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Sibling relationship

January 01, 1970

Siblings play a unique role in one another's lives that simulates the companionship of parents as well as the influence and assistance of friends.[1] Because siblings often grow up in the same household, they have a large amount of exposure to one another, like other members of the immediate family. However, though a sibling relationship can have both hierarchical and reciprocal elements,[2] this relationship tends to be more egalitarian and symmetrical than with family members of other generations. Furthermore, sibling relationships often reflect the overall condition of cohesiveness within a family.[3]

Siblings in Bhutan

Siblings normally spend more time with each other during their childhood than they do with parents or anyone else; they trust and cherish each other, so betrayal by one sibling could cause problems for that person physically as well as mentally and emotionally. Sibling relationships are often the longest-lasting relationship in individuals' lives.[2][4]

Cultural differences edit

The content and context of sibling relationships varies between cultures.[5] In industrialized cultures, sibling relationships are typically discretionary. People are encouraged to stay in contact and cooperate with their brothers and sisters, but this is not an obligation. Older siblings in these cultures are sometimes given responsibilities to watch over a younger sibling, but this is only occasional, with parents taking on the primary role of caretaker. In contrast, close sibling relationships in nonindustrialized cultures are often obligatory, with strong cultural norms prompting cooperation and close proximity between siblings. In India, the brother-sister sibling relationship is so cherished that a festival is held in observance called Raksha Bandhan. At this celebration, the sister presents the brother with a woven bracelet to show their lasting bond even when they have raised their own families.[6] These cultures also extend caregiving roles to older siblings, who are constantly expected to watch over younger siblings.

Throughout the lifespan edit

Infancy and childhood edit

 
Sibling care at orphanage in Zimbabwe

A relationship begins with the introduction of two siblings to one another. Older siblings are often made aware of their soon-to-be younger brother or sister at some point during their mother's pregnancy, which may help facilitate adjustment for the older child and result in a better immediate relationship with the newborn.[7] Parents pay attention not only to the newborns but to the older children to avoid sibling rivalry; interactions that can contribute to the older sibling's social aptitude can cognitively stimulate the younger sibling.[8] Older siblings even adapt their speech to accommodate for the low language comprehension of the younger sibling, much like parents do with baby talk.[9]

The attachment theory used to describe an infant's relationship to a primary caregiver may also be applied to siblings. If an infant finds an older sibling to be responsive and sees him or her as a source of comfort, a supportive bond may form.[10] On the contrary, a negative bond may form if the older sibling acts in an aggressive, neglectful, or otherwise negative manner. Sibling attachment is further accentuated in the absence of a primary caregiver when the younger sibling must rely on the older one for security and support.[11]

Even as siblings age and develop, their relationships have considerable stability from infancy through middle childhood, during which positive and negative interactions remain constant in frequency.[12] Still, this time period marks great changes for both siblings. Assuming an age gap of only a few years, this marks the time when the older sibling is beginning school, meeting peers, and making friends. This shift in environment reduces both children's access to one another and depletes the older sibling's dependency on the younger for social support, which can now be found outside the relationship. When the younger sibling begins school, the older sibling may help him or her become acclimated and advise on the new struggles that come with being a student. At the same time, the older sibling is also available to answer questions and discuss topics that the younger sibling may not feel comfortable bringing up with a parent.[13]

Adolescence edit

The nature of sibling relationships changes from childhood to adolescence. While young adolescents often provide one another with warmth and support,[14] this period of development is also marked by increased conflict[15] and emotional distance.[16] However, this effect varies based on the sex of siblings. Mixed-sex sibling pairs often experience more drastic decreases in intimacy during adolescence, while same-sex sibling pairs experience a slight rise in intimacy during early adolescence followed by a slight drop.[17] In both instances, intimacy once again increases during young adulthood. This trend may be the result of an increased emphasis on peer relationships during adolescence. Often, adolescents from the same family adopt differing lifestyles which further contributes to emotional distance between one another.[18]

Siblings may influence one another in much the same way that peers do, especially during adolescence. These relationships may even compensate for the negative psychological impact of not having friends[19] and may provide individuals with a sense of self-worth.[20] Older siblings can effectively model good behaviour for younger siblings. For instance, there is evidence that communication about safe sex with a sibling may be just as effective as with a parent.[21] Conversely, an older sibling may encourage risky sexual behaviour by modelling a sexually advanced lifestyle, and younger siblings of teen parents are more likely to become teen parents themselves.[19]

Research on adolescents suggests positive sibling influences can promote healthy and adaptive functioning[22][23][24] while negative interactions can increase vulnerabilities and problem behaviours.[25][26] Intimate and positive sibling interactions are an important source of support for adolescents and can promote the development of prosocial behaviour.[27] However, when sibling relationships are characterized by conflict and aggression, they can promote delinquency, and antisocial behaviour among peers.[28]

Adulthood and old age edit

When siblings reach adulthood, it is more likely that they will no longer live in the same place and that they will become involved in jobs, hobbies, and romantic interests that they do not share and therefore cannot use to relate to one another. In this stage the common struggles of school and being under the strict jurisdiction of parents is dissolved. Despite these factors, siblings often maintain a relationship through adulthood and even old age.[29] Proximity is a large factor in maintaining contact between siblings; those who live closer to one another are more likely to visit each other frequently. In addition, gender also plays a significant role.[30] Sisters are most likely to maintain contact with one another, followed by mixed-gender dyads. Brothers are least likely to contact one another frequently.

Communication is especially important when siblings do not live near one another. Communication may take place in person, over the phone, by mail, and with increasing frequency, by means of online communication such as email and social networking. Often, siblings will communicate indirectly through a parent or a mutual friend of relative.[31] Between adult and elderly siblings, conversations tend to focus on family happenings and reflections of the past.[32]

In adulthood, siblings still perform a role similar to that of friends.[5] Friends and siblings are often similar in age, with any age gap seeming even less significant in adulthood. Furthermore, both relationships are often egalitarian in nature, although unlike sibling relationships, friendships are voluntary. The specific roles of each relationship also differ, especially later in life. For elderly siblings, friends tend to act as companions while siblings play the roles of confidants.[33]

It is difficult to make long-term assumptions about adult sibling relationships, as they may rapidly change in response to individual or shared life events.[34][35] Marriage of one sibling may either strengthen or weaken the sibling bond. The same can be said for change of location, birth of a child, and numerous other life events. However, divorce or widowhood of one sibling or death of a close family member most often results in increased closeness and support between siblings.

Family system edit

Sibling relationships are important within the family system. Family systems theory (Kerr and Bowen, 1988) is a theory of human behavior that defines the family unit as a complex social system, in which members interact to influence each other's behavior[36] These relationships have an effect on child development, behavior, and support throughout their life span. A child's development is influenced by the dynamic system as a result of the family system. The relationship between siblings is the most important, but isn't focused on as much as other family relationships. Within the family system, not all roles amongst siblings are the same or shared.[37] An older sibling can be placed in a position to fulfill the shoes of a parental role. This makes the older sibling a role model and caretaker to the younger sibling. A positive impact on the younger siblings' development may occur.[38]

Sibling rivalry edit

Main article: Sibling rivalry

Sibling rivalry describes the competitive relationship or animosity between siblings, blood-related or not. Often competition is the result of a desire for greater attention from parents. However, even the most conscientious parents can expect to see sibling rivalry in play to a degree. Children tend to naturally compete with each other for not only attention from parents but for recognition in the world.

Siblings generally spend more time together during childhood than they do with parents. The sibling bond is often complicated and is influenced by factors such as parental treatment, birth order, personality, and people and experiences outside the family.[39] According to child psychologist Sylvia Rimm, sibling rivalry is particularly intense when children are very close in age and of the same gender, or where one child is intellectually gifted.[40] Sibling rivalry involves aggression and insults, especially between siblings close in age.

Causes edit

Siblings may be jealous of and harbor resentment toward one another. The main causes of sibling rivalry are lack of social skills, concerns with fairness, individual temperaments, special needs, parenting style, parent's conflict resolution skills and culture.[41] In many families, the children count their siblings among their friends. But it's also common for siblings to be great friends on one day and hateful to one another on the next.[41]

There are many things that can influence and shape sibling rivalry. According to Kyla Boyse from the University of Michigan, each child in a family competes to define who they are as individuals and want to show that they are separate from their siblings. Children may feel they are getting unequal amounts of their parents' attention, discipline, and responsiveness. Children fight more in families where there is no understanding that fighting is not an acceptable way to resolve conflicts, and no alternative ways of handling such conflicts. Stress in the parents' and children's lives can create more conflict and increase sibling rivalry.[42]

Psychoanalytic view edit

Sigmund Freud saw the sibling relationship as an extension of the Oedipus complex, where brothers were in competition for their mother's attention and sisters for their father's.[43] For example, in the case of Little Hans, Freud postulated that the young boy's fear of horses was related to jealousy of his baby sister, as well as the boy's desire to replace his father as his mother's mate. This view has been largely discredited by modern research.

Parent-offspring conflict theory edit

Formulated by Robert Trivers, parent-offspring theory is important for understanding sibling dynamics and parental decision-making. Because parents are expected to invest whatever is necessary to ensure the survival of their offspring, it is generally thought that parents will allocate the maximum amount of resources available, possibly to their own detriment and that of other potential offspring.[44] While parents are investing as much as possible to their offspring, offspring may at the same time attempt to obtain more resources than the parents are able to give to maximize its own reproductive success. Therefore, there is a conflict between the wants of the individual offspring and what the parent is able or willing to give.[44] An extension of Trivers' theory leads to predict that it will pay siblings to compete intensely with one another. It can pay to be selfish even to the detriment of not only one's parents but also to one's siblings, as long as the total fitness benefits of doing do outweigh the total costs.[45]

Other psychological approaches edit

See also: Deidentification (psychology)

Alfred Adler saw siblings as "striving for significance" within the family and felt that birth order was an important aspect of personality development. The feeling of being replaced or supplanted is often the cause of jealousy on the part of the older sibling.[46] In fact, psychologists and researchers today endorse the influence of birth order, as well as age and gender constellations, on sibling relationships. A child's personality can also have an effect on how much sibling rivalry will occur in a home. Some kids seem to naturally accept changes, while others may be naturally competitive, and exhibit this nature long before a sibling enters the home.[46] However, parents are seen as capable of having an important influence on whether they are competitive or not.[47]

David Levy introduced the term "sibling rivalry" in 1941, claiming that for an older sibling "the aggressive response to the new baby is so typical that it is safe to say it is a common feature of family life."[48] Researchers today generally endorse this view, noting that parents can ameliorate this response by being vigilant to favoritism and by taking appropriate preventative steps.[49] In fact, say researchers, the ideal time to lay the groundwork for a lifetime of supportive relationships between siblings is during the months prior to the new baby's arrival.[50]

Throughout life edit

According to observational studies by Judy Dunn, children as early as one may be able to exhibit self-awareness and perceive difference in parental treatment between themselves and a sibling and early impressions can shape a lifetime relationship with the younger sibling.[39] From 18 months on siblings can understand family rules and know how to comfort and be kind to each other. By 3 years old, children have a sophisticated grasp of social rules, can evaluate themselves in relation to their siblings, and know how to adapt to circumstances within the family.[39] Whether they have the drive to adapt, to get along with a sibling whose goals and interests may be different from their own, can make the difference between a cooperative relationship and a rivalrous one.[39]

Studies have further shown that the greatest sibling rivalry tends to be shown between brothers, and the least between sisters. Naturally, there are exceptions to this rule. What makes brother/brother ties so rivalrous? Deborah Gold has launched a new study that is not yet completed. But she has found a consistent theme running through the interviews she's conducted thus far. "The thing that rides through with brothers that doesn't come across in other sibling pairs is this notion of parental and societal comparison. Somehow with boys, it seems far more natural to compare them, especially more than with sister/brother pairs. Almost from day one, the fundamental developmental markers—who gets a tooth first, who crawls, walks, speaks first—are held up on a larger-than-life scale. And this comparison appears to continue from school to college to the workplace. Who has the biggest house, who makes the most money, drives the best car are constant topics of discussion. In our society, men are supposed to be achievement-oriented, aggressive. They're supposed to succeed."[39]

Sibling rivalry often continues throughout childhood and can be very frustrating and stressful to parents.[42] Adolescents fight for the same reasons younger children fight, but they are better equipped physically and intellectually to hurt and be hurt by each other. Physical and emotional changes cause pressures in the teenage years, as do changing relationships with parents and friends. Fighting with siblings as a way to get parental attention may increase in adolescence.[51] One study found that the age group 10 to 15 reported the highest level of competition between siblings.[52]

However, the degree of sibling rivalry and conflict is not constant. Longitudinal studies looking at the degree of sibling rivalry throughout childhood from Western societies suggest that, over time, sibling relationships become more egalitarian and this suggest less conflict.[53] Yet, this effect is moderated by birth order: Older siblings report more or less the same level of conflict and rivalry throughout their childhood. In contrast, young siblings report a peak in conflict and rivalry around young adolescence and a drop in late adolescence. The decline in late adolescence makes sense from an evolutionary perspective: Once resources cease and/ or individuals have started their own reproductive career, it makes little sense for sibling to continue fierce competition over resources that do not affect their reproductive success anymore.[54]

Sibling rivalry can continue into adulthood and sibling relationships can change dramatically over the years. Events such as a parent's illness may bring siblings closer together, whereas marriage may drive them apart, particularly if the in-law relationship is strained. Approximately one-third of adults describe their relationship with siblings as rivalrous or distant. However, rivalry often lessens over time. At least 80 percent of siblings over age 60 enjoy close ties.[39]

Prevention edit

Parents can reduce the opportunity for rivalry by refusing to compare or typecast their children,[55] teaching the children positive ways to get attention from each other and from the parent, planning fun family activities together, and making sure each child has enough time and space of their own.[42] They can also give each child individual attention, encourage teamwork, refuse to hold up one child as a role model for the others, and avoid favoritism.[56] It is also important for parents to invest in time spent together as a whole family. Children who have a strong sense of being part of a family are likely to see siblings as an extension of themselves. However, according to Sylvia Rimm, although sibling rivalry can be reduced it is unlikely to be eliminated. In moderate doses, rivalry may be a healthy indication that each child is assertive enough to express his or her differences with other siblings.[40]

Weihe[57] suggests that four criteria should be used to determine if questionable behavior is rivalry or sibling abuse. First, one must determine if the questionable behavior is age appropriate: e.g., children use different conflict-resolution tactics during various developmental stages. Second, one must determine if the behavior is an isolated incident or part of an enduring pattern: abuse is, by definition, a long-term pattern rather than occasional disagreements. Third, one must determine if there is an "aspect of victimization" to the behavior: rivalry tends to be incident-specific, reciprocal and obvious to others, while abuse is characterized by secrecy and an imbalance of power. Fourth, one must determine the goal of the questionable behavior: the goal of abuse tends to be embarrassment or domination of the victim. Parents should remember that sibling rivalry today may someday result in siblings being cut off from each other when the parents are gone. Continuing to encourage family togetherness, treating siblings equitably, and using family counseling to help arrest sibling rivalry that is excessive may ultimately serve children in their adult years.

Sibling marriage and incest edit

See also: Adelphogamy and List of coupled siblings
 
Amnon and Tamar, children of the biblical King David, were half-siblings yet Amnon raped Tamar[58] (unknown European artist, oil on canvas, c. 1650–1700, High Museum of Art)

While cousin marriage is legal in most countries, and avunculate marriage is legal in many, sexual relations between siblings are considered incestuous almost universally[citation needed]. Innate sexual aversion between siblings forms due to close association in childhood, in what is known as the Westermarck effect. Children who grow up together do not normally develop sexual attraction, even if they are unrelated, and conversely, siblings who were separated at a young age may develop sexual attraction.

Thus, many cases of sibling incest, including accidental incest, concern siblings who were separated at birth or at a very young age.[59] One study from New England has shown that roughly 10% of males and 15% of females had experienced some form of sexual contact with a brother or sister, with the most common form being fondling or touching of one another's genitalia.[60]

Among adults edit

 
John V, Count of Armagnac married his sister Isabelle c. 1450 and fought hard to keep the marriage but failed in the end.

John M. Goggin and William C. Sturtevant (1964) listed eight societies which generally allowed sibling marriage, and thirty-four societies where sibling marriage was permissible among certain classes only.[61]

A historical marriage that took place between full siblings was that between John V, Count of Armagnac and Isabelle d'Armagnac, dame des Quatre-Vallées, c. 1450. The provided papal dispensation for this union was declared forged in 1457.[62] The marriage was declared invalid and the children were declared bastards and removed from the line of succession.

In antiquity, Laodice IV, a Seleucid princess, priestess, and queen, married all three of her brothers in turn. Sibling marriage was especially frequent in Roman Egypt, and probably even the preferred norm among the nobility.[63][64] In most cases, marriage of siblings in Roman Egypt was a result of the religious belief in divinity and maintaining purity. Based on the model from the myth of Osiris and Isis, it was considered necessary for a god to marry a goddess and vice versa. This led to Osiris marrying his sister Isis due to limited options of gods and goddesses to marry. In order to preserve the divinity of ruling families, siblings of the royal families would marry each other.[65]

Sibling marriage is also common among the Zande people of Central Africa.[citation needed]

In a number of European countries such as Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Spain, marriage between siblings remains prohibited, but incest between siblings is no longer prosecuted.[66]

Among children edit

According to Cavanagh Johnson & Friend (1995), between forty and seventy-five percent of children will engage in some sort of sexual behavior before reaching 13 years of age.[67] In these situations, children are exploring each other's bodies while also exploring gender roles and behaviors, and their sexual experimentation does not indicate that these children are child sex offenders. As siblings are generally close in age and locational proximity, the opportunity for sexual exploration between siblings is fairly high and that, if simply based on mutual curiosity, then these activities are not harmful or distressing, either in childhood or later in adulthood.[68][full citation needed] According to Reinisch (1990), studying early sexual behavior generally, over half of all six- and seven-year-old boys have engaged in sex play with other boys, and more than a third of them with girls, while more than a third of six- and seven-year-old girls have engaged in such play with both other girls and with boys.[69] This play includes playing doctor, mutual touching, and attempts at simulated, non-penetrative intercourse.[69] Reinisch views such play as part of a normal progression from the sensual elements of bonding with parents, to masturbation, and then to sex play with others.[69] By the age of eight or nine, according to Reinisch, children become aware that sexual arousal is a specific type of erotic sensation, and will seek these pleasurable experiences through various sights, self-touches, and fantasy, so that earlier generalized sex play shifts into more deliberate and intentional arousal.[69]

Abusive incestuous relationships between siblings can have adverse effects on the parties involved. Such abuse can leave victims detrimentally hindered in developmental processes, such as those necessary for interpersonal relations, and can be the cause for depression, anxiety, and substance abuse in the victim's adult life.[70] Definitions used have varied widely. Child sexual abuse between siblings is defined by the (US) National Task Force on Juvenile Sexual Offending as: sexual acts initiated by one sibling toward another without the other's consent, by use of force or coercion, or where there is a power differential between the siblings. In Caffaro & Conn-Caffaro (1998), sibling child sexual abuse is defined as "sexual behavior between siblings that is not age appropriate, not transitory, and not motivated by developmentally, mutually appropriate curiosity".[71] When child sexual experimentation is carried out with siblings, some researchers, e.g. Bank & Kahn (1982),[72] do consider it incest, but those researchers who do use that term distinguish between abusive incest and non-abusive incest. Bank and Kahn say that abusive incest is power-oriented, sadistic, exploitative, and coercive, often including deliberate physical or mental abuse.[72]

Views of young sibling sexual contact may be affected by more general views regarding sexuality and minors:

Finkelhor & Hotaling (1984)[73] consider sexual contact to be abusive only under these circumstances:[74]

  1. it occurs with a child less than 13 years old, and the perpetrator is more than five years older than the victim or if the child is between 13 and 16 years old, and the perpetrator is ten years older than the victim;
  2. coercion, force, or threat is used.

Laviola (1992) says that behavior that is sexually abusive of children (generally speaking) depends upon the use of power, authority, bribery, or appeal to the child's trust or affection.[75]

De Jong (1989) offers four criteria to judge whether sexual behavior involving persons under 14 years old is abusive or not:

  1. an age difference of more than five years;
  2. use of force, threat, or authority;
  3. attempted penile penetration;
  4. physical injury to the victim.

According to De Jong, if one or more of these is present, the behavior is abusive, whereas if none is present, the behavior must be considered normal sexual experimentation.[76]

See also edit

References edit

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Bibliography edit

  • Bank, Stephen P.; Kahn, Michael D. (1982-06-10). Sibling Bond. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-07818-9.
  • Caffaro, J.; Conn-Caffaro, A. (1998). Sibling Abuse Trauma Assessment and Intervention Strategies for Children, Families, and Adults.
  • Reinisch, June Machover (1990). The Kinsey Institute new report on sex: What you must know to be sexually literate. Ruth Beasley. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-05268-3. OCLC 22117510.

General references edit

  • Santrock, J.W. (2007). A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Further reading edit

  • John Bancroft; June Machover Reinisch, eds. (1990). Adolescence and puberty. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 1-4237-2913-7. OCLC 61880843.

January 01, 1970
sibling, relationship, siblings, play, unique, role, another, lives, that, simulates, companionship, parents, well, influence, assistance, friends, because, siblings, often, grow, same, household, they, have, large, amount, exposure, another, like, other, memb. Siblings play a unique role in one another s lives that simulates the companionship of parents as well as the influence and assistance of friends 1 Because siblings often grow up in the same household they have a large amount of exposure to one another like other members of the immediate family However though a sibling relationship can have both hierarchical and reciprocal elements 2 this relationship tends to be more egalitarian and symmetrical than with family members of other generations Furthermore sibling relationships often reflect the overall condition of cohesiveness within a family 3 Siblings in Bhutan Siblings normally spend more time with each other during their childhood than they do with parents or anyone else they trust and cherish each other so betrayal by one sibling could cause problems for that person physically as well as mentally and emotionally Sibling relationships are often the longest lasting relationship in individuals lives 2 4 Contents 1 Cultural differences 2 Throughout the lifespan 2 1 Infancy and childhood 2 2 Adolescence 2 3 Adulthood and old age 2 4 Family system 3 Sibling rivalry 3 1 Causes 3 1 1 Psychoanalytic view 3 1 2 Parent offspring conflict theory 3 1 3 Other psychological approaches 3 2 Throughout life 3 3 Prevention 4 Sibling marriage and incest 4 1 Among adults 4 2 Among children 5 See also 6 References 6 1 Bibliography 6 2 General references 7 Further readingCultural differences editThe content and context of sibling relationships varies between cultures 5 In industrialized cultures sibling relationships are typically discretionary People are encouraged to stay in contact and cooperate with their brothers and sisters but this is not an obligation Older siblings in these cultures are sometimes given responsibilities to watch over a younger sibling but this is only occasional with parents taking on the primary role of caretaker In contrast close sibling relationships in nonindustrialized cultures are often obligatory with strong cultural norms prompting cooperation and close proximity between siblings In India the brother sister sibling relationship is so cherished that a festival is held in observance called Raksha Bandhan At this celebration the sister presents the brother with a woven bracelet to show their lasting bond even when they have raised their own families 6 These cultures also extend caregiving roles to older siblings who are constantly expected to watch over younger siblings Throughout the lifespan editInfancy and childhood edit nbsp Sibling care at orphanage in Zimbabwe A relationship begins with the introduction of two siblings to one another Older siblings are often made aware of their soon to be younger brother or sister at some point during their mother s pregnancy which may help facilitate adjustment for the older child and result in a better immediate relationship with the newborn 7 Parents pay attention not only to the newborns but to the older children to avoid sibling rivalry interactions that can contribute to the older sibling s social aptitude can cognitively stimulate the younger sibling 8 Older siblings even adapt their speech to accommodate for the low language comprehension of the younger sibling much like parents do with baby talk 9 The attachment theory used to describe an infant s relationship to a primary caregiver may also be applied to siblings If an infant finds an older sibling to be responsive and sees him or her as a source of comfort a supportive bond may form 10 On the contrary a negative bond may form if the older sibling acts in an aggressive neglectful or otherwise negative manner Sibling attachment is further accentuated in the absence of a primary caregiver when the younger sibling must rely on the older one for security and support 11 Even as siblings age and develop their relationships have considerable stability from infancy through middle childhood during which positive and negative interactions remain constant in frequency 12 Still this time period marks great changes for both siblings Assuming an age gap of only a few years this marks the time when the older sibling is beginning school meeting peers and making friends This shift in environment reduces both children s access to one another and depletes the older sibling s dependency on the younger for social support which can now be found outside the relationship When the younger sibling begins school the older sibling may help him or her become acclimated and advise on the new struggles that come with being a student At the same time the older sibling is also available to answer questions and discuss topics that the younger sibling may not feel comfortable bringing up with a parent 13 Adolescence edit The nature of sibling relationships changes from childhood to adolescence While young adolescents often provide one another with warmth and support 14 this period of development is also marked by increased conflict 15 and emotional distance 16 However this effect varies based on the sex of siblings Mixed sex sibling pairs often experience more drastic decreases in intimacy during adolescence while same sex sibling pairs experience a slight rise in intimacy during early adolescence followed by a slight drop 17 In both instances intimacy once again increases during young adulthood This trend may be the result of an increased emphasis on peer relationships during adolescence Often adolescents from the same family adopt differing lifestyles which further contributes to emotional distance between one another 18 Siblings may influence one another in much the same way that peers do especially during adolescence These relationships may even compensate for the negative psychological impact of not having friends 19 and may provide individuals with a sense of self worth 20 Older siblings can effectively model good behaviour for younger siblings For instance there is evidence that communication about safe sex with a sibling may be just as effective as with a parent 21 Conversely an older sibling may encourage risky sexual behaviour by modelling a sexually advanced lifestyle and younger siblings of teen parents are more likely to become teen parents themselves 19 Research on adolescents suggests positive sibling influences can promote healthy and adaptive functioning 22 23 24 while negative interactions can increase vulnerabilities and problem behaviours 25 26 Intimate and positive sibling interactions are an important source of support for adolescents and can promote the development of prosocial behaviour 27 However when sibling relationships are characterized by conflict and aggression they can promote delinquency and antisocial behaviour among peers 28 Adulthood and old age edit When siblings reach adulthood it is more likely that they will no longer live in the same place and that they will become involved in jobs hobbies and romantic interests that they do not share and therefore cannot use to relate to one another In this stage the common struggles of school and being under the strict jurisdiction of parents is dissolved Despite these factors siblings often maintain a relationship through adulthood and even old age 29 Proximity is a large factor in maintaining contact between siblings those who live closer to one another are more likely to visit each other frequently In addition gender also plays a significant role 30 Sisters are most likely to maintain contact with one another followed by mixed gender dyads Brothers are least likely to contact one another frequently Communication is especially important when siblings do not live near one another Communication may take place in person over the phone by mail and with increasing frequency by means of online communication such as email and social networking Often siblings will communicate indirectly through a parent or a mutual friend of relative 31 Between adult and elderly siblings conversations tend to focus on family happenings and reflections of the past 32 In adulthood siblings still perform a role similar to that of friends 5 Friends and siblings are often similar in age with any age gap seeming even less significant in adulthood Furthermore both relationships are often egalitarian in nature although unlike sibling relationships friendships are voluntary The specific roles of each relationship also differ especially later in life For elderly siblings friends tend to act as companions while siblings play the roles of confidants 33 It is difficult to make long term assumptions about adult sibling relationships as they may rapidly change in response to individual or shared life events 34 35 Marriage of one sibling may either strengthen or weaken the sibling bond The same can be said for change of location birth of a child and numerous other life events However divorce or widowhood of one sibling or death of a close family member most often results in increased closeness and support between siblings Family system edit Sibling relationships are important within the family system Family systems theory Kerr and Bowen 1988 is a theory of human behavior that defines the family unit as a complex social system in which members interact to influence each other s behavior 36 These relationships have an effect on child development behavior and support throughout their life span A child s development is influenced by the dynamic system as a result of the family system The relationship between siblings is the most important but isn t focused on as much as other family relationships Within the family system not all roles amongst siblings are the same or shared 37 An older sibling can be placed in a position to fulfill the shoes of a parental role This makes the older sibling a role model and caretaker to the younger sibling A positive impact on the younger siblings development may occur 38 Sibling rivalry editMain article Sibling rivalry Sibling rivalry describes the competitive relationship or animosity between siblings blood related or not Often competition is the result of a desire for greater attention from parents However even the most conscientious parents can expect to see sibling rivalry in play to a degree Children tend to naturally compete with each other for not only attention from parents but for recognition in the world Siblings generally spend more time together during childhood than they do with parents The sibling bond is often complicated and is influenced by factors such as parental treatment birth order personality and people and experiences outside the family 39 According to child psychologist Sylvia Rimm sibling rivalry is particularly intense when children are very close in age and of the same gender or where one child is intellectually gifted 40 Sibling rivalry involves aggression and insults especially between siblings close in age Causes edit Siblings may be jealous of and harbor resentment toward one another The main causes of sibling rivalry are lack of social skills concerns with fairness individual temperaments special needs parenting style parent s conflict resolution skills and culture 41 In many families the children count their siblings among their friends But it s also common for siblings to be great friends on one day and hateful to one another on the next 41 There are many things that can influence and shape sibling rivalry According to Kyla Boyse from the University of Michigan each child in a family competes to define who they are as individuals and want to show that they are separate from their siblings Children may feel they are getting unequal amounts of their parents attention discipline and responsiveness Children fight more in families where there is no understanding that fighting is not an acceptable way to resolve conflicts and no alternative ways of handling such conflicts Stress in the parents and children s lives can create more conflict and increase sibling rivalry 42 Psychoanalytic view edit Sigmund Freud saw the sibling relationship as an extension of the Oedipus complex where brothers were in competition for their mother s attention and sisters for their father s 43 For example in the case of Little Hans Freud postulated that the young boy s fear of horses was related to jealousy of his baby sister as well as the boy s desire to replace his father as his mother s mate This view has been largely discredited by modern research Parent offspring conflict theory edit Formulated by Robert Trivers parent offspring theory is important for understanding sibling dynamics and parental decision making Because parents are expected to invest whatever is necessary to ensure the survival of their offspring it is generally thought that parents will allocate the maximum amount of resources available possibly to their own detriment and that of other potential offspring 44 While parents are investing as much as possible to their offspring offspring may at the same time attempt to obtain more resources than the parents are able to give to maximize its own reproductive success Therefore there is a conflict between the wants of the individual offspring and what the parent is able or willing to give 44 An extension of Trivers theory leads to predict that it will pay siblings to compete intensely with one another It can pay to be selfish even to the detriment of not only one s parents but also to one s siblings as long as the total fitness benefits of doing do outweigh the total costs 45 Other psychological approaches edit See also Deidentification psychology Alfred Adler saw siblings as striving for significance within the family and felt that birth order was an important aspect of personality development The feeling of being replaced or supplanted is often the cause of jealousy on the part of the older sibling 46 In fact psychologists and researchers today endorse the influence of birth order as well as age and gender constellations on sibling relationships A child s personality can also have an effect on how much sibling rivalry will occur in a home Some kids seem to naturally accept changes while others may be naturally competitive and exhibit this nature long before a sibling enters the home 46 However parents are seen as capable of having an important influence on whether they are competitive or not 47 David Levy introduced the term sibling rivalry in 1941 claiming that for an older sibling the aggressive response to the new baby is so typical that it is safe to say it is a common feature of family life 48 Researchers today generally endorse this view noting that parents can ameliorate this response by being vigilant to favoritism and by taking appropriate preventative steps 49 In fact say researchers the ideal time to lay the groundwork for a lifetime of supportive relationships between siblings is during the months prior to the new baby s arrival 50 Throughout life edit According to observational studies by Judy Dunn children as early as one may be able to exhibit self awareness and perceive difference in parental treatment between themselves and a sibling and early impressions can shape a lifetime relationship with the younger sibling 39 From 18 months on siblings can understand family rules and know how to comfort and be kind to each other By 3 years old children have a sophisticated grasp of social rules can evaluate themselves in relation to their siblings and know how to adapt to circumstances within the family 39 Whether they have the drive to adapt to get along with a sibling whose goals and interests may be different from their own can make the difference between a cooperative relationship and a rivalrous one 39 Studies have further shown that the greatest sibling rivalry tends to be shown between brothers and the least between sisters Naturally there are exceptions to this rule What makes brother brother ties so rivalrous Deborah Gold has launched a new study that is not yet completed But she has found a consistent theme running through the interviews she s conducted thus far The thing that rides through with brothers that doesn t come across in other sibling pairs is this notion of parental and societal comparison Somehow with boys it seems far more natural to compare them especially more than with sister brother pairs Almost from day one the fundamental developmental markers who gets a tooth first who crawls walks speaks first are held up on a larger than life scale And this comparison appears to continue from school to college to the workplace Who has the biggest house who makes the most money drives the best car are constant topics of discussion In our society men are supposed to be achievement oriented aggressive They re supposed to succeed 39 Sibling rivalry often continues throughout childhood and can be very frustrating and stressful to parents 42 Adolescents fight for the same reasons younger children fight but they are better equipped physically and intellectually to hurt and be hurt by each other Physical and emotional changes cause pressures in the teenage years as do changing relationships with parents and friends Fighting with siblings as a way to get parental attention may increase in adolescence 51 One study found that the age group 10 to 15 reported the highest level of competition between siblings 52 However the degree of sibling rivalry and conflict is not constant Longitudinal studies looking at the degree of sibling rivalry throughout childhood from Western societies suggest that over time sibling relationships become more egalitarian and this suggest less conflict 53 Yet this effect is moderated by birth order Older siblings report more or less the same level of conflict and rivalry throughout their childhood In contrast young siblings report a peak in conflict and rivalry around young adolescence and a drop in late adolescence The decline in late adolescence makes sense from an evolutionary perspective Once resources cease and or individuals have started their own reproductive career it makes little sense for sibling to continue fierce competition over resources that do not affect their reproductive success anymore 54 Sibling rivalry can continue into adulthood and sibling relationships can change dramatically over the years Events such as a parent s illness may bring siblings closer together whereas marriage may drive them apart particularly if the in law relationship is strained Approximately one third of adults describe their relationship with siblings as rivalrous or distant However rivalry often lessens over time At least 80 percent of siblings over age 60 enjoy close ties 39 Prevention edit Parents can reduce the opportunity for rivalry by refusing to compare or typecast their children 55 teaching the children positive ways to get attention from each other and from the parent planning fun family activities together and making sure each child has enough time and space of their own 42 They can also give each child individual attention encourage teamwork refuse to hold up one child as a role model for the others and avoid favoritism 56 It is also important for parents to invest in time spent together as a whole family Children who have a strong sense of being part of a family are likely to see siblings as an extension of themselves However according to Sylvia Rimm although sibling rivalry can be reduced it is unlikely to be eliminated In moderate doses rivalry may be a healthy indication that each child is assertive enough to express his or her differences with other siblings 40 Weihe 57 suggests that four criteria should be used to determine if questionable behavior is rivalry or sibling abuse First one must determine if the questionable behavior is age appropriate e g children use different conflict resolution tactics during various developmental stages Second one must determine if the behavior is an isolated incident or part of an enduring pattern abuse is by definition a long term pattern rather than occasional disagreements Third one must determine if there is an aspect of victimization to the behavior rivalry tends to be incident specific reciprocal and obvious to others while abuse is characterized by secrecy and an imbalance of power Fourth one must determine the goal of the questionable behavior the goal of abuse tends to be embarrassment or domination of the victim Parents should remember that sibling rivalry today may someday result in siblings being cut off from each other when the parents are gone Continuing to encourage family togetherness treating siblings equitably and using family counseling to help arrest sibling rivalry that is excessive may ultimately serve children in their adult years Sibling marriage and incest editSee also Adelphogamy and List of coupled siblings nbsp Amnon and Tamar children of the biblical King David were half siblings yet Amnon raped Tamar 58 unknown European artist oil on canvas c 1650 1700 High Museum of Art While cousin marriage is legal in most countries and avunculate marriage is legal in many sexual relations between siblings are considered incestuous almost universally citation needed Innate sexual aversion between siblings forms due to close association in childhood in what is known as the Westermarck effect Children who grow up together do not normally develop sexual attraction even if they are unrelated and conversely siblings who were separated at a young age may develop sexual attraction Thus many cases of sibling incest including accidental incest concern siblings who were separated at birth or at a very young age 59 One study from New England has shown that roughly 10 of males and 15 of females had experienced some form of sexual contact with a brother or sister with the most common form being fondling or touching of one another s genitalia 60 Among adults edit nbsp John V Count of Armagnac married his sister Isabelle c 1450 and fought hard to keep the marriage but failed in the end John M Goggin and William C Sturtevant 1964 listed eight societies which generally allowed sibling marriage and thirty four societies where sibling marriage was permissible among certain classes only 61 A historical marriage that took place between full siblings was that between John V Count of Armagnac and Isabelle d Armagnac dame des Quatre Vallees c 1450 The provided papal dispensation for this union was declared forged in 1457 62 The marriage was declared invalid and the children were declared bastards and removed from the line of succession In antiquity Laodice IV a Seleucid princess priestess and queen married all three of her brothers in turn Sibling marriage was especially frequent in Roman Egypt and probably even the preferred norm among the nobility 63 64 In most cases marriage of siblings in Roman Egypt was a result of the religious belief in divinity and maintaining purity Based on the model from the myth of Osiris and Isis it was considered necessary for a god to marry a goddess and vice versa This led to Osiris marrying his sister Isis due to limited options of gods and goddesses to marry In order to preserve the divinity of ruling families siblings of the royal families would marry each other 65 Sibling marriage is also common among the Zande people of Central Africa citation needed In a number of European countries such as Belgium France Luxembourg the Netherlands and Spain marriage between siblings remains prohibited but incest between siblings is no longer prosecuted 66 Among children edit According to Cavanagh Johnson amp Friend 1995 between forty and seventy five percent of children will engage in some sort of sexual behavior before reaching 13 years of age 67 In these situations children are exploring each other s bodies while also exploring gender roles and behaviors and their sexual experimentation does not indicate that these children are child sex offenders As siblings are generally close in age and locational proximity the opportunity for sexual exploration between siblings is fairly high and that if simply based on mutual curiosity then these activities are not harmful or distressing either in childhood or later in adulthood 68 full citation needed According to Reinisch 1990 studying early sexual behavior generally over half of all six and seven year old boys have engaged in sex play with other boys and more than a third of them with girls while more than a third of six and seven year old girls have engaged in such play with both other girls and with boys 69 This play includes playing doctor mutual touching and attempts at simulated non penetrative intercourse 69 Reinisch views such play as part of a normal progression from the sensual elements of bonding with parents to masturbation and then to sex play with others 69 By the age of eight or nine according to Reinisch children become aware that sexual arousal is a specific type of erotic sensation and will seek these pleasurable experiences through various sights self touches and fantasy so that earlier generalized sex play shifts into more deliberate and intentional arousal 69 Abusive incestuous relationships between siblings can have adverse effects on the parties involved Such abuse can leave victims detrimentally hindered in developmental processes such as those necessary for interpersonal relations and can be the cause for depression anxiety and substance abuse in the victim s adult life 70 Definitions used have varied widely Child sexual abuse between siblings is defined by the US National Task Force on Juvenile Sexual Offending as sexual acts initiated by one sibling toward another without the other s consent by use of force or coercion or where there is a power differential between the siblings In Caffaro amp Conn Caffaro 1998 sibling child sexual abuse is defined as sexual behavior between siblings that is not age appropriate not transitory and not motivated by developmentally mutually appropriate curiosity 71 When child sexual experimentation is carried out with siblings some researchers e g Bank amp Kahn 1982 72 do consider it incest but those researchers who do use that term distinguish between abusive incest and non abusive incest Bank and Kahn say that abusive incest is power oriented sadistic exploitative and coercive often including deliberate physical or mental abuse 72 Views of young sibling sexual contact may be affected by more general views regarding sexuality and minors Finkelhor amp Hotaling 1984 73 consider sexual contact to be abusive only under these circumstances 74 it occurs with a child less than 13 years old and the perpetrator is more than five years older than the victim or if the child is between 13 and 16 years old and the perpetrator is ten years older than the victim coercion force or threat is used Laviola 1992 says that behavior that is sexually abusive of children generally speaking depends upon the use of power authority bribery or appeal to the child s trust or affection 75 De Jong 1989 offers four criteria to judge whether sexual behavior involving persons under 14 years old is abusive or not an age difference of more than five years use of force threat or authority attempted penile penetration physical injury to the victim According to De Jong if one or more of these is present the behavior is abusive whereas if none is present the behavior must be considered normal sexual experimentation 76 See also editSiblings Day Sibling estrangementReferences edit Furman W amp Buhrmester D 1985 Children s perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks Developmental Psychology 21 1016 1024 a b Whiteman Shawn D McHale Susan M Soli Anna 2012 Theoretical Perspectives on Sibling Relationships Journal of Family Theory and Review 3 2 124 139 doi 10 1111 j 1756 2589 2011 00087 x PMC 3127252 PMID 21731581 East P Khoo S 2005 Longitudinal pathways linking family factors and sibling relationship qualities to adolescent substance use and sexual risk behaviors Journal of Family Psychology 19 4 571 580 doi 10 1037 0893 3200 19 4 571 PMID 16402872 Cicirelli VG Sibling relationships across the life span New York Plenum Press 1995 a b Cicirelli V G 1995 Sibling relationships across the life span New York Plenum Press Verma Suman Saraswathi T S Adolescence in India p 110 Dunn J amp Kendrick C 1982 Siblings Love envy and understanding Campbridge MA Harvard University Press Teti D M 1992 Sibling interaction In V G Van Hasselt amp M Hersen Eds Handbook of social development A lifespan perspective pp 201 226 New York Plenum Press Ervin Tripp S 1989 Sisters and brothers In P G Zukow Ed Sibling interaction across cultures Theoretical and methodological issues pp 184 195 New York Springer Verlag Bretherton I 1992 Attachment and bonding In V G Van Hasselt amp M Hersen Eds Handbook of social development A lifespan perspective pp 13 155 New York Basic Books Stewart R B amp Marvin R S 1984 Sibling relations The role of conceptual perspective taking in the ontogeny of sibling caregiving Child Development 55 1322 1332 Dunn J 1992 Introduction In F Boer amp J Dunn Eds Children s sibling relationships Developmental and clinical issues pp xiii xvi Hillsdale NJ Erlbaum Bryant B K 1992 Sibling caretaking Providing emotional support during middle childhood In F Boer amp J Dunn Eds Children s sibling relationships Developmental and clinical issues pp 55 69 Hallsdale NJ Lawrence Elbaum Associates Lempers J amp Clark Lempers D 1992 Young middle and late adolescents comparisons of the functional importance of five significant relationships Journal of Youth and Adolescence 21 53 96 Brody G Stoneman Z amp McCoy J 1994 Forecasting sibling relationships in early adolescence from child temperaments and family processes in middle childhood Child Development 65 771 784 Buhrmester D amp Furman W 1990 Perceptions of sibling relationships during middle childhood and adolescence Child Development 61 1387 1396 Kim J McHale S M Osgood D W amp Crouter A C 2006 Longitudinal course and family correlates of sibling relationships from childhood through adolescence Child Development 77 1746 1761 Cicirelli V G 1994 Sibling relationships over the life course Paper presented at the 49th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America Atlanta a b East P 2009 Adolescents relationships with siblings In R Lerner amp L Steinberg Eds Handbook of adolescent psychology 3rd ed Vol 2 pp 43 73 New York Wiley Yeh H amp Lempers J D 2004 Perceived sibling relationships and adolescent development Journal of Youth and Adolescence 33 133 147 Kowal A amp Blinn Pike L 2004 Sibling influences on adolescents attitudes toward safe sex practices Family Relations 53 377 384 East P L Rook K S 1992 Compensatory patterns of support among children s peer relationships A test using school friends nonschool friends and siblings Developmental Psychology 28 1 163 172 doi 10 1037 0012 1649 28 1 163 PMC 4108171 PMID 25067850 Stocker C M 1994 Children s perceptions of relationships with siblings friends and mothers Compensatory processes and links with adjustment Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 35 8 1447 1459 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7610 1994 tb01286 x PMID 7868639 Tucker C J Updegraff K A McHale S M Crouter A C 1999 Older siblings as socializers of younger siblings empathy Journal of Early Adolescence 19 2 176 198 doi 10 1177 0272431699019002003 S2CID 146524021 Bank L Burraston B Snyder J 2004 Sibling conflict and ineffective parenting as predictors of adolescent boys antisocial behavior and peer difficulties Additive and interactional effect Journal of Research on Adolescence 14 99 125 doi 10 1111 j 1532 7795 2004 01401005 x Criss M M Shaw D S 2005 Sibling relationships as contexts for delinquency training in low income families Journal of Family Psychology 19 4 592 600 doi 10 1037 0893 3200 19 4 592 PMID 16402874 Brody G H 2004 Siblings direct and indirect contributions to child development Current Directions in Psychological Science 13 3 124 126 doi 10 1111 j 0963 7214 2004 00289 x S2CID 145435845 Snyder J Bank L Burraston B 2005 The consequences of antisocial behavior in older male siblings for younger brothers and sisters Journal of Family Psychology 19 4 643 653 doi 10 1037 0893 3200 19 4 643 hdl 10057 114 PMID 16402880 Cicirelli V G 1981 Helping elderly parents Role of adult children Boston Auburn House White L K amp Riedmann A 1992 Ties among adult siblings Social Forces 71 85 102 Adams B N 1968 Kinship in an urban setting Chicago Markham Cicirelli V G 1985 The role of siblings as family caregivers In W J Sauer amp R T Coward Eds Social support networks and the care of the elderly pp 93 107 New York Springer Verlag Connidis I A amp Davies L 1990 Confidants and companions in later life The place of family and friends Journal of Gerontology Social Sciences 45 141 149 Connidis I A 1992 Life transitions and the adult sibling tie A qualitative study Journal of Marriage and the Family 54 972 982 Bedford V H 1990 Changing affect toward siblings and the transition to old age Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Future of Adult Life Leeuwenhorst The Netherlands Family Systems Theory an overview ScienceDirect Topics www sciencedirect com Retrieved 2022 06 21 Cox Martha J 2010 07 15 Family Systems and Sibling Relationships Child Development Perspectives 4 2 95 96 doi 10 1111 j 1750 8606 2010 00124 x ISSN 1750 8592 Furman Wyndol Buhrmester Duane 1985 Children s Perceptions of the Qualities of Sibling Relationships Child Development 56 2 448 461 doi 10 2307 1129733 ISSN 0009 3920 JSTOR 1129733 PMID 3987418 a b c d e f Adult Sibling Rivalry Archived 2012 12 11 at archive today Jane Mersky Leder Psychology Today Publication Date Jan Feb 93 Last Reviewed 30 Aug 2004 a b The Effects of Sibling Competition Archived 2007 07 01 at the Wayback Machine Syliva B Rimm Educational Assessment Service 2002 a b what are the main causes of sibling rivalry medicinenet com a b c Sibling Rivalry University of Michigan Health System June 2009 Freud 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Birth order and face to face contact with a sibling Firstborns have more contact than laterborns Personality and individual Differences 43 1796 1806 Parenting Issues Playing Favorites Stepp G 2011 Center for Effective Parenting Arkansas State Parent Information amp Resource Center Wiehe V R 1997 Sibling abuse Hidden physical emotional and sexual trauma 2nd edition Thousand Oaks CA Sage Publications Inc 2 Samuel 13 15 22 Incest an age old taboo BBC News 12 March 2007 Finkelhor David 1980 Sex among siblings A survey on prevalence variety and effects Archives of Sexual Behavior 9 3 171 194 doi 10 1007 BF01542244 PMID 7396691 S2CID 7206053 Piault C Goodenough Ward H 1966 Explorations in Cultural Anthropology Essays in Honor of George Peter Murdock Revue Francaise de Sociologie 204 doi 10 2307 3319280 ISSN 0035 2969 Traditio 23 Canonical Implications of Richard III s Plan to Marry His Niece Kelly H A 1967 pp 269 311 Les Cahiers de Saint Louis Dupont Jacques and Saillot Jacques 1987 Angers et Nantes p 755 In French Europaische Stammtafeln Neue Folge Armagnac Cte d Lomagne Schwennicke Detlev editor Volume III Section 3 Table 571 In German Strong Anise 2006 Incest Laws and Absent Taboos in Roman Egypt Ancient History Bulletin 20 Lewis Naphtali 1983 Life in Egypt Under Roman Rule Clarendon Press ISBN 9780198148487 Bagnall Roger S Frier Bruce W 2006 The Demography of Roman Egypt Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521025966 Shaw Brent D June 1992 Explaining Incest Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco Roman Egypt Man New Series 27 2 267 299 doi 10 2307 2804054 JSTOR 2804054 Hopkins Keith 1980 Brother Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt Comparative Studies in Society and History 22 3 303 54 doi 10 1017 S0010417500009385 S2CID 143698328 Remijsen Sofie Incest or Adoption Brother Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt Revisited PDF Scheidel W 1997 Brother sister marriage in Roman Egypt PDF Journal of Biosocial Science 29 3 361 71 doi 10 1017 s0021932097003611 PMID 9881142 S2CID 23732024 Maynes Mary Jo and Ann Beth Waltner The Family A World History Oxford Oxford UP 2012 Print Geschwisterpaar bringt Inzest Verbot ins Wanken in German 22 May 2011 Cavanagh Johnson Toni Friend Colleen 1995 Assessing Young Children s Sexual Behaviors in the Context of Child Sexual Abuse Evaluations In Ney Tara ed True and False Allegations of Child Sexual Abuse Assessment and Case Management Brunner Mazel Inc ISBN 978 0 87630 758 8 Borgis 2002 harvp error no target CITEREFBorgis2002 help a b c d Reinisch 1990 Carlson Bonnie E 2011 Sibling Incest Adjustment in Adult Women Survivors PDF Families in Society 92 1 77 83 doi 10 1606 1044 3894 4067 S2CID 143044253 permanent dead link Caffaro amp Conn Caffaro 1998 a b Bank amp Kahn 1982 Finkelhor David Yllo Kersti 1984 Child Sexual Abuse New Theory and Research New York Free Press ISBN 978 0029100202 Finkelhor David Hotaling Gerald T 1984 01 01 Sexual abuse in the national incidence study of child abuse and neglect An appraisal Child Abuse amp Neglect 8 1 23 32 doi 10 1016 0145 2134 84 90046 2 ISSN 0145 2134 PMID 6609754 Laviola Marisa 1992 Effects of older brother younger sister incest A study of the dynamics of 17 cases Child Abuse amp Neglect 16 3 409 421 doi 10 1016 0145 2134 92 90050 2 ISSN 0145 2134 PMID 1617475 De Jong Allan R 1989 Sexual interactions among siblings and cousins Experimentation or exploitation Child Abuse amp Neglect 13 2 271 279 doi 10 1016 0145 2134 89 90014 8 ISSN 0145 2134 PMID 2743184 Bibliography edit Bank Stephen P Kahn Michael D 1982 06 10 Sibling Bond Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 07818 9 Caffaro J Conn Caffaro A 1998 Sibling Abuse Trauma Assessment and Intervention Strategies for Children Families and Adults Reinisch June Machover 1990 The Kinsey Institute new report on sex What you must know to be sexually literate Ruth Beasley New York St Martin s Press ISBN 978 0 312 05268 3 OCLC 22117510 General references edit Santrock J W 2007 A Topical Approach to Life Span Development New York NY McGraw Hill Companies Inc Further reading editJohn Bancroft June Machover Reinisch eds 1990 Adolescence and puberty New York Oxford University Press ISBN 1 4237 2913 7 OCLC 61880843 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sibling relationship amp oldid 1220299915 incest, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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