvement with the drug trade prior to his February 1988 indictment, although Bush had met with Noriega while Director of the CIA and had been the Chair of the Task Force on Drugs while Vice President.[19] On December 15, the Panamanian general assembly passed a resolution declaring that a state of war existed between Panama and the United States.[20][21][22]

The next day, four U.S. military personnel were stopped at a roadblock around 9:00 p.m. outside PDF headquarters in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City. Marine Captain Richard E. Hadded, Navy Lieutenant Michael J. Wilson, Army Captain Barry L. Rainwater, and Marine First Lieutenant Robert Paz had left the Fort Clayton military base and were on their way to have dinner at the Marriott Hotel in downtown Panama City. The U.S. Department of Defense reported that the servicemen had been unarmed, were in a private vehicle, and attempted to flee only after their vehicle was surrounded by an angry crowd of civilians and PDF troops. The PDF asserted later that the Americans were armed and on a reconnaissance mission. The PDF opened fire and Lieutenant Paz was fatally wounded by a round that entered the rear of the vehicle and struck him in the back. Captain Hadded, the driver of the vehicle, was also wounded in the foot. Paz was rushed to Gorgas Army Hospital but died of his wounds. He received the Purple Heart posthumously.[23] According to U.S. military sources, a U.S. Naval officer, SEAL Lieutenant Adam Curtis, and his wife, Bonnie, witnessed the incident and were detained by Panamanian Defense Force soldiers.[24] While in police custody, they were assaulted by the PDF. Adam Curtis spent two weeks in the hospital recovering from the beating. PDF soldiers sexually threatened his wife.[20] The next day, President Bush ordered the execution of the Panama invasion plan; the military set H-Hour as 0100 on December 20.[25]

 
1st Lt Robert Paz, 2nd Battalion, 9th Marines

International mediation

Several neighboring governments secretly tried to negotiate a peaceful outcome and Noriega's willing resignation. Presidents Oscar Arias and Daniel Oduber of Costa Rica, Carlos Andrés Pérez of Venezuela, Alfonso López Michelsen of Colombia and Spanish Prime Minister Felipe González all on different occasions met Noriega in secret attempting to convince him to leave power and self-exile himself in Spain, to no avail.[26][27]

U.S. rationale

The official U.S. rationale for the invasion was articulated by President George H. W. Bush on the morning of December 20, 1989, a few hours after the start of the operation. Bush cited Panama's declaration of a state of war with the United States and attacks on U.S. troops as justification for the invasion.[28]

Bush further identified four objectives of the invasion:

  • Safeguarding the lives of U.S. citizens in Panama. In his statement, Bush stated that Noriega had declared that a state of war existed between the U.S. and Panama and that he threatened the lives of the approximately 35,000 U.S. citizens living there. There had been numerous clashes between U.S. and Panamanian forces; one U.S. Marine had been killed a few days earlier.
  • Defending democracy and human rights in Panama.
  • Combating drug trafficking. Panama had become a center for drug money laundering and a transit point for drug trafficking to the U.S. and Europe.
  • Protecting the integrity of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties. Members of Congress and others in the U.S. political establishment claimed that Noriega threatened the neutrality of the Panama Canal and that the U.S. had the right under the treaties to intervene militarily to protect the canal.[29]

U.S. military forces were instructed to begin maneuvers and activities within the restrictions of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, such as ignoring PDF roadblocks and conducting short-notice "Category Three" military exercises on security-sensitive targets, with the express goal of provoking PDF soldiers. U.S. SOUTHCOM kept a list of abuses against U.S. servicemen and civilians by the PDF while the orders to incite PDF soldiers were in place.[14] As for the Panamanian legislature's declaration of a state of war between the U.S. and Panama, Noriega insists[30] that this statement referred to a state of war directed by the U.S. against Panama, in the form of what he claimed were harsh economic sanctions and constant, provocative military maneuvers (Operations Purple Storm and Sand Flea)[31] that were prohibited by the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. The U.S. had turned a blind eye to Noriega's involvement in drug trafficking since the 1970s. Noriega was then singled out for direct involvement in these drug trafficking operations due to the widespread public knowledge of his involvement in money laundering, drug activities, political murder, and human rights abuses.[12]

Bush's four reasons for the invasion provided sufficient justification to establish bipartisan Congressional approval and support for the invasion. However, the secrecy before initiation, the speed and success of the invasion itself, and U.S. public support for it (80% public approval)[32] did not allow Democrats to object to Bush's decision to use military force.[32] One contemporary study suggests that Bush decided to invade for domestic political reasons, citing scarce strategic reasoning for the U.S. to invade and immediately withdraw without establishing the structure to enforce the interests that Bush used to justify the invasion.[32]

Military operations

 
Tactical map of Operation Just Cause showing major points of attack
 
Elements of 1st Bn, 508th Infantry parachuting into a drop zone, during training, outside of Panama City.

Elements of US Naval Special Warfare, including NSWU-8, Seal Team Four and Special Boat Unit 26.

The U.S. Army, Air Force, Navy, Marines, and Coast Guard participated in Operation Just Cause.[33] Ground forces consisted of:

Air logistic support was provided by the 22nd Air Force with air assets from the 60th, 62nd, and 63rd military airlift wings.

The military incursion into Panama began on December 20, 1989, at 1:00 a.m. local time. The operation involved 27,684 U.S. troops and over 300 aircraft, including C-130 Hercules tactical transports flown by the 317th Tactical Airlift Wing (which was equipped with the Adverse Weather Aerial Delivery System or AWADS) and 314th Tactical Airlift Wing, AC-130 Spectre gunships, OA-37B Dragonfly observation and attack aircraft, C-141 Starlifter and C-5 Galaxy strategic transports, F-117A Nighthawk stealth aircraft flown by the 37th Tactical Fighter Wing, and AH-64 Apache attack helicopters. The invasion of Panama was the first combat deployment for the AH-64, the HMMWV, and the F-117A. Panamanian radar units were jammed by two EF-111As of the 390th ECS, 366th TFW.[37] These aircraft were deployed against the 16,000 members of the PDF.[38]

The operation began with an assault of strategic installations, such as the civilian Punta Paitilla Airport in Panama City and a PDF garrison and airfield at Rio Hato, where Noriega also maintained a residence. U.S. Navy SEALs destroyed Noriega's private jet and a Panamanian gunboat. A Panamanian ambush killed four SEALs and wounded nine. Other military command centers throughout the country were also attacked. The attack on the central headquarters of the PDF (referred to as La Comandancia) touched off several fires, one of which destroyed most of the adjoining and heavily populated El Chorrillo neighborhood in downtown Panama City. During the firefight at the Comandancia, the PDF downed two special operations helicopters and forced one MH-6 Little Bird to crash-land in the Panama Canal.[39] The opening round of attacks in Panama City also included a special operations raid on the Carcel Modelo prison (known as Operation Acid Gambit) to free Kurt Muse, a U.S. citizen convicted of espionage by Noriega.

 
A U.S. Army M113

Fort Amador was secured by elements of the 1st Battalion (Airborne), 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 5th Infantry Division [Scouts] and 59th Engineer Company (sappers) in a nighttime air assault which secured the fort in the early hours of December 20. Fort Amador was a key position because of its relationship to the large oil farms adjacent to the canal, the Bridge of the Americas over the canal, and the Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal. Key command and control elements of the PDF were stationed there. C Company 1st Battalion (Airborne) 508th PIR was assigned the task of securing La Comandancia. Furthermore, Fort Amador had a large U.S. housing district that needed to be secured to prevent the PDF from taking U.S. citizens as hostages. This position also protected the left flank of the attack on La Comandancia and the securing of the El Chorrillos neighborhood, guarded by Dignity Battalions, Noriega supporters that the U.S. forces sometimes referred to as "Dingbats". Military police units from Ft. Bragg, North Carolina deployed via strategic airlift into Howard Air Force Base the next morning and secured key government buildings in the downtown area of Panama City. MPs seized PDF weapons, vehicles and supplies during house-to-house searches in the following days, and conducted urban combat operations against snipers and Dignity Battalion holdouts for the following week.[citation needed]

A few hours after the invasion began, Guillermo Endara was sworn in at Fort Clayton.[40] According to The Los Angeles Times, Endara was the "presumed winner" in the presidential election which had been scheduled earlier that year.[41]

A platoon from the 1138th Military Police Company, Missouri Army National Guard, which was on a routine two-week rotation to Panama was called upon to set up a detainee camp on Empire Range to handle the mass of civilian and military detainees. This unit was the first National Guard unit called into active service since the Vietnam War.[42]

Noriega's capture

 
American soldiers preparing to take La Comandancia in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City, December 1989

Operation Nifty Package was an operation launched by Navy SEALs to prevent Noriega's escape. They sank Noriega's boat and destroyed his jet, at a cost of four killed and nine wounded. Military operations continued for several weeks, mainly against military units of the Panamanian army. Noriega remained at large for several days, but realizing he had few options in the face of a massive manhunt and a $1 million reward for his capture, he obtained refuge in the Apostolic Nunciature of the Diplomatic mission of the Holy See in Panama City. The U.S. military's psychological pressure on him and diplomatic pressure on the Holy See mission, however, was relentless, as was the playing of loud rock-and-roll music day and night in a densely populated area.[43] The report of the Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff claimed that the music was used principally to prevent parabolic microphones from being used to eavesdrop on negotiations, and not as a psychological weapon based around Noriega's supposed loathing of rock music.[39] Noriega finally surrendered to the U.S. military on January 3, 1990. He was immediately put on an MC-130E Combat Talon I aircraft and flown to the U.S.

Casualties

 
An U.S. Army Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk picks up a Marine casualty

According to official Pentagon figures, 516 Panamanians were killed during the invasion, including 314 soldiers and 202 civilians;[3] however, an internal U.S. Army memo estimated the number at 1,000.[44]

The UN estimated 500 civilian deaths,[45] whereas Americas Watch estimated that 300 civilians died. President Guillermo Endara said that "less than 600 Panamanians" died during the entire invasion. Former Attorney General Ramsey Clark estimated 3,000 civilian deaths. The Roman Catholic Church estimated that 673 Panamanians were killed in total. Physicians for Human Rights, said it had received "reliable reports of more than 100 civilian deaths" that were not included in the U.S. military estimate but also that there was no evidence of several thousand civilian deaths. According to The New York Times, figures estimating thousands of civilian casualties were widely rejected in Panama.[3]

Human Rights Watch's 1991 report stated that even with these uncertainties, the figures on civilian casualties are "still troublesome" because:

With respect to the United States forces, our report concluded that the tactics and weapons utilized resulted in an inordinate number of civilian victims, in violation of specific obligations under the Geneva Conventions. [...][Panama's civilian deaths] reveal that the "surgical operation" by American forces inflicted a toll in civilian lives that was at least four-and-a-half times higher than military casualties in the enemy, and twelve or thirteen times higher than the casualties suffered by U.S. troops. By themselves, these ratios suggest that the rule of proportionality and the duty to minimize harm to civilians, where doing so would not compromise a legitimate military objective, were not faithfully observed by the invading U.S. forces. For us, the controversy over the number of civilian casualties should not obscure the important debate on the manner in which those people died.[46]

US military casualties in the invasion were 23 killed[47] and 325 wounded. In June 1990, the US military announced that of its casualties, 2 dead and 19 wounded were victims of friendly fire.[48] The number of Panamanian military dead was estimated at 314 by the United States Southern Command.[3]

Civilian fatalities included Kandi Helin and Ray Dragseth, two American school teachers working in Panama for the Department of Defense Schools. The adult son of another teacher, Rick Paul, was also killed by friendly fire as he ran an American road block. A Spanish freelance press photographer on assignment for El Pais, Juan Antonio Rodriguez Moreno, was killed outside of the Marriott Hotel in Panama City early on December 21. In June 1990, his family filed a claim for wrongful death against the United States government.[7] In 1992, when the claim was rejected by the U.S. government, the Spanish government sent a Note Verbale extending diplomatic protection to Rodriguez and demanding compensation on behalf of his family.[49][50] The U.S. government again rejected the claim, disputing both its liability for warzone deaths in general and whether Rodriguez had been killed by U.S. rather than Panamanian gunfire.[49]

Women's roles

Operation Just Cause involved unprecedented use of U.S. military women during an invasion. Approximately 600 of the 26,000 U.S. forces involved in the invasion were women. Women did not serve in direct combat roles or combat arms units, but they did serve as military police, truck drivers, helicopter pilots, and in other logistical roles.[51] Captain Linda L. Bray, commander of the 988th Military Police Company of Fort Benning, Georgia, led her troops in a three-hour firefight against Panamanian Defense Forces who refused to surrender a dog kennel which (it was later discovered) they were using to store weapons. Bray was said to be the first woman to lead U.S. troops in battle and her role in the firefight was widely reported and led to controversy in the media and in Congress over women's roles in the U.S. military. Bray requested and received a discharge in 1991.[52] 1LT Lisa Kutschera and Warrant Officer Debra Mann piloted UH-60 ("Blackhawk") helicopters ferrying infantry troops. Their helicopters came under fire during the invasion, and like their male counterparts, both women were awarded Air Medals for their roles during the invasion.[53]

Origin of the name "Operation Just Cause"

Operation plans directed against Panama evolved from plans designed to defend the Panama Canal. They became more aggressive as the situation between the two nations deteriorated. The Prayer Book series of plans included rehearsals for a possible clash (Operation Purple Storm) and missions to secure U.S. sites (Operation Bushmaster).

Eventually, these plans became Operation Blue Spoon which was then, in order to sustain the perceived legitimacy of the invasion throughout the operation, renamed by the Pentagon to Operation Just Cause.[54] General Colin Powell said that he liked the name because "even our severest critics would have to utter 'Just Cause' while denouncing us."[55] Critics, however, renamed it Operation "Just 'Cuz", arguing that it had been undertaken "just [be]cause Bush felt like it."[56][57]

The post-invasion civil-military operation designed to stabilize the situation, support the U.S.-installed government, and restore basic services was originally planned as "Operation Blind Logic", but was renamed "Operation Promote Liberty" by the Pentagon on the eve of the invasion.[58]

The original operation, in which U.S. troops were deployed to Panama in early 1989, was called "Operation Nimrod Dancer".[59]

Legality

The US government invoked self-defense as a legal justification for its invasion of Panama.[28] Several scholars and observers have opined that the invasion was illegal under international law. They argue that the justifications for the invasion which were given by the U.S. were, according to these sources, factually groundless, and moreover, even if they had been true they would have provided inadequate support for the invasion under international law.[60] Article 2 of the United Nations Charter, a cornerstone of international law, prohibits the use of force by member states to settle disputes except in self-defense or when authorized by the United Nations Security Council. Articles 18 and 20 of the Charter of the Organization of American States, written in part in reaction to the history of US military interventions in Central America, also explicitly prohibit the use of force by member states: "[n]o state or group of states has the right to intervene, directly or indirectly, for any reason whatever, in the internal affairs of any other state." (Charter of the Organization of American States (OAS), Article 18.) Article 20 of the OAS Charter states that "the territory of a states is inviolable; it may not be the object, even temporarily, of military occupation or of other measures of force taken by another state, directly or indirectly, on any grounds whatever."[61] The US has ratified the UN Charter and the OAS Charter and therefore they are among the highest law of the land in the US under the Supremacy Clause of the US Constitution.[citation needed] Other international law experts who have examined the legal justification of the US invasion have concluded that it was a "gross violation" of international law.[62]

The United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution which strongly deplored the 1989 U.S. armed invasion of Panama. The resolution determined that the U.S. invasion was a "flagrant violation of international law."[63] A similar resolution which was proposed by the United Nations Security Council was supported by the majority of its member nations but vetoed by the US, France and the UK.[64]

Independent experts and observers have concluded that the US invasion of Panama also exceeded the authority of the president of the United States under the US Constitution because Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution grants the power to declare war solely to the Congress, not to the president.[65][66] According to observers, the US invasion also violated the War Powers Resolution,[67] a federal law designed to limit presidential action without Congressional authorization, because the president failed to consult with Congress regarding the invasion of Panama prior to the invasion.[68][64][69]

Local and international reactions

The invasion of Panama provoked international outrage. Some countries charged that the U.S. had committed an act of aggression by invading Panama and was trying to conceal a new manifestation of its interventionist policy of force in Latin America. On December 29, the General Assembly of the United Nations voted 75–20, with 40 abstentions, to condemn the invasion as a flagrant violation of international law.[70]

On December 22, the Organization of American States passed a resolution deploring the invasion and calling for withdrawal of U.S. troops, as well as a resolution condemning the violation of the diplomatic status of the Nicaraguan Embassy in Panama by U.S. Special Forces who had entered the building.[71] At the UN Security Council, after discussing the issue over several days, seven nations initiated a draft resolution demanding the immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces from Panama.[72] It was vetoed on December 23 by three of the permanent members of the Security Council,[73] France, United Kingdom, and the United States, which cited its right of self-defense of 35,000 Americans present on the Panama Canal.[74]

Peru recalled its ambassador from the U.S. in protest of the invasion.

President Nicolae Ceaușescu of Romania, who was being overthrown in a violent revolution, criticised the American invasion of Panama as "brutal aggression".[75][76]

Some claim that the Panamanian people overwhelmingly supported the invasion.[77] According to a CBS poll, 92% of Panamanian adults supported the U.S. incursion, and 76% wished that U.S. forces had invaded in October during the coup.[77] The poll was conducted in 158 randomly selected areas of the country covering about 75 percent of Panama's adult population. CBS News said the margin of sampling error was plus or minus four percentage points.[78] Human Rights Watch described the reaction of the civilian population to the invasion as "generally sympathetic".[79] According to Robert Pastor, a former U.S. national security advisor, 74% of Americans polled approved of the action.[77]

Eighteen years after the invasion, Panama's National Assembly unanimously declared December 20, 2007 to be a day of national mourning. The resolution was vetoed by President Martin Torrijos.[80][81] On December 19, 2019, the Panamanian government declared December 20 to be a National Day of Mourning (Dia de duelo nacional) to be marked by lowering the national flag to half staff.[82]

The Washington Post disclosed several rulings of the Office of Legal Counsel, issued shortly before the invasion, regarding the U.S. armed forces being charged with making an arrest abroad. One ruling interpreted an executive order which prohibits the assassination of foreign leaders as suggesting that accidental killings would be acceptable foreign policy. Another ruling concluded that the Posse Comitatus Act of 1878, which prohibits the armed forces from making arrests without Congressional authorization, is effective only within the boundaries of the U.S., such that the military could be used as a police force abroad—for example, in Panama, to enforce a federal court warrant against Noriega.[83]

Aftermath

 
El Chorrillo was badly damaged by fighting. More than 20,000 Panamanians were displaced during the invasion, and disorder continued for nearly two weeks.

Guillermo Endara, in hiding, was sworn in as president by a judge on the night preceding the invasion. In later years, he staged a hunger strike, calling attention to the poverty and homelessness left in the wake of both the Noriega years and the destruction caused by the U.S. invasion.

On July 19, 1990, a group of 60 companies with operations in Panama filed a lawsuit against the U.S. government in Federal District Court in New York City alleging that the U.S. action against Panama was "done in a tortuous, careless and negligent manner with disregard for the property of innocent Panamanian residents". Most of the businesses had insurance, but the insurers either went bankrupt or refused to pay, claiming that acts of war were not covered.[84]

About 20,000 people lost their homes and became refugees as a result of urban warfare. About 2,700 families that were displaced by the Chorrillo fire were each given $6,500 by the U.S. to build a new house or apartment in selected areas in or near the city. However, numerous problems were reported with the new constructions just two years after the invasion.[85]

The government of Guillermo Endara designated the first anniversary of the U.S. invasion a "national day of reflection". Hundreds of Panamanians marked the day with a "black march" through the streets of Panama City to denounce the U.S. invasion and Endara's economic policies. Protesters echoed claims that 3,000 people were killed as a result of U.S. military action. Since Noriega's ousting, Panama has had four presidential elections, with candidates from opposing parties succeeding each other in the Palacio de las Garzas. Panama's press, however, is still subject to numerous restrictions.[86] On February 10, 1990, the Endara government abolished Panama's military and reformed the security apparatus by creating the Panamanian Public Forces. In 1994, a constitutional amendment permanently abolished the military of Panama. Concurrent with a severe recession in Latin America throughout the 1990s, Panama's GDP recovered by 1993, but very high unemployment remained a serious problem.

Noriega was brought to the U.S. to stand trial. He was subsequently convicted on eight counts of drug trafficking, racketeering, and money laundering and sentenced to 40 years in prison. His sentence was later reduced to 30 years.[87]

On December 20, 2015, Vice President Isabel De Saint Malo de Alvarado announced Panama's intention to form a special independent commission with the aim to publish a report to mark the 26th anniversary of the U.S. invasion of Panama. The commission's goal would be to identify victims so that reparations could be paid to their families, as well as to establish public monuments and school curriculums to honor history and reclaim Panama's collective memory. Victims' families have claimed that past investigations into the invasion had been funded by Washington and therefore were biased.[citation needed]

Timeline

Information in this section[31]

1987

September 1987

November 1987

  • U.S. Senate resolution cuts military and economic aid to Panama. Panamanians adopt resolution restricting U.S. military presence.

1988

February 1988

  • Noriega indicted on drug-related charges. U.S. forces begin planning contingency operations in Panama (OPLAN Blue Spoon).

March 1988

  • March 15: First of four deployments of U.S. forces begins providing additional security to U.S. installations.
  • March 16: PDF officers attempt a coup against Noriega.

April 1988

  • April 5: Additional U.S. forces deployed to provide security.
  • April 9: Joint Task Force Panama activated.

1989

May 1989

  • May 7: General election are held in Panama; opposition alliance tally shows their candidate, Guillermo Endara, beating Noriega's candidate, Carlos Duque, by a 3 to 1 margin. The election is declared invalid two days later by Noriega.
  • May 11: President Bush orders 1,900 additional combat troops to Panama (Operation Nimrod Dancer).[59]
  • May 22: Convoys conducted to assert U.S. freedom of movement. Additional transport units travel from bases in the territorial U.S. to bases in Panama, and back, for this express purpose.

June–September 1989 (Operation Nimrod Dancer)

  • U.S. begins conducting joint training and freedom of movement exercises (Operation Sand Flea[59] and Operation Purple Storm[59]). Additional transport units continue repeatedly traveling from bases in the territorial U.S. to bases in Panama, and back, for this express purpose.

October 1989 (Operation Nimrod Dancer)

  • October 3: PDF, loyal to Noriega, defeat second coup attempt.

December 1989

  • December 15: Noriega refers to himself as leader of Panama and declares that the U.S. is in a state of war with Panama.
  • December 16: U.S. Marine lieutenant shot and killed by PDF. Navy lieutenant and wife detained and assaulted by PDF.
  • December 17: NCA directs execution of Operation Just Cause.
  • December 18: Army lieutenant shoots PDF sergeant. Joint Task Force South (JTFSO) advance party deploys. JCS designates D-Day/H-Hour as 20 December/1:00 a.m.
  • December 19: U.S. forces alerted, marshalled, and launched.

D-Day, December 20, 1989

  • U.S. invasion of Panama begins. The operation was conducted as a campaign with limited military objectives. JTFSO objectives in PLAN 90-2 were to: protect U.S. lives and key sites and facilities, capture and deliver Noriega to competent authority, neutralize PDF forces, neutralize PDF command and control, support establishment of a U.S.-recognized government in Panama, and restructure the PDF. Major operations detailed elsewhere continued through December 24.

1990

  • JCS directs execution of Operation Promote Liberty.

January 3, 1990 (D-Day + 14)

  • Noriega surrenders to U.S. forces in Panama City

January 31, 1990 (D-Day + 42)

  • Operation Just Cause ends.
  • Operation Promote Liberty begins.

1994

September 1994 (D-Day + approximately 4.5 years)

  • Operation Promote Liberty ends.[58]

Major operations and involved U.S. units

Operations

All 27 objectives related to the Panamanian Defense Force were completed on D-Day, December 20, 1989. As initial forces moved to new objectives, follow-on forces from the 7th Infantry Division (L) moved into the western areas of Panama and into Panama City.

December 18, 1989 (D-Day – 2)

  • SFODA-795/796 of Company C, 3rd Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne), part of Task Force Black, moves to Albrook Air Force Station as a forward element in preparation to secure the Panamanian President-elect Endara and his two vice presidents-elect, by force, if necessary.

December 19, 1989 (D-Day − 1)

  • Company A, 1st Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) – already deployed into Panama, along with 3rd Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) – then permanently headquartered at Fort Davis, Panama, both elements of Task Force Black, moved to predetermined positions.
  • Task Force Black receives Presidential cross-border authority message from President Bush.
  • Company C, 3rd Battalion, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) is stood down from its mission to rescue of the duly elected Panamanian Presidency and awaits a new mission.
  • 3d Bde, 7th Infantry Division (L) (4/17th Inf), already deployed as part of peacekeeping forces in the region, was deployed to predetermined positions.
  • 2nd Bde, 7th Inf Div (L), was alerted for deployment. DRF 1 (3/27th Inf) and DRF 2 (2/27th INF) were deployed.
  • Tow Platoon, HHC, 5/87th Inf (L), conducts pre-invasion recon of all objectives for Task Force Wildcat.

December 20, 1989 (D-Day)

  • 3d Bde, 7th Infantry Division (L) (4/17th Inf) began operations in Colon City, the Canal Zone, and Panama City.
  • The remainder of the 2d Bde was deployed and closed in Panama.
  • Elements of 1st and 3rd Bn, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) conducted air assault and secured Pacora River Bridge preventing PDF reinforcements from reaching Omar Torrijos Airport and Panama City.
  • The entire 75th Ranger Regiment, split into two elements (Team Black and Team Gold), conducted simultaneous parachute drops at Rio Hato Airfield, along with half the command and control of the HQ 75th RGR, the entire 2nd Battalion 75th RGR, and two companies from 3rd Battalion 75th, to neutralize PDF and Macho de Montes units present, seize the runway, and secure Manuel Noriega's beachside facility.
  • The other half of HQ 75th RGR C&C, along with 1st Battalion 75th RGR and the remaining elements of 3rd Battalion 75th RGR, dropped into Omar Torrijos Airport to seize the runway and tower for follow-on operations by elements of the 82nd Airborne Division, deployed by C141 airdrop/airland elements of the 317th Combat Control Squadron, 507th Tactical Air Control Squadron.
  • 193d Infantry Brigade (Light) assaulted PDF headquarters at La Commandancia, PDF Engineer Battalion, PDF 5th Company at Fort Amador, PDF units at Balboa and Ancon.
  • 45 minutes after the 75th RGR RGT conducted their parachute drop onto Omar Torrijos Airport the 1st BDE 82 ABN DIV begins parachuting onto the airfield, and then assembles for movement to assigned follow on objectives.
  • Company C, 3rd Battalion, 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) conducts a daylight raid on Panama National Radio in downtown Panama City by fast-roping onto the roof of its 20-story building from MH-60 helicopters, destroying its FM broadcast capability. In a short turn around operation with 15 minutes warning and on order from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the unit air assaults the Radio Panama AM radio transmitter site destroying the transmission tower and cutting off Noriega's final link to rally his supporters.

December 21, 1989 (D-Day + 1)

  • JCS directed execution of Operation Promote Liberty (renamed from Plan Blind Logic).
  • The Panama Canal reopened for daylight operations.
  • Refugee situation became critical.
  • C Company, 5th Battalion, 87th Infantry Regiment (193d Infantry Brigade) repelled a PDF counterattack at the PDF DNTT headquarters and rescued Panamanian Vice President Ford, whose convoy was also attacked.
  • TF Bayonet began CMO in Panama City.
  • Marriott Hotel was secured and hostages evacuated.

December 22, 1989 (D-Day + 2)

  • FPP established.
  • CMO and stability operations became primary focus.
  • 2d Bde, 7th Inf Div (L), deployed to Rio Hato.
  • 1st Bde (9th Regiment), 7th Inf Div (L), was alerted for deployment.

December 23, 1989 (D-Day + 3)

  • International airport reopened.
  • 2d Bde, 7th Inf Div (L) and SF elements began operations in west.
  • 96th CA Bn assumed responsibility for DC Camp from USARSO.
  • 1st Bde (9th Regiment) 7th Inf Div (L) closed in Panama.

December 24, 1989 (D-Day + 4)

  • Noriega entered Papal Nunciatura.
  • Money for Weapons program initiated.
  • Combined U.S./FPP patrols began.

December 25, 1989 (D-Day + 5)

  • Rangers secured Davíd.
  • Operations in western Panama continued successfully.

January 3, 1990 (D-Day + 14)

  • Noriega surrendered to U.S. forces.
  • Combat and stability ops continue.

January 31, 1990 (D-Day + 42)

  • Operation Just Cause ends.[1]
  • Operation Promote Liberty begins.

September 1994 (D-Day + approximately 4.5 years)

  • Operation Promote Liberty ends.[58]

Above information in this section[31]

Related operations

  • Operation Nifty Package: an operation which the SEALs undertook in order to capture Manuel Noriega or destroy his two escape routes, his private jet which was located at the Paitilla Airfield was destroyed in the operation along with his gunboat, which was docked in a canal. Noriega surrendered to U.S. troops on January 3, 1990.
  • Operation Nimrod Dancer: an operation which reinforced the forward-deployed U.S. forces with a brigade headquarters and an infantry battalion task force from the 7th Inf Div (L), a mechanized infantry battalion from the 5th Inf Div (M), and a U.S. Marine Corps Light Armored Infantry (LAI) Company. Augmentation continued with units rotating from both divisions under Operation Nimrod Sustain.[88]
  • Operation Prayer Book
  • Operation Promote Liberty: an operation whose purpose was to rebuild the Panamanian military and Panama's civilian infrastructure.
  • Operation Purple Storm: an operation whose purpose was to assert, display, and exercise U.S. freedom-of-movement rights, with convoys traveling both inside and outside Panama for that express purpose.
  • Operation Sand Flea: an operation whose purpose was to exercise, display, and assert U.S. freedom-of-movement rights, with convoys traveling both inside and outside Panama for that express purpose.
  • Raid at Renacer Prison: a military operation in which the prison was taken over and 64 prisoners were rescued.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "Veterans Preference and "Wartime" Service". archives.gov. August 15, 2016.
  2. ^ "Operation Just Cause: The Invasion of Panama, December 1989". United States Army.
  3. ^ a b c d e Rohter, Larry (April 1, 1990). "Panama and U.S. Strive To Settle on Death Toll". The New York Times. Retrieved December 24, 2017.
  4. ^ Archibold, Randal C. (May 30, 2017). "Manuel Noriega, Dictator Ousted by U.S. in Panama, Dies at 83". The New York Times. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
  5. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1991). Deterring Democracy. Boston, MA: South End Press. p. 164. ISBN 9781466801530.
  6. ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the : Trent, Barbara (1992). The Panama Deception.
  7. ^ a b Riding, Alan (June 24, 1990). "U.S. Sued in Death of a Journalist in Panama". The New York Times.
  8. ^ "'It's Been Worth It': Bush—U.S. Troops Take Control of Panama". Los Angeles Times. December 21, 1989.
  9. ^ a b c d e Jones, Howard (2001). Crucible of Power: A History of US Foreign Relations Since 1897. SR Books. p. 494. ISBN 978-0-8420-2918-6.
  10. ^ Kempe, Frederick (1990). Divorcing the Dictator. New York: Putnam. pp. 26–30, 162. ISBN 978-1-85043-259-3.
  11. ^ Cockburn, Alexander & St. Clair, Jeffrey (1998). Whiteout: the CIA, Drugs, and the Press. London: Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-139-6.[page needed]
  12. ^ a b The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing, George Washington University. 1999. p. 2.
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  15. ^ Cole, Ronald H. (1995). Operation Just Cause: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama, February 1988 – January 1990 (PDF). Joint History Office, Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-7881-3557-6.
  16. ^ (Report). Organization of American States: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. November 9, 1989. Archived from the original on October 20, 2020.
  17. ^ Cole, Ronald H. (1995). Operation Just Cause: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama, February 1988 – January 1990 (PDF). Joint History Office, Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7881-3557-6.
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  21. ^ "UNITED STATES v. NORIEGA". On December 15, 1989, Noriega publicly declared that a state of war existed between Panama and the United States.
  22. ^ Quigley, John. "The Legality of the United States Invasion of Panama" (PDF).
  23. ^ "Operation Just Cause". 870-5a Organizational History Files (Corps Historian's Notes). XVIII Airborne Corps. 1989–1990. Notebook #1. Permanent. Corps Historian's Personal Notes Recorded During the Operation
  24. ^ Mann, Don (2019). Navy SEALs: The Combat History of the Deadliest Warriors on the Planet. Skyhorse. p. 108.
  25. ^ Cole, Ronald H (1995). Operation Just Cause: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama, February 1988 – January 1990. Joint History Office, Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. p. 30.
  26. ^ Chinchilla, Sofia (December 18, 2019). "Archivo de CIA revela gestiones de Óscar Arias y Daniel Oduber para negociar salida de Noriega". La Nación (San José). Retrieved December 25, 2020.
  27. ^ Jauregui, Fernando (March 27, 1988). "Óscar Arias arfirmaa que el general Noriega considera la posibilidad de exiliarse en España". El País (Spain). Retrieved December 25, 2020.
  28. ^ a b "A Transcript of Bush's Address on the Decision to Use Force in Panama". The New York Times. December 21, 1989. p. A19.
  29. ^ transcript
  30. ^ Noriega, Manuel & Eisner, Peter (1997). America's Prisoner: The Memoirs of Manuel Noriega. Random House. ISBN 9780679432272.[page needed]
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  33. ^ "U.S. Coast Guard Defends Against Terrorism Locally, Globally". archive.defense.gov. Retrieved March 22, 2018. Coast Guardsmen served in the War of 1812, Mexican-American War, Civil War, Spanish-American War, World Wars I and II, Korean War, Vietnam War, Mayaguez Incident in Cambodia in 1975, Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada, Operation Just Cause in Panama,-
  34. ^ "507th AIR CONTROL WING" (PDF).
  35. ^ "602nd Tactical Air Control Wing" (PDF). Retrieved February 28, 2022.
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  38. ^ Pizzurno, Patricia & Andrés Araúz, Celestino. (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 21 April 2006.[full citation needed] According to this piece, the PDF had 16,000 troops, but only 3,000 of them were trained for combat: "Para entonces las Fuerzas de Defensa poseían 16.000 efectivos, de los cuales apenas 3.000 estaban entrenados para el combate."
  39. ^ a b Cole, Ronald H. (PDF). Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
  40. ^ Fishel, John T. (1997). Civil Military Operations in the New World. Greenwood Publishing Group.[full citation needed]
  41. ^ "Combat in Panama, Operation Just Cause". Los Angeles Times. December 21, 1989. p. A4.
  42. ^ "Guard News – the National Guard".
  43. ^ Baker, Russell (January 3, 1990). "Is This Justice Necessary?". The New York Times. p. A19. Retrieved November 9, 2007.
  44. ^ Lindsay-Poland, John (2003). Emperors in the Jungle: The Hidden History of the U.S. in Panama. Duke University Press. p. 118. ISBN 0-8223-3098-9.[full citation needed]
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  46. ^ "Human Rights in Post-Invasion Panama: Justice Delayed is Justice Denied". April 7, 1991.[full citation needed]
  47. ^ . Wars of za warudo. Archived from the original on April 6, 2012. Retrieved December 11, 2007.
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  49. ^ a b Spanish Yearbook of International Law: 1992. 1992. pp. 158–161. ISBN 9041102310.
  50. ^ "España ha asumido ante el Departamento de Estado de EE UU la defensa de Juantxu". El Pais. March 27, 1992. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
  51. ^ Moore, Molly (January 20, 1990). "Army Probes Allegations Two Women Refused to Obey Orders in Panama". Washington Post. Retrieved September 26, 2019.
  52. ^ "First Woman to Lead U.S. Troops in Battle". Women in Military Service for America Memorial (Women's Memorial).
  53. ^ Charles C., Moskos (August 1990). "Army Women". The Atlantic. Retrieved September 26, 2019.
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  62. ^ Louis Henkin, 29 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 293 (1991), "The Invasion of Panama under International Law: A Gross Violation"
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  67. ^ 50 U.S.C. 1541–1548)
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  72. ^ United Nations Security Council Draft Resolution S/21048 December 22, 1989. Retrieved September 13, 2007.
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  75. ^ European Parliament, Office for official publications of the European Communities (May 3, 1990). The Political Situation in Romania (Report). European Parliament. p. 78. Retrieved April 19, 2022. The Ceausescu regime criticised the US invasion of Panama as 'brutal aggression.'
  76. ^ "Bucharest and Beijing Condemn the Invasion". International Herald Tribune. International Herald Tribune. Associated Press. December 22, 1989. p. 4. Romania condemned on Thursday the U.S. invasion of Panama as "brutal aggression" as its own security forces reportedly fired on civilians protesting the hard-line Communist government.
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Bibliography

  • Eisenmann, Roberto (December 21, 1989). "For a Panamanian, Hope and Tragedy". The New York Times.

Further reading

  • Crandall, Russell. Gunboat democracy: US interventions in the Dominican Republic, Grenada, and Panama (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2006).
  • Donnelly, Thomas (1991). Operation Just Cause: The Storming of Panama. Lexington Books. ISBN 0669249750.
  • Gilboa, Eytan. "The Panama Invasion Revisited: Lessons for the Use of Force in the Post Cold War Era." Political Science Quarterly 110.4 (1995): 539–562. JSTOR 2151883.
  • Harding, Robert C. (2001). Military Foundations of Panamanian Politics. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7658-0075-6.
  • ——— (2006). The History of Panama. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 978-0-313-33322-4.
  • Michaud, Nelson and Howard M. Hensel, eds. Global Media Perspectives on the Crisis in Panama (2011). excerpt
  • Ratcliff, Ronald. "Panama–The Enduring Crisis 1985–1989" August 29, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. Case studies in policy making and implementation (2002).
  • Yates, Lawrence A. (2008). (1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 55–1–1. Archived from the original on June 7, 2010. Retrieved June 4, 2010.
  • Yates, Lawrence A. (2014). The U.S. Military Intervention in Panama: Operation Just Cause, December 1989 – January 1990 (1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 55–3–1.

External links

  • Panama: Background of U.S. Invasion of 1989 October 17, 2018, at the Wayback Machine – historical timeline
  • Effects of the military intervention by the United States of America in Panama on the situation in Central America, UN General Assembly Meeting December 29, 1989
  • Interview with UH-60 helicopter pilot 1LT Lisa Kutschhera, Operation JUST CAUSE Interview #001 – 1LT Lisa Kutschera

united, states, invasion, panama, codenamed, operation, just, cause, lasted, over, month, between, december, 1989, late, january, 1990, occurred, during, administration, president, george, bush, years, after, torrijos, carter, treaties, were, ratified, transfe. The United States invasion of Panama codenamed Operation Just Cause lasted over a month between mid December 1989 and late January 1990 It occurred during the administration of President George H W Bush and ten years after the Torrijos Carter Treaties were ratified to transfer control of the Panama Canal from the United States to Panama by January 1 2000 The primary purpose of the invasion was to depose the de facto Panamanian leader General Manuel Noriega He was wanted by the United States for racketeering and drug trafficking Following the operation the Panama Defense Forces were dissolved and President elect Guillermo Endara was sworn into office The United Nations General Assembly and the Organization of American States condemned the invasion as a violation of international law United States invasion of PanamaPart of the War on Drugs and the Cold WarClockwise from top Marines stand guard with their LAV 25 Aircraft parked at Tocumen Airport Three U S soldiers walk past a restaurant Flames engulf a Panama City neighborhoodDateDecember 20 1989 1989 12 20 January 31 1990 1 1 month 1 week and 4 days LocationPanamaResultAmerican victory 2 Manuel Noriega deposed Dissolution of the Panama Defense Forces President elect Guillermo Endara sworn into officeBelligerents Panama United States Panamanian oppositionCommanders and leadersManuel Noriega Marcos Justine Francisco A RodriguezGeorge H W Bush Dick Cheney Maxwell R Thurman Guillermo EndaraStrength16 00027 000Casualties and losses314 killed 3 1 908 captured23 killed 4 325 woundedPanamanian civilians killed according to 3 U S military 202 Americas Watch 300 United Nations 500 Central American Human Rights Commission 2 000 3 000 5 6 1 Spanish journalist killed 7 8 Contents 1 Background 2 International mediation 3 U S rationale 4 Military operations 4 1 Noriega s capture 4 2 Casualties 4 3 Women s roles 4 4 Origin of the name Operation Just Cause 5 Legality 6 Local and international reactions 7 Aftermath 8 Timeline 8 1 1987 8 2 1988 8 3 1989 8 4 1990 8 5 1994 9 Major operations and involved U S units 9 1 Operations 9 2 Related operations 10 See also 11 References 11 1 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External linksBackground EditThe United States had maintained numerous military bases and a substantial garrison throughout the Canal Zone to protect the American owned Panama Canal and to maintain American control of this strategically important area On September 7 1977 U S President Jimmy Carter and the de facto leader of Panama General Omar Torrijos signed the Torrijos Carter Treaties which set in motion the process of handing over the Panama Canal to Panamanian control by 2000 Although the canal was destined for Panamanian administration the military bases remained and one condition of the transfer was that the canal would remain open to American shipping The U S had long standing relations with General Noriega who served as a U S intelligence asset and paid informant of the Central Intelligence Agency from 1967 including the period when Bush was head of the CIA 1976 77 9 Noriega had sided with the U S rather than the USSR in Central America notably in sabotaging the forces of the Sandinista government in Nicaragua and the revolutionaries of the FMLN group in El Salvador Noriega received upward of 100 000 per year from the 1960s until the 1980s when his salary was increased to 200 000 per year 10 Although he worked with the Drug Enforcement Administration to restrict illegal drug shipments he was known to simultaneously accept significant financial support from drug dealers 9 because he facilitated the laundering of drug money and through Noriega they received protection from DEA investigations due to his special relationship with the CIA 11 In the mid 1980s relations between Noriega and the United States began to deteriorate In 1986 U S President Ronald Reagan opened negotiations with General Noriega requesting that the Panamanian leader step down after he was publicly exposed in The New York Times by Seymour Hersh and was later implicated in the Iran Contra Scandal 12 Reagan pressured him with several drug related indictments in U S courts however since extradition laws between Panama and the U S were weak Noriega deemed this threat not credible and did not submit to Reagan s demands 13 In 1988 Elliot Abrams and others in the Pentagon began pushing for a U S invasion but Reagan refused due to Bush s ties to Noriega through his previous positions in the CIA and the Task Force on Drugs and their potentially negative impact on Bush s presidential campaign 14 Later negotiations involved dropping the drug trafficking indictments In March 1988 Noriega s forces resisted an attempted coup against the government of Panama As relations continued to deteriorate Noriega appeared to shift his Cold War allegiance toward the Soviet bloc soliciting and receiving military aid from Cuba Nicaragua and Libya 15 American military planners began preparing contingency plans to invade Panama In May 1989 during the Panamanian national elections an alliance of parties opposed to the Noriega dictatorship counted results from the country s election precincts before they were sent to the district centers Their tally showed their candidate Guillermo Endara defeating Carlos Duque candidate of a pro Noriega coalition by nearly 3 1 Endara was physically assaulted by Noriega supporters the next day in his motorcade 9 Noriega declared the election null and maintained power by force making him unpopular among Panamanians Noriega s government insisted that it had won the presidential election and that irregularities had been on the part of U S backed candidates from opposition parties 16 Bush called on Noriega to honor the will of the Panamanian people 9 The United States reinforced its Canal Zone garrison and increased the tempo of training and other activities intended to put pressure on Noriega 17 In October 1989 Noriega foiled a second coup attempt by members of the Panamanian Defense Forces PDF led by Major Moises Giroldi 18 Pressure mounted on Bush 9 Bush declared that the U S would not negotiate with a drug trafficker and denied knowledge of Noriega s involvement with the drug trade prior to his February 1988 indictment although Bush had met with Noriega while Director of the CIA and had been the Chair of the Task Force on Drugs while Vice President 19 On December 15 the Panamanian general assembly passed a resolution declaring that a state of war existed between Panama and the United States 20 21 22 The next day four U S military personnel were stopped at a roadblock around 9 00 p m outside PDF headquarters in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City Marine Captain Richard E Hadded Navy Lieutenant Michael J Wilson Army Captain Barry L Rainwater and Marine First Lieutenant Robert Paz had left the Fort Clayton military base and were on their way to have dinner at the Marriott Hotel in downtown Panama City The U S Department of Defense reported that the servicemen had been unarmed were in a private vehicle and attempted to flee only after their vehicle was surrounded by an angry crowd of civilians and PDF troops The PDF asserted later that the Americans were armed and on a reconnaissance mission The PDF opened fire and Lieutenant Paz was fatally wounded by a round that entered the rear of the vehicle and struck him in the back Captain Hadded the driver of the vehicle was also wounded in the foot Paz was rushed to Gorgas Army Hospital but died of his wounds He received the Purple Heart posthumously 23 According to U S military sources a U S Naval officer SEAL Lieutenant Adam Curtis and his wife Bonnie witnessed the incident and were detained by Panamanian Defense Force soldiers 24 While in police custody they were assaulted by the PDF Adam Curtis spent two weeks in the hospital recovering from the beating PDF soldiers sexually threatened his wife 20 The next day President Bush ordered the execution of the Panama invasion plan the military set H Hour as 0100 on December 20 25 1st Lt Robert Paz 2nd Battalion 9th MarinesInternational mediation EditSeveral neighboring governments secretly tried to negotiate a peaceful outcome and Noriega s willing resignation Presidents Oscar Arias and Daniel Oduber of Costa Rica Carlos Andres Perez of Venezuela Alfonso Lopez Michelsen of Colombia and Spanish Prime Minister Felipe Gonzalez all on different occasions met Noriega in secret attempting to convince him to leave power and self exile himself in Spain to no avail 26 27 U S rationale EditThe official U S rationale for the invasion was articulated by President George H W Bush on the morning of December 20 1989 a few hours after the start of the operation Bush cited Panama s declaration of a state of war with the United States and attacks on U S troops as justification for the invasion 28 Bush further identified four objectives of the invasion Safeguarding the lives of U S citizens in Panama In his statement Bush stated that Noriega had declared that a state of war existed between the U S and Panama and that he threatened the lives of the approximately 35 000 U S citizens living there There had been numerous clashes between U S and Panamanian forces one U S Marine had been killed a few days earlier Defending democracy and human rights in Panama Combating drug trafficking Panama had become a center for drug money laundering and a transit point for drug trafficking to the U S and Europe Protecting the integrity of the Torrijos Carter Treaties Members of Congress and others in the U S political establishment claimed that Noriega threatened the neutrality of the Panama Canal and that the U S had the right under the treaties to intervene militarily to protect the canal 29 U S military forces were instructed to begin maneuvers and activities within the restrictions of the Torrijos Carter Treaties such as ignoring PDF roadblocks and conducting short notice Category Three military exercises on security sensitive targets with the express goal of provoking PDF soldiers U S SOUTHCOM kept a list of abuses against U S servicemen and civilians by the PDF while the orders to incite PDF soldiers were in place 14 As for the Panamanian legislature s declaration of a state of war between the U S and Panama Noriega insists 30 that this statement referred to a state of war directed by the U S against Panama in the form of what he claimed were harsh economic sanctions and constant provocative military maneuvers Operations Purple Storm and Sand Flea 31 that were prohibited by the Torrijos Carter Treaties The U S had turned a blind eye to Noriega s involvement in drug trafficking since the 1970s Noriega was then singled out for direct involvement in these drug trafficking operations due to the widespread public knowledge of his involvement in money laundering drug activities political murder and human rights abuses 12 Bush s four reasons for the invasion provided sufficient justification to establish bipartisan Congressional approval and support for the invasion However the secrecy before initiation the speed and success of the invasion itself and U S public support for it 80 public approval 32 did not allow Democrats to object to Bush s decision to use military force 32 One contemporary study suggests that Bush decided to invade for domestic political reasons citing scarce strategic reasoning for the U S to invade and immediately withdraw without establishing the structure to enforce the interests that Bush used to justify the invasion 32 Military operations EditSee also List of military units involved in Operation Just Cause Tactical map of Operation Just Cause showing major points of attack Elements of 1st Bn 508th Infantry parachuting into a drop zone during training outside of Panama City Elements of US Naval Special Warfare including NSWU 8 Seal Team Four and Special Boat Unit 26 The U S Army Air Force Navy Marines and Coast Guard participated in Operation Just Cause 33 Ground forces consisted of combat elements of the XVIII Airborne Corps the 82nd Airborne Division the 7th Infantry Division Light the 7th Special Forces Group Airborne the 75th Ranger Regiment Tactical Air Control Parties from the 507th and 602nd Tactical Air Control Wings and the 24th Composite Wing 34 35 36 Combat Controllers from the 1721st Combat Control Squadron a Joint Special Operations Task Force elements of the 5th Infantry Division 1st Battalion 61st Infantry Regiment 4th Battalion 6th Infantry Regiment replacing 1 61st in September 1989 16th Military Police Brigade Airborne Ft Bragg NC 503rd Military Police Battalion Airborne Ft Bragg NC 21st Military Police Company Airborne Ft Bragg NC 65th Military Police Company Ft Bragg NC 108th Military Police Company Air Assault Ft Bragg NC 519th Military Police Battalion 1138th Military Police Company Missouri Army National Guard 988th Military Police Company Ft Benning GA 555th Military Police Company Ft Lee VA 534th Combat Military Police Ft Clayton Panama 193rd Infantry Brigade 5th Battalion 87th Infantry Regiment 1st Battalion 508th Infantry Regiment 8th Ordnance Company Ammo Ft Bragg NC Select detachment attached to SOUTHCOM Marine Security Forces Battalion Panama Company K 3rd Battalion 6th Marines Regiment Marine Fleet Antiterrorism Security Teams 2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion 2nd Marine Logistics Group 39th Combat Engineer Battalion Co C 511th Military Police Company Ft Drum NY 1097th Transportation Company Medium Boat Fort Davis Panama citation needed 9th Infantry Regiment Fort Ord CA United States 63rd Security Police Squadron Norton AFB Ca Air logistic support was provided by the 22nd Air Force with air assets from the 60th 62nd and 63rd military airlift wings The military incursion into Panama began on December 20 1989 at 1 00 a m local time The operation involved 27 684 U S troops and over 300 aircraft including C 130 Hercules tactical transports flown by the 317th Tactical Airlift Wing which was equipped with the Adverse Weather Aerial Delivery System or AWADS and 314th Tactical Airlift Wing AC 130 Spectre gunships OA 37B Dragonfly observation and attack aircraft C 141 Starlifter and C 5 Galaxy strategic transports F 117A Nighthawk stealth aircraft flown by the 37th Tactical Fighter Wing and AH 64 Apache attack helicopters The invasion of Panama was the first combat deployment for the AH 64 the HMMWV and the F 117A Panamanian radar units were jammed by two EF 111As of the 390th ECS 366th TFW 37 These aircraft were deployed against the 16 000 members of the PDF 38 The operation began with an assault of strategic installations such as the civilian Punta Paitilla Airport in Panama City and a PDF garrison and airfield at Rio Hato where Noriega also maintained a residence U S Navy SEALs destroyed Noriega s private jet and a Panamanian gunboat A Panamanian ambush killed four SEALs and wounded nine Other military command centers throughout the country were also attacked The attack on the central headquarters of the PDF referred to as La Comandancia touched off several fires one of which destroyed most of the adjoining and heavily populated El Chorrillo neighborhood in downtown Panama City During the firefight at the Comandancia the PDF downed two special operations helicopters and forced one MH 6 Little Bird to crash land in the Panama Canal 39 The opening round of attacks in Panama City also included a special operations raid on the Carcel Modelo prison known as Operation Acid Gambit to free Kurt Muse a U S citizen convicted of espionage by Noriega A U S Army M113 Fort Amador was secured by elements of the 1st Battalion Airborne 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment 5th Infantry Division Scouts and 59th Engineer Company sappers in a nighttime air assault which secured the fort in the early hours of December 20 Fort Amador was a key position because of its relationship to the large oil farms adjacent to the canal the Bridge of the Americas over the canal and the Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal Key command and control elements of the PDF were stationed there C Company 1st Battalion Airborne 508th PIR was assigned the task of securing La Comandancia Furthermore Fort Amador had a large U S housing district that needed to be secured to prevent the PDF from taking U S citizens as hostages This position also protected the left flank of the attack on La Comandancia and the securing of the El Chorrillos neighborhood guarded by Dignity Battalions Noriega supporters that the U S forces sometimes referred to as Dingbats Military police units from Ft Bragg North Carolina deployed via strategic airlift into Howard Air Force Base the next morning and secured key government buildings in the downtown area of Panama City MPs seized PDF weapons vehicles and supplies during house to house searches in the following days and conducted urban combat operations against snipers and Dignity Battalion holdouts for the following week citation needed A few hours after the invasion began Guillermo Endara was sworn in at Fort Clayton 40 According to The Los Angeles Times Endara was the presumed winner in the presidential election which had been scheduled earlier that year 41 A platoon from the 1138th Military Police Company Missouri Army National Guard which was on a routine two week rotation to Panama was called upon to set up a detainee camp on Empire Range to handle the mass of civilian and military detainees This unit was the first National Guard unit called into active service since the Vietnam War 42 Noriega s capture Edit Main articles Manuel Antonio Noriega and Operation Nifty Package American soldiers preparing to take La Comandancia in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City December 1989 Operation Nifty Package was an operation launched by Navy SEALs to prevent Noriega s escape They sank Noriega s boat and destroyed his jet at a cost of four killed and nine wounded Military operations continued for several weeks mainly against military units of the Panamanian army Noriega remained at large for several days but realizing he had few options in the face of a massive manhunt and a 1 million reward for his capture he obtained refuge in the Apostolic Nunciature of the Diplomatic mission of the Holy See in Panama City The U S military s psychological pressure on him and diplomatic pressure on the Holy See mission however was relentless as was the playing of loud rock and roll music day and night in a densely populated area 43 The report of the Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff claimed that the music was used principally to prevent parabolic microphones from being used to eavesdrop on negotiations and not as a psychological weapon based around Noriega s supposed loathing of rock music 39 Noriega finally surrendered to the U S military on January 3 1990 He was immediately put on an MC 130E Combat Talon I aircraft and flown to the U S Casualties Edit An U S Army Sikorsky UH 60 Black Hawk picks up a Marine casualtyAccording to official Pentagon figures 516 Panamanians were killed during the invasion including 314 soldiers and 202 civilians 3 however an internal U S Army memo estimated the number at 1 000 44 The UN estimated 500 civilian deaths 45 whereas Americas Watch estimated that 300 civilians died President Guillermo Endara said that less than 600 Panamanians died during the entire invasion Former Attorney General Ramsey Clark estimated 3 000 civilian deaths The Roman Catholic Church estimated that 673 Panamanians were killed in total Physicians for Human Rights said it had received reliable reports of more than 100 civilian deaths that were not included in the U S military estimate but also that there was no evidence of several thousand civilian deaths According to The New York Times figures estimating thousands of civilian casualties were widely rejected in Panama 3 Human Rights Watch s 1991 report stated that even with these uncertainties the figures on civilian casualties are still troublesome because With respect to the United States forces our report concluded that the tactics and weapons utilized resulted in an inordinate number of civilian victims in violation of specific obligations under the Geneva Conventions Panama s civilian deaths reveal that the surgical operation by American forces inflicted a toll in civilian lives that was at least four and a half times higher than military casualties in the enemy and twelve or thirteen times higher than the casualties suffered by U S troops By themselves these ratios suggest that the rule of proportionality and the duty to minimize harm to civilians where doing so would not compromise a legitimate military objective were not faithfully observed by the invading U S forces For us the controversy over the number of civilian casualties should not obscure the important debate on the manner in which those people died 46 US military casualties in the invasion were 23 killed 47 and 325 wounded In June 1990 the US military announced that of its casualties 2 dead and 19 wounded were victims of friendly fire 48 The number of Panamanian military dead was estimated at 314 by the United States Southern Command 3 Civilian fatalities included Kandi Helin and Ray Dragseth two American school teachers working in Panama for the Department of Defense Schools The adult son of another teacher Rick Paul was also killed by friendly fire as he ran an American road block A Spanish freelance press photographer on assignment for El Pais Juan Antonio Rodriguez Moreno was killed outside of the Marriott Hotel in Panama City early on December 21 In June 1990 his family filed a claim for wrongful death against the United States government 7 In 1992 when the claim was rejected by the U S government the Spanish government sent a Note Verbale extending diplomatic protection to Rodriguez and demanding compensation on behalf of his family 49 50 The U S government again rejected the claim disputing both its liability for warzone deaths in general and whether Rodriguez had been killed by U S rather than Panamanian gunfire 49 Women s roles Edit Operation Just Cause involved unprecedented use of U S military women during an invasion Approximately 600 of the 26 000 U S forces involved in the invasion were women Women did not serve in direct combat roles or combat arms units but they did serve as military police truck drivers helicopter pilots and in other logistical roles 51 Captain Linda L Bray commander of the 988th Military Police Company of Fort Benning Georgia led her troops in a three hour firefight against Panamanian Defense Forces who refused to surrender a dog kennel which it was later discovered they were using to store weapons Bray was said to be the first woman to lead U S troops in battle and her role in the firefight was widely reported and led to controversy in the media and in Congress over women s roles in the U S military Bray requested and received a discharge in 1991 52 1LT Lisa Kutschera and Warrant Officer Debra Mann piloted UH 60 Blackhawk helicopters ferrying infantry troops Their helicopters came under fire during the invasion and like their male counterparts both women were awarded Air Medals for their roles during the invasion 53 Origin of the name Operation Just Cause Edit Operation plans directed against Panama evolved from plans designed to defend the Panama Canal They became more aggressive as the situation between the two nations deteriorated The Prayer Book series of plans included rehearsals for a possible clash Operation Purple Storm and missions to secure U S sites Operation Bushmaster Eventually these plans became Operation Blue Spoon which was then in order to sustain the perceived legitimacy of the invasion throughout the operation renamed by the Pentagon to Operation Just Cause 54 General Colin Powell said that he liked the name because even our severest critics would have to utter Just Cause while denouncing us 55 Critics however renamed it Operation Just Cuz arguing that it had been undertaken just be cause Bush felt like it 56 57 The post invasion civil military operation designed to stabilize the situation support the U S installed government and restore basic services was originally planned as Operation Blind Logic but was renamed Operation Promote Liberty by the Pentagon on the eve of the invasion 58 The original operation in which U S troops were deployed to Panama in early 1989 was called Operation Nimrod Dancer 59 Legality EditThe US government invoked self defense as a legal justification for its invasion of Panama 28 Several scholars and observers have opined that the invasion was illegal under international law They argue that the justifications for the invasion which were given by the U S were according to these sources factually groundless and moreover even if they had been true they would have provided inadequate support for the invasion under international law 60 Article 2 of the United Nations Charter a cornerstone of international law prohibits the use of force by member states to settle disputes except in self defense or when authorized by the United Nations Security Council Articles 18 and 20 of the Charter of the Organization of American States written in part in reaction to the history of US military interventions in Central America also explicitly prohibit the use of force by member states n o state or group of states has the right to intervene directly or indirectly for any reason whatever in the internal affairs of any other state Charter of the Organization of American States OAS Article 18 Article 20 of the OAS Charter states that the territory of a states is inviolable it may not be the object even temporarily of military occupation or of other measures of force taken by another state directly or indirectly on any grounds whatever 61 The US has ratified the UN Charter and the OAS Charter and therefore they are among the highest law of the land in the US under the Supremacy Clause of the US Constitution citation needed Other international law experts who have examined the legal justification of the US invasion have concluded that it was a gross violation of international law 62 The United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution which strongly deplored the 1989 U S armed invasion of Panama The resolution determined that the U S invasion was a flagrant violation of international law 63 A similar resolution which was proposed by the United Nations Security Council was supported by the majority of its member nations but vetoed by the US France and the UK 64 Independent experts and observers have concluded that the US invasion of Panama also exceeded the authority of the president of the United States under the US Constitution because Article I Section 8 of the Constitution grants the power to declare war solely to the Congress not to the president 65 66 According to observers the US invasion also violated the War Powers Resolution 67 a federal law designed to limit presidential action without Congressional authorization because the president failed to consult with Congress regarding the invasion of Panama prior to the invasion 68 64 69 Local and international reactions EditThe invasion of Panama provoked international outrage Some countries charged that the U S had committed an act of aggression by invading Panama and was trying to conceal a new manifestation of its interventionist policy of force in Latin America On December 29 the General Assembly of the United Nations voted 75 20 with 40 abstentions to condemn the invasion as a flagrant violation of international law 70 On December 22 the Organization of American States passed a resolution deploring the invasion and calling for withdrawal of U S troops as well as a resolution condemning the violation of the diplomatic status of the Nicaraguan Embassy in Panama by U S Special Forces who had entered the building 71 At the UN Security Council after discussing the issue over several days seven nations initiated a draft resolution demanding the immediate withdrawal of U S forces from Panama 72 It was vetoed on December 23 by three of the permanent members of the Security Council 73 France United Kingdom and the United States which cited its right of self defense of 35 000 Americans present on the Panama Canal 74 Peru recalled its ambassador from the U S in protest of the invasion President Nicolae Ceaușescu of Romania who was being overthrown in a violent revolution criticised the American invasion of Panama as brutal aggression 75 76 Some claim that the Panamanian people overwhelmingly supported the invasion 77 According to a CBS poll 92 of Panamanian adults supported the U S incursion and 76 wished that U S forces had invaded in October during the coup 77 The poll was conducted in 158 randomly selected areas of the country covering about 75 percent of Panama s adult population CBS News said the margin of sampling error was plus or minus four percentage points 78 Human Rights Watch described the reaction of the civilian population to the invasion as generally sympathetic 79 According to Robert Pastor a former U S national security advisor 74 of Americans polled approved of the action 77 Eighteen years after the invasion Panama s National Assembly unanimously declared December 20 2007 to be a day of national mourning The resolution was vetoed by President Martin Torrijos 80 81 On December 19 2019 the Panamanian government declared December 20 to be a National Day of Mourning Dia de duelo nacional to be marked by lowering the national flag to half staff 82 The Washington Post disclosed several rulings of the Office of Legal Counsel issued shortly before the invasion regarding the U S armed forces being charged with making an arrest abroad One ruling interpreted an executive order which prohibits the assassination of foreign leaders as suggesting that accidental killings would be acceptable foreign policy Another ruling concluded that the Posse Comitatus Act of 1878 which prohibits the armed forces from making arrests without Congressional authorization is effective only within the boundaries of the U S such that the military could be used as a police force abroad for example in Panama to enforce a federal court warrant against Noriega 83 Aftermath Edit El Chorrillo was badly damaged by fighting More than 20 000 Panamanians were displaced during the invasion and disorder continued for nearly two weeks Guillermo Endara in hiding was sworn in as president by a judge on the night preceding the invasion In later years he staged a hunger strike calling attention to the poverty and homelessness left in the wake of both the Noriega years and the destruction caused by the U S invasion On July 19 1990 a group of 60 companies with operations in Panama filed a lawsuit against the U S government in Federal District Court in New York City alleging that the U S action against Panama was done in a tortuous careless and negligent manner with disregard for the property of innocent Panamanian residents Most of the businesses had insurance but the insurers either went bankrupt or refused to pay claiming that acts of war were not covered 84 About 20 000 people lost their homes and became refugees as a result of urban warfare About 2 700 families that were displaced by the Chorrillo fire were each given 6 500 by the U S to build a new house or apartment in selected areas in or near the city However numerous problems were reported with the new constructions just two years after the invasion 85 The government of Guillermo Endara designated the first anniversary of the U S invasion a national day of reflection Hundreds of Panamanians marked the day with a black march through the streets of Panama City to denounce the U S invasion and Endara s economic policies Protesters echoed claims that 3 000 people were killed as a result of U S military action Since Noriega s ousting Panama has had four presidential elections with candidates from opposing parties succeeding each other in the Palacio de las Garzas Panama s press however is still subject to numerous restrictions 86 On February 10 1990 the Endara government abolished Panama s military and reformed the security apparatus by creating the Panamanian Public Forces In 1994 a constitutional amendment permanently abolished the military of Panama Concurrent with a severe recession in Latin America throughout the 1990s Panama s GDP recovered by 1993 but very high unemployment remained a serious problem Noriega was brought to the U S to stand trial He was subsequently convicted on eight counts of drug trafficking racketeering and money laundering and sentenced to 40 years in prison His sentence was later reduced to 30 years 87 On December 20 2015 Vice President Isabel De Saint Malo de Alvarado announced Panama s intention to form a special independent commission with the aim to publish a report to mark the 26th anniversary of the U S invasion of Panama The commission s goal would be to identify victims so that reparations could be paid to their families as well as to establish public monuments and school curriculums to honor history and reclaim Panama s collective memory Victims families have claimed that past investigations into the invasion had been funded by Washington and therefore were biased citation needed Timeline EditInformation in this section 31 1987 Edit September 1987 U S Senate passes resolution urging Panama to re establish a civilian government Panama protests alleged U S violations of the Torrijos Carter Treaties November 1987 U S Senate resolution cuts military and economic aid to Panama Panamanians adopt resolution restricting U S military presence 1988 Edit February 1988 Noriega indicted on drug related charges U S forces begin planning contingency operations in Panama OPLAN Blue Spoon March 1988 March 15 First of four deployments of U S forces begins providing additional security to U S installations March 16 PDF officers attempt a coup against Noriega April 1988 April 5 Additional U S forces deployed to provide security April 9 Joint Task Force Panama activated 1989 Edit May 1989 May 7 General election are held in Panama opposition alliance tally shows their candidate Guillermo Endara beating Noriega s candidate Carlos Duque by a 3 to 1 margin The election is declared invalid two days later by Noriega May 11 President Bush orders 1 900 additional combat troops to Panama Operation Nimrod Dancer 59 May 22 Convoys conducted to assert U S freedom of movement Additional transport units travel from bases in the territorial U S to bases in Panama and back for this express purpose June September 1989 Operation Nimrod Dancer U S begins conducting joint training and freedom of movement exercises Operation Sand Flea 59 and Operation Purple Storm 59 Additional transport units continue repeatedly traveling from bases in the territorial U S to bases in Panama and back for this express purpose October 1989 Operation Nimrod Dancer October 3 PDF loyal to Noriega defeat second coup attempt December 1989 December 15 Noriega refers to himself as leader of Panama and declares that the U S is in a state of war with Panama December 16 U S Marine lieutenant shot and killed by PDF Navy lieutenant and wife detained and assaulted by PDF December 17 NCA directs execution of Operation Just Cause December 18 Army lieutenant shoots PDF sergeant Joint Task Force South JTFSO advance party deploys JCS designates D Day H Hour as 20 December 1 00 a m December 19 U S forces alerted marshalled and launched D Day December 20 1989 U S invasion of Panama begins The operation was conducted as a campaign with limited military objectives JTFSO objectives in PLAN 90 2 were to protect U S lives and key sites and facilities capture and deliver Noriega to competent authority neutralize PDF forces neutralize PDF command and control support establishment of a U S recognized government in Panama and restructure the PDF Major operations detailed elsewhere continued through December 24 1990 Edit JCS directs execution of Operation Promote Liberty January 3 1990 D Day 14 Noriega surrenders to U S forces in Panama CityJanuary 31 1990 D Day 42 Operation Just Cause ends Operation Promote Liberty begins 1994 Edit September 1994 D Day approximately 4 5 years Operation Promote Liberty ends 58 Major operations and involved U S units EditThis article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources United States invasion of Panama news newspapers books scholar JSTOR December 2016 Learn how and when to remove this template message Operations Edit All 27 objectives related to the Panamanian Defense Force were completed on D Day December 20 1989 As initial forces moved to new objectives follow on forces from the 7th Infantry Division L moved into the western areas of Panama and into Panama City December 18 1989 D Day 2 SFODA 795 796 of Company C 3rd Bn 7th Special Forces Group Airborne part of Task Force Black moves to Albrook Air Force Station as a forward element in preparation to secure the Panamanian President elect Endara and his two vice presidents elect by force if necessary December 19 1989 D Day 1 Company A 1st Bn 7th Special Forces Group Airborne already deployed into Panama along with 3rd Bn 7th Special Forces Group Airborne then permanently headquartered at Fort Davis Panama both elements of Task Force Black moved to predetermined positions Task Force Black receives Presidential cross border authority message from President Bush Company C 3rd Battalion 7th Special Forces Group Airborne is stood down from its mission to rescue of the duly elected Panamanian Presidency and awaits a new mission 3d Bde 7th Infantry Division L 4 17th Inf already deployed as part of peacekeeping forces in the region was deployed to predetermined positions 2nd Bde 7th Inf Div L was alerted for deployment DRF 1 3 27th Inf and DRF 2 2 27th INF were deployed Tow Platoon HHC 5 87th Inf L conducts pre invasion recon of all objectives for Task Force Wildcat December 20 1989 D Day 3d Bde 7th Infantry Division L 4 17th Inf began operations in Colon City the Canal Zone and Panama City The remainder of the 2d Bde was deployed and closed in Panama Elements of 1st and 3rd Bn 7th Special Forces Group Airborne conducted air assault and secured Pacora River Bridge preventing PDF reinforcements from reaching Omar Torrijos Airport and Panama City The entire 75th Ranger Regiment split into two elements Team Black and Team Gold conducted simultaneous parachute drops at Rio Hato Airfield along with half the command and control of the HQ 75th RGR the entire 2nd Battalion 75th RGR and two companies from 3rd Battalion 75th to neutralize PDF and Macho de Montes units present seize the runway and secure Manuel Noriega s beachside facility The other half of HQ 75th RGR C amp C along with 1st Battalion 75th RGR and the remaining elements of 3rd Battalion 75th RGR dropped into Omar Torrijos Airport to seize the runway and tower for follow on operations by elements of the 82nd Airborne Division deployed by C141 airdrop airland elements of the 317th Combat Control Squadron 507th Tactical Air Control Squadron 193d Infantry Brigade Light assaulted PDF headquarters at La Commandancia PDF Engineer Battalion PDF 5th Company at Fort Amador PDF units at Balboa and Ancon 45 minutes after the 75th RGR RGT conducted their parachute drop onto Omar Torrijos Airport the 1st BDE 82 ABN DIV begins parachuting onto the airfield and then assembles for movement to assigned follow on objectives Company C 3rd Battalion 7th Special Forces Group Airborne conducts a daylight raid on Panama National Radio in downtown Panama City by fast roping onto the roof of its 20 story building from MH 60 helicopters destroying its FM broadcast capability In a short turn around operation with 15 minutes warning and on order from the Joint Chiefs of Staff the unit air assaults the Radio Panama AM radio transmitter site destroying the transmission tower and cutting off Noriega s final link to rally his supporters December 21 1989 D Day 1 JCS directed execution of Operation Promote Liberty renamed from Plan Blind Logic The Panama Canal reopened for daylight operations Refugee situation became critical C Company 5th Battalion 87th Infantry Regiment 193d Infantry Brigade repelled a PDF counterattack at the PDF DNTT headquarters and rescued Panamanian Vice President Ford whose convoy was also attacked TF Bayonet began CMO in Panama City Marriott Hotel was secured and hostages evacuated December 22 1989 D Day 2 FPP established CMO and stability operations became primary focus 2d Bde 7th Inf Div L deployed to Rio Hato 1st Bde 9th Regiment 7th Inf Div L was alerted for deployment December 23 1989 D Day 3 International airport reopened 2d Bde 7th Inf Div L and SF elements began operations in west 96th CA Bn assumed responsibility for DC Camp from USARSO 1st Bde 9th Regiment 7th Inf Div L closed in Panama December 24 1989 D Day 4 Noriega entered Papal Nunciatura Money for Weapons program initiated Combined U S FPP patrols began December 25 1989 D Day 5 Rangers secured David Operations in western Panama continued successfully January 3 1990 D Day 14 Noriega surrendered to U S forces Combat and stability ops continue January 31 1990 D Day 42 Operation Just Cause ends 1 Operation Promote Liberty begins September 1994 D Day approximately 4 5 years Operation Promote Liberty ends 58 Above information in this section 31 Related operations Edit Operation Nifty Package an operation which the SEALs undertook in order to capture Manuel Noriega or destroy his two escape routes his private jet which was located at the Paitilla Airfield was destroyed in the operation along with his gunboat which was docked in a canal Noriega surrendered to U S troops on January 3 1990 Operation Nimrod Dancer an operation which reinforced the forward deployed U S forces with a brigade headquarters and an infantry battalion task force from the 7th Inf Div L a mechanized infantry battalion from the 5th Inf Div M and a U S Marine Corps Light Armored Infantry LAI Company Augmentation continued with units rotating from both divisions under Operation Nimrod Sustain 88 Operation Prayer Book Operation Promote Liberty an operation whose purpose was to rebuild the Panamanian military and Panama s civilian infrastructure Operation Purple Storm an operation whose purpose was to assert display and exercise U S freedom of movement rights with convoys traveling both inside and outside Panama for that express purpose Operation Sand Flea an operation whose purpose was to exercise display and assert U S freedom of movement rights with convoys traveling both inside and outside Panama for that express purpose Raid at Renacer Prison a military operation in which the prison was taken over and 64 prisoners were rescued See also EditThe Panama Deception an Academy Award winning 1992 documentary which was narrated by Elizabeth Montgomery Invasion a 2014 Panamanian documentary Foreign interventions by the United States United States involvement in regime change Just Cause video game series References Edit a b Veterans Preference and Wartime Service archives gov August 15 2016 Operation Just Cause The Invasion of Panama December 1989 United States Army a b c d e Rohter Larry April 1 1990 Panama and U S Strive To Settle on Death Toll The New York Times Retrieved December 24 2017 Archibold Randal C May 30 2017 Manuel Noriega Dictator Ousted by U S in Panama Dies at 83 The New York Times Retrieved January 22 2018 Chomsky Noam 1991 Deterring Democracy Boston MA South End Press p 164 ISBN 9781466801530 Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine Trent Barbara 1992 The Panama Deception a b Riding Alan June 24 1990 U S Sued in Death of a Journalist in Panama The New York Times It s Been Worth It Bush U S Troops Take Control of Panama Los Angeles Times December 21 1989 a b c d e Jones Howard 2001 Crucible of Power A History of US Foreign Relations Since 1897 SR Books p 494 ISBN 978 0 8420 2918 6 Kempe Frederick 1990 Divorcing the Dictator New York Putnam pp 26 30 162 ISBN 978 1 85043 259 3 Cockburn Alexander amp St Clair Jeffrey 1998 Whiteout the CIA Drugs and the Press London Verso ISBN 978 1 85984 139 6 page needed a b The Contras Cocaine and Covert Operations National Security Archive Electronic Briefing George Washington University 1999 p 2 Buckley Kevin 1991 Panama The Whole Story New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 671 72794 9 page needed a b Oakley Robert B Dziedzic Michael J amp Goldberg Eliot M 1998 Policing the New World Disorder Peace Operations and Public Security Washington DC National Defense University Press ISBN 978 1 57906 006 0 page needed Cole Ronald H 1995 Operation Just Cause The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama February 1988 January 1990 PDF Joint History Office Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff p 6 ISBN 978 0 7881 3557 6 Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Panama Report Organization of American States Inter American Commission on Human Rights November 9 1989 Archived from the original on October 20 2020 Cole Ronald H 1995 Operation Just Cause The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama February 1988 January 1990 PDF Joint History Office Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff p 11 ISBN 978 0 7881 3557 6 Yates Lawrence A 2008 The US Military Intervention in Panama Origins Planning and Crises Management June 1987 December 1989 Washington DC Center of Military History United States Army page needed The Noriega Challenge to George Bush s Credibility and the 1989 Invasion of Panama 2000 full citation needed a b Cole Ronald H 1995 Operation Just Cause The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama February 1988 January 1990 Joint History Office Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff p 27 UNITED STATES v NORIEGA On December 15 1989 Noriega publicly declared that a state of war existed between Panama and the United States Quigley John The Legality of the United States Invasion of Panama PDF Operation Just Cause 870 5a Organizational History Files Corps Historian s Notes XVIII Airborne Corps 1989 1990 Notebook 1 Permanent Corps Historian s Personal Notes Recorded During the Operation Mann Don 2019 Navy SEALs The Combat History of the Deadliest Warriors on the Planet Skyhorse p 108 Cole Ronald H 1995 Operation Just Cause The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama February 1988 January 1990 Joint History Office Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff p 30 Chinchilla Sofia December 18 2019 Archivo de CIA revela gestiones de oscar Arias y Daniel Oduber para negociar salida de Noriega La Nacion San Jose Retrieved December 25 2020 Jauregui Fernando March 27 1988 oscar Arias arfirmaa que el general Noriega considera la posibilidad de exiliarse en Espana El Pais Spain Retrieved December 25 2020 a b A Transcript of Bush s Address on the Decision to Use Force in Panama The New York Times December 21 1989 p A19 transcript Noriega Manuel amp Eisner Peter 1997 America s Prisoner The Memoirs of Manuel Noriega Random House ISBN 9780679432272 page needed a b c Operation Just Cause Historical Summary GS Org a b c Cramer Jane Kellett 2006 Just Cause or Just Politics U S Panama Invasion and Standardizing Qualitative Tests for Diversionary War Armed Forces amp Society 32 2 178 201 doi 10 1177 0095327x05277899 S2CID 145717080 U S Coast Guard Defends Against Terrorism Locally Globally archive defense gov Retrieved March 22 2018 Coast Guardsmen served in the War of 1812 Mexican American War Civil War Spanish American War World Wars I and II Korean War Vietnam War Mayaguez Incident in Cambodia in 1975 Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada Operation Just Cause in Panama 507th AIR CONTROL WING PDF 602nd Tactical Air Control Wing PDF Retrieved February 28 2022 Pike John January 1 1970 Tactical Air Control Party TACP Globalsecurity org Retrieved February 28 2022 366th Fighter Wing History United States Air Force Archived from the original on 15 June 2011 Retrieved 9 April 2010 Pizzurno Patricia amp Andres Arauz Celestino Estados Unidos invade Panama Cronica de una invasion anunciada in Spanish Archived from the original on 21 April 2006 full citation needed According to this piece the PDF had 16 000 troops but only 3 000 of them were trained for combat Para entonces las Fuerzas de Defensa poseian 16 000 efectivos de los cuales apenas 3 000 estaban entrenados para el combate a b Cole Ronald H Operation Just Cause Panama PDF Joint History Office Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Archived from the original PDF on 17 December 2008 Retrieved 12 November 2008 Fishel John T 1997 Civil Military Operations in the New World Greenwood Publishing Group full citation needed Combat in Panama Operation Just Cause Los Angeles Times December 21 1989 p A4 Guard News the National Guard Baker Russell January 3 1990 Is This Justice Necessary The New York Times p A19 Retrieved November 9 2007 Lindsay Poland John 2003 Emperors in the Jungle The Hidden History of the U S in Panama Duke University Press p 118 ISBN 0 8223 3098 9 full citation needed Pike John Operation Just Cause Global Security Human Rights in Post Invasion Panama Justice Delayed is Justice Denied April 7 1991 full citation needed US Invasion of Panama 1989 Wars of za warudo Archived from the original on April 6 2012 Retrieved December 11 2007 Broder John M June 19 1990 Friendly Fire Killed 2 GIs in Panama Invasion The Pentagon sharply increases its estimate of U S casualties inflicted by own forces Los Angeles Times Retrieved December 12 2014 a b Spanish Yearbook of International Law 1992 1992 pp 158 161 ISBN 9041102310 Espana ha asumido ante el Departamento de Estado de EE UU la defensa de Juantxu El Pais March 27 1992 Retrieved May 29 2015 Moore Molly January 20 1990 Army Probes Allegations Two Women Refused to Obey Orders in Panama Washington Post Retrieved September 26 2019 First Woman to Lead U S Troops in Battle Women in Military Service for America Memorial Women s Memorial Charles C Moskos August 1990 Army Women The Atlantic Retrieved September 26 2019 Conley William J Jr Operations Just Cause and Promote Liberty The implications of Military Operations Other than War PDF Small Wars Journal full citation needed Powell Colin amp Persico Joseph E 1995 My American Journey New York Random House ISBN 9780679432968 page needed Joyner James May 12 2011 War and Rhetoric Outside the Beltway Retrieved May 30 2021 Panama Lonely Planet Retrieved May 30 2021 a b c Yates Lawrence May June 2005 Panama 1988 1990 The Discontent between Combat and Stability Operations PDF Military Review Archived from the original PDF on 25 June 2007 Retrieved 2 September 2010 full citation needed a b c d Operation Nimrod Dancer Military Global Security full citation needed Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture 3 2 1995 pages 43 52 Exploring State Criminality The Invasion of Panama John B Quigley The Legality of the United States Invasion of Panama 15 Yale Journal of International Law 1990 page 285 https digitalcommons law yale edu yjil vol15 iss2 3 Louis Henkin 29 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 293 1991 The Invasion of Panama under International Law A Gross Violation United Nations General Assembly A RES 44 240 88th Plenary Meeting December 29 1989 1 a b DAM Rodolfo United Nations Peace and Progress Vol 3 1 pp 50 63 Legality of the 1989 Panama Invasion and the Responsibility to Protect Doctrine Carl Bogus The Invasion of Panama and the Rule of Law The International Lawyer a publication of the American Bar Association s Section on International Law and Practice Vol 26 No 3 Fall 1992 p 786 The Chicago Tribune December 21 1989 In Panama An Illegal and Unwarranted Invasion 50 U S C 1541 1548 Eileen Burgin Congress the War Powers Resolution amp the Invasion of Panama Polity Vol 25 No 2 Winter 1992 pp 217 242 Congressional Research Service March 28 2017 The War Powers Resolution Concepts and Practice The Responsibility to Protect International Development Research Centre December 2001 Archived from the original on 13 December 2007 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help full citation needed Brooke James December 21 1989 U S Denounced by Nations Touchy About Intervention The New York Times p A24 United Nations Security Council Draft ResolutionS 21048 December 22 1989 Retrieved September 13 2007 United Nations Security Council Verbatim Report 2902 S PV 2902 page 15 December 23 1989 Retrieved September 13 2007 dead link United Nations Security Council Verbatim Report 2902 S PV 2902 page 10 December 22 1989 Retrieved September 13 2007 dead link European Parliament Office for official publications of the European Communities May 3 1990 The Political Situation in Romania Report European Parliament p 78 Retrieved April 19 2022 The Ceausescu regime criticised the US invasion of Panama as brutal aggression Bucharest and Beijing Condemn the Invasion International Herald Tribune International Herald Tribune Associated Press December 22 1989 p 4 Romania condemned on Thursday the U S invasion of Panama as brutal aggression as its own security forces reportedly fired on civilians protesting the hard line Communist government a b c Pastor Robert A 2001 Exiting the Whirlpool U S Foreign Policy Toward Latin America and the Caribbean p 96 ISBN 9780813338118 full citation needed Kagay Michael The Noriega Case Public Opinion Panamanians Strongly Back U S Move New York Times Jan 1990 Panama Human Rights Watch World Report 1989 Human Rights Watch 1989 full citation needed Panama s President Vetoes Law Declaring Anniversary of US Invasion a Day of Mourning Archived from the original on 13 March 2008 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link full citation needed Panama Marks 89 Invasion as Day of National Mourning CNN Archived from the original on 19 December 2008 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link full citation needed Gobierno de Panama declara 20 de diciembre Dia de duelo nacional a 30 anos de la invasion militar de EE UU December 19 2019 Henkin Louis 1991 Right v Might International Law and the Use of Force pp 161 2 full citation needed Panama Companies Sue U S for Damages The New York Times July 21 1990 p 5 Archived from the original on September 12 2012 Retrieved April 15 2020 Scott David Clark December 20 1991 El Chorrillo Two Years after the U S Invaded Panama Those Displaced by the War Have New Homes Christian Science Monitor Attacks on the Press 2001 Panama Committee to Protect Journalists March 26 2002 BOP FCI Miami Archived from the original on June 16 2011 Retrieved July 16 2010 OPERATION JUST CAUSE HISTORICAL SUMMARY OPERATION JUST CAUSE LESSONS LEARNED VOLUME I www globalsecurity org Bibliography Edit Eisenmann Roberto December 21 1989 For a Panamanian Hope and Tragedy The New York Times Further reading EditCrandall Russell Gunboat democracy US interventions in the Dominican Republic Grenada and Panama Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers 2006 Donnelly Thomas 1991 Operation Just Cause The Storming of Panama Lexington Books ISBN 0669249750 Gilboa Eytan The Panama Invasion Revisited Lessons for the Use of Force in the Post Cold War Era Political Science Quarterly 110 4 1995 539 562 JSTOR 2151883 Harding Robert C 2001 Military Foundations of Panamanian Politics Transaction Publishers ISBN 978 0 7658 0075 6 2006 The History of Panama Greenwood Publishing ISBN 978 0 313 33322 4 Michaud Nelson and Howard M Hensel eds Global Media Perspectives on the Crisis in Panama 2011 excerpt Ratcliff Ronald Panama The Enduring Crisis 1985 1989 Archived August 29 2017 at the Wayback Machine Case studies in policy making and implementation 2002 Yates Lawrence A 2008 The U S Military Intervention in Panama Origins Planning and Crisis Management June 1987 December 1989 1st ed Washington D C United States Army Center of Military History CMH Pub 55 1 1 Archived from the original on June 7 2010 Retrieved June 4 2010 Yates Lawrence A 2014 The U S Military Intervention in Panama Operation Just Cause December 1989 January 1990 1st ed Washington D C United States Army Center of Military History CMH Pub 55 3 1 External links EditPanama Background of U S Invasion of 1989 Archived October 17 2018 at the Wayback Machine historical timeline Tactical map of Operation Just Cause Effects of the military intervention by the United States of America in Panama on the situation in Central America UN General Assembly Meeting December 29 1989 Interview with UH 60 helicopter pilot 1LT Lisa Kutschhera Operation JUST CAUSE Interview 001 1LT Lisa Kutschera Portals Panama United States 1980s 1990s Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title United States invasion of Panama amp oldid 1134214012, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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