Australopithecine
Australopithecina or Hominina is a subtribe in the tribe Hominini. The members of the subtribe are generally Australopithecus (cladistically including the genera Homo, Paranthropus,[4] and Kenyanthropus), and it typically includes the earlier Ardipithecus, Orrorin, Sahelanthropus, and (sometimes) Graecopithecus. All these closely related species are now sometimes[dubious ] collectively termed australopiths or homininians.[5][6] They are the extinct, close relatives of modern humans and, together with the extant genus Homo, comprise the human clade. Members of the human clade, i.e. the Hominini after the split from the chimpanzees, are now called Hominina[7] (see Hominidae; terms "hominids" and hominins).
| Australopiths Temporal range: | |
|---|---|
| Australopithecus sediba | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Primates |
| Suborder: | Haplorhini |
| Infraorder: | Simiiformes |
| Family: | Hominidae |
| Subfamily: | Homininae |
| Tribe: | Hominini |
| Subtribe: | Australopithecina Gregory & Hellman, 1939 |
| Type species | |
| †Australopithecus africanus Dart, 1925 | |
| Genera | |
| |
| Synonyms | |
While none of the groups normally directly assigned to this group survived, the australopiths do not appear to be literally extinct (in the sense of having no living descendants) as the genera Kenyanthropus, Paranthropus and Homo probably emerged as sister of a late Australopithecus species such as A. africanus and/or A. sediba.
The term australopithecine came from a former classification as members of a distinct subfamily, the Australopithecinae.[8] Members of Australopithecus are sometimes referred to as the "gracile australopiths", while Paranthropus are called the "robust australopiths".[9][10]
The australopiths occurred in the Late Miocene sub-epoch and were bipedal, and they were dentally similar to humans, but with a brain size not much larger than that of modern non-human apes, with lesser encephalization than in the genus Homo.[11] Humans (genus Homo) may have descended from australopith ancestors and the genera Ardipithecus, Orrorin, Sahelanthropus, and Graecopithecus are the possible ancestors of the australopiths.[10]
Classification edit
Classification of subtribe Australopithecina according to Briggs & Crowther 2008, p. 124.
- Australopithecina
Phylogeny edit
Phylogeny of Hominina/Australopithecina according to Dembo et al. (2016).[12]
Physical characteristics edit
The post-cranial remains of australopiths show they were adapted to bipedal locomotion, but did not walk identically to humans. They had a forearm to upper arm ratio similar to the Golden Ratio[13][14] – greater than other hominins. They exhibited greater sexual dimorphism than members of Homo or Pan but less so than Gorilla or Pongo. It is thought that they averaged heights of 1.2–1.5 metres (3.9–4.9 ft) and weighed between 30 and 55 kilograms (66 and 121 lb). The brain size may have been 350 cc to 600 cc. The postcanines (the teeth behind the canines) were relatively large, and had more enamel compared to contemporary apes and humans, whereas the incisors and canines were relatively small, and there was little difference between the males' and females' canines compared to modern apes.[10]
Relation to Homo edit
Most scientists maintain that the genus Homo emerged in Africa within the Australopiths around two million years ago. However, there is no consensus on within which species:
Determining which species of australopith (if any) is ancestral to the genus Homo is a question that is a top priority for many paleoanthropologists, but one that will likely elude any conclusive answers for years to come. Nearly every possible species has been suggested as a likely candidate, but none are overwhelmingly convincing. Presently, it appears that A. garhi has the potential to occupy this coveted place in paleoanthropology, but the lack of fossil evidence is a serious problem. Another problem presents itself in the fact that it has been very difficult to assess which hominid [now "hominin"] represents the first member of the genus Homo. Without knowing this, it is not possible to determine which species of australopith may have been ancestral to Homo.[10]
Asian australopiths edit
A minority-held view among palaeoanthropologists is that australopiths moved outside Africa. A notable proponent of this theory is Jens Lorenz Franzen, formerly Head of Paleoanthropology at the Research Institute Senckenberg. Franzen argues that robust australopiths had reached not only Indonesia, as Meganthropus, but also China:
In this way we arrive at the conclusion that the recognition of australopithecines in Asia would not confuse but could help to clarify the early evolution of hominids ["hominins"] on that continent. This concept would explain the scanty remains from Java and China as relic of an Asian offshoot of an early radiation of Australopithecus, which was followed much later by an [African] immigration of Homo erectus, and finally became extinct after a period of coexistence.
— Jens Lorenz Franzen, "Asian australopithecines?", Hominid Evolution: Past, Present, and Future (1985)[15]
In 1957, an Early Pleistocene Chinese fossil tooth of unknown province was described as resembling P. robustus. Three fossilized molars from Jianshi, China (Longgudong Cave) were later identified as belonging to an Australopithecus species.[16] However further examination questioned this interpretation; Zhang (1984) argued the Jianshi teeth and unidentified tooth belong to H. erectus. Liu et al. (2010) also dispute the Jianshi–australopithecine link and argue the Jianshi molars fall within the range of Homo erectus:[17]
No marked difference in dental crown shape is shown between the Jianshi hominin and other Chinese Homo erectus, and there is also no evidence in support of the Jianshi hominin's closeness to Australopithecus.[17]
However, Wolpoff (1999) notes that in China "persistent claims of australopithecine or australopithecine-like remains continue".[18]
See also edit
Notes edit
- ^ Stanford 2012.
- ^ Gray, J. E. (1825). "An outline of an attempt at the disposition of Mammalia into Tribes and Families, with a list of genera apparently appertaining to each Tribe". Annals of Philosophy. New Series. 10: 337–340.
- ^ Andrews, Peter; Harrison, Terry (1 January 2005). "The Last Common Ancestor of Apes and Humans". Interpreting the Past: 103–121. doi:10.1163/9789047416616_013. ISBN 9789047416616. S2CID 203884394.
- ^ Wood 2010.
- ^ Wood & Richmond 2000.
- ^ Briggs & Crowther 2008, p. 124.
- ^ "GEOL 204 The Fossil Record: The Scatterlings of Africa: the Origins of Humanity". www.geol.umd.edu. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
- ^ Kottak 2004.
- ^ Mai, Owl & Kersting 2005.
- ^ a b c d Szpak, P. (2007). "Evolution of the Australopithecines". Tree of Life.
- ^ Mai, Owl & Kersting 2005, p. 45.
- ^ Dembo, Mana; Radovčić, Davorka; Garvin, Heather M.; Laird, Myra F.; Schroeder, Lauren; Scott, Jill E.; Brophy, Juliet; Ackermann, Rebecca R.; Musiba, Chares M.; de Ruiter, Darryl J.; Mooers, Arne Ø. (1 August 2016). "The evolutionary relationships and age of Homo naledi: An assessment using dated Bayesian phylogenetic methods". Journal of Human Evolution. 97: 17–26. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.04.008. hdl:2164/8796. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 27457542.
- ^ Wang, Nan; Ma, Jie; Jin, Dan; Yu, Bin (23 January 2017). "A Special Golden Curve in Human Upper Limbs' Length Proportion: A Functional Partition Which Is Different from Anatomy". BioMed Research International. 2017: e4158561. doi:10.1155/2017/4158561. ISSN 2314-6133.
- ^ Wang, Nan; Ma, Jie; Jin, Dan; Yu, Bin (5 April 2024). "A Special Golden Curve in Human Upper Limbs' Length Proportion: A Functional Partition Which Is Different from Anatomy". BioMed Research International. 2017: 1–6. doi:10.1155/2017/4158561.
- ^ Franzen 1985.
- ^ Gao 1975.
- ^ a b Liu, Clarke & Xing 2010.
- ^ Wolpoff 1999.
References edit
- Briggs, D.; Crowther, P. R., eds. (2008). Palaeobiology II. John Wiley & Sons. p. 600. ISBN 9780470999288.
- Cela-Conde, C. J.; Ayala, F. J. (2003). "Genera of the human lineage". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (13): 7684–7689. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.7684C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0832372100. PMC 164648. PMID 12794185.
- Franzen, J. L. (1985). "Asian australopithecines?". Hominid Evolution: Past, Present, and Future. New York: Wiley-Liss. pp. 255–263.
- Gao, J (1975). "Australopithecine teeth associated with Gigantopithecus". Vertebrata PalAsiatica. 13 (2): 81–88.
- Kottak, C. P. (2004). . Cultural Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0072832259. Archived from the original on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
- Liu, Wu; Clarke, Ronald; Xing, Song (2010). "Geometric morphometric analysis of the early Pleistocene hominin teeth from Jianshi, Hubei Province, China". Science China Earth Sciences. 53 (8): 1141–1152. Bibcode:2010ScChD..53.1141L. doi:10.1007/s11430-010-4013-0. S2CID 129711769.
- Mai, L. L.; Owl, M. Y.; Kersting, M. P. (2005). The Cambridge Dictionary of Human Biology and Evolution. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-521-66486-8.
- Stanford, C. B. (2012). "Chimpanzees and the behavior of Ardipithecus ramidus". Annual Review of Anthropology. 41: 139–149. doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145724.
- Wood, B. (2010). "Reconstructing human evolution: Achievements, challenges, and opportunities". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (Suppl 2): 8902–8909. doi:10.1073/pnas.1001649107. PMC 3024019. PMID 20445105.
- Wood, B.; Richmond, B. G. (2000). "Human evolution: Taxonomy and paleobiology". Journal of Anatomy. 197 (Pt 1): 19–60. doi:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19710019.x. PMC 1468107. PMID 10999270.
- Wolpoff, M. H. (1999). Paleoanthropology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Zhang, Y. (1985). "Gigantopithecus and Australopithecus in China". Palaeoanthropology and palaeolithic archaeology in the People's Republic of China. pp. 69–78.
External links edit
- Media related to Hominina at Wikimedia Commons