Historically black colleges and universities

Historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) are institutions of higher education in the United States that were established before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 with the intention of primarily serving African Americans.^[1] Most of these institutions were founded during the Reconstruction era after the Civil War and are concentrated in the Southern United States.^[2] During the period of racial segregation in the United States, the majority of American institutions of higher education served predominantly white students, and disqualified or limited black American enrollment.^[3][4] Later on some universities, either after expanding their inclusion of black people and African Americans into their institutions or gaining the status of minority-serving institution, became Predominantly Black Institutions (PBIs).^[5]

For a century after the abolition of American slavery in 1865, almost all colleges and universities in the Southern United States prohibited all African Americans from attending as required by Jim Crow laws in the South, while institutions in other parts of the country regularly employed quotas to limit admissions of black people.^[6][7][8][9] HBCUs were established to provide more opportunities to African Americans and are largely responsible for establishing and expanding the African-American middle class.^[10][11]

There are 101 HBCUs in the United States (of 121 institutions that existed during the 1930s), representing three percent of the nation's colleges,^[12] including public and private institutions.^[13] Twenty-seven offer doctoral programs, 52 offer master's programs, 83 offer bachelor's degree programs, and 38 offer associate degrees.^[14][15][16] HBCUs currently produce nearly 20% of all African American college graduates and 25% of African American STEM graduates.^[17] Among the graduates of HBCUs are civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr., United States Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall, and United States Vice President Kamala Harris.

History

 

Cheyney University of Pennsylvania was founded in 1837 as the Institute for Colored Youth, making it the oldest HBCU in the nation

Private institutions

HBCUs established prior to the American Civil War include Cheyney University of Pennsylvania in 1837,^[18] University of the District of Columbia (then known as Miner School for Colored Girls) in 1851, and Lincoln University in 1854.^[19] Wilberforce University was also established prior to the American Civil War.^[20] The university was founded in 1856 via a collaboration between the African Methodist Episcopal Church of Ohio and the predominantly white Methodist Episcopal Church.^[21]

HBCUs were controversial in their early years. At the 1847 National Convention of Colored People and Their Friends, the famed black orators Frederick Douglass, Henry Highland Garnet, and Alexander Crummell debated the need for such institutions, with Crummell arguing that HBCUs were necessary to provide freedom from discrimination, and Douglas and Garnet arguing that self-segregation would harm the black community. A majority of the convention voted that HBCUs should be supported.

Most HBCUs were established in the South after the American Civil War, often with the assistance of religious missionary organizations based in the North, especially the American Missionary Association. The Freedmen's Bureau played a major role in financing the new schools.^[22][23]

Atlanta University – now Clark Atlanta University – was founded on September 19, 1865, as the first HBCU in the Southern United States. Atlanta University was the first graduate institution to award degrees to African Americans in the nation and the first to award bachelor's degrees to African Americans in the South; Clark College (1869) was the nation's first four-year liberal arts college to serve African-American students. The two consolidated in 1988 to form Clark Atlanta University.^[24] Shaw University, founded December 1, 1865, was the second HBCU to be established in the South. The year 1865 also saw the foundation of Storer College (1865–1955) in Harper's Ferry, West Virginia.^[2] Storer's former campus and buildings have since been incorporated into Harpers Ferry National Historical Park.^[25]

Some of these universities eventually became public universities with assistance from the government.

Public institutions

In 1862,^[26] the federal government's Morrill Act provided for land grant colleges in each state. Educational institutions established under the Morrill Act in the North and West were open to blacks. But 17 states, almost all in the South, required their post-Civil war systems to be segregated and excluded black students from their land grant colleges. (In the 1870s, Mississippi, Virginia, and South Carolina each assigned one African American college land-grant status: Alcorn University, Hampton Institute, and Claflin University, respectively.)^[27] In response, Congress passed the second Morrill Act of 1890, also known as the Agricultural College Act of 1890, requiring states to establish a separate land grant college for blacks if blacks were being excluded from the existing land grant college. Many of the HBCUs were founded by states to satisfy the Second Morrill Act.^[28] These land grant schools continue to receive annual federal funding for their research, extension, and outreach activities.^[16]

Predominantly Black Institutions

Predominantly black Institutions (PBI) are institutions that do not meet the legal definition of HBCUs, but primarily serve African Americans.^[29] Some examples of PBIs are Georgia State University, Chicago State University, Trinity Washington University, and the Community College of Philadelphia.^[5][30]

Sports

In the 1920s and 1930s, historically black colleges developed a strong interest in athletics. Sports were expanding rapidly at state universities, but very few black stars were recruited there. Race newspapers hailed athletic success as a demonstration of racial progress. Black schools hired coaches, recruited and featured stellar athletes, and set up their own leagues.^[31][32]

Jewish refugees

In the 1930s, many Jewish intellectuals fleeing Europe after the rise of Hitler and anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany following Hitler's elevation to power emigrated to the United States and found work teaching in historically black colleges.^[33] In particular, 1933 was a challenging year for many Jewish academics who tried to escape increasingly oppressive Nazi policies,^[34] particularly after legislation was passed stripping them of their positions at universities.^[34] Jews looking outside of Germany could not find work in other European countries because of calamities like the Spanish Civil War and general antisemitism in Europe.^[35][34] In the US, they hoped to continue their academic careers, but barring a scant few, found little acceptance in elite institutions in Depression-era America, which also had their own undercurrent of antisemitism.^[33][36]

As a result of these phenomena, more than two-thirds of the faculty hired at many HBCUs from 1933 to 1945 had come to the United States to escape from Nazi Germany.^[37] HBCUs believed the Jewish professors were valuable faculty that would help strengthen their institutions' credibility.^[38] HBCUs had a firm belief in diversity and giving opportunity no matter the race, religion, or country of origin.^[39] HBCUs were open to Jews because of their ideas of equal learning spaces. They sought to create an environment where all people felt welcome to study, including women.^[39]

World War II

HBCUs made substantial contributions to the US war effort. One example is Tuskegee University in Alabama, where the Tuskegee Airmen trained and attended classes.^[40][41]

Florida's Black junior colleges

After the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision of 1954, the legislature of Florida, with support from various counties, opened eleven junior colleges serving the African-American population. Their purpose was to show that separate but equal education was working in Florida. Prior to this, there had been only one junior college in Florida serving African Americans, Booker T. Washington Junior College, in Pensacola, founded in 1949. The new ones were Gibbs Junior College (1957), Roosevelt Junior College (1958), Volusia County Junior College (1958), Hampton Junior College (1958), Rosenwald Junior College (1958), Suwannee River Junior College (1959), Carver Junior College (1960), Collier-Blocker Junior College (1960), Lincoln Junior College (1960), Jackson Junior College (1961), and Johnson Junior College (1962).

The new junior colleges began as extensions of black high schools. They used the same facilities and often the same faculty. Some built their own buildings after a few years. After the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 mandated an end to school segregation, the colleges were all abruptly closed. Only a fraction of the students and faculty were able to transfer to the previously all-white junior colleges, where they found, at best, an indifferent reception.^[42]

Since 1965

 

President George H. W. Bush signs a new Executive Order on historically black colleges and universities in the White House Rose Garden, April 1989

A reauthorization of the Higher Education Act of 1965 established a program for direct federal grants to HBCUs, to support their academic, financial, and administrative capabilities.^[43][44] Part B specifically provides for formula-based grants, calculated based on each institution's Pell grant eligible enrollment, graduation rate, and percentage of graduates who continue post-baccalaureate education in fields where African Americans are underrepresented. Some colleges with a predominantly black student body are not classified as HBCUs because they were founded (or opened their doors to African Americans) after the implementation of the Sweatt v. Painter (1950) and Brown v. Board of Education (1954) rulings by the U.S. Supreme Court (the court decisions which outlawed racial segregation of public education facilities) and the Higher Education Act of 1965.

In 1980, Jimmy Carter signed an executive order to distribute adequate resources and funds to strengthen the nation's public and private HBCUs. His executive order created the White House Initiative on historically black colleges and universities (WHIHBCU), which is a federally funded program that operates within the U.S. Department of Education.^[45] In 1989, George H. W. Bush continued Carter's pioneering spirit by signing Executive Order 12677, which created the presidential advisory board on HBCUs, to counsel the government and the secretary on the future development of these organizations.^[46]

Starting in 2001, directors of libraries of several HBCUs began discussions about ways to pool their resources and work collaboratively. In 2003, this partnership was formalized as the HBCU Library Alliance, "a consortium that supports the collaboration of information professionals dedicated to providing an array of resources designed to strengthen historically black colleges and Universities and their constituents."^[47]

In 2015, the Bipartisan Congressional Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) Caucus was established by U.S. Representatives Alma S. Adams and Bradley Byrne. The caucus advocates for HBCUs on Capitol Hill.^[48] As of May 2022^[update], there are over 100 elected politicians who are members of the caucus.^[49]

Current status

Further information: List of historically black colleges and universities

 

North Carolina A&T State University is the nation's largest HBCU by enrollment.

Annually, the U.S. Department of Education designates one week in the fall as "National HBCU Week". During this week, conferences and events are held in Washington, D.C. discussing and celebrating HBCUs, as well as recognizing some notable HBCU scholars and alumni.^[50]

As of 2023, Alabama has the most active HBCUs of any state, with 14.^[51] North Carolina is second with 11.^[52]

In 2015, the share of black students attending HBCUs had dropped to 9% of the total number of black students enrolled in degree-granting institutions nationwide. This figure is a decline from the 13% of black students who enrolled in an HBCU in 2000 and 17% who enrolled in 1980. This is a result of desegregation, rising incomes and increased access to financial aid, which has created more college options for black students.^[13][53]

The percentages of bachelor's and master's degrees awarded to black students by HBCUs has decreased over time. HBCUs awarded 35% of the bachelor's degrees and 21% of the master's degrees earned by blacks in 1976–77, compared with the 14% and 6% respectively of bachelor's and master's degrees earned by blacks in 2014–15. Additionally, the percentage of black doctoral degree recipients who received their degrees from HBCUs was lower in 2014–15 (12%) than in 1976–77 (14%).^[54][55][56]

The number of total students enrolled at an HBCU rose by 32% between 1976 and 2015, from 223,000 to 293,000. Total enrollment in degree-granting institutions nationwide increased by 81%, from 11 million to 20 million, in the same period.^[54]

Although HBCUs were originally founded to educate black students, their diversity has increased over time. In 2015, students who were either white, Hispanic, Asian or Pacific Islander, or Native American made up 22% of total enrollment at HBCUs, compared with 15% in 1976.^[57]

In 2006, the National Center for Education Statistics released a study showing that HBCUs had a $10.2 billion positive impact on the nation's economy with 35% coming from the multiplier effect.^[58]

There are also developments in how African Americans may choose or not choose an HBCU. HBCUs are at risk of losing ground in terms of quality of their applicants as well.^[59] The current admission policies of predominately White institutions (PWIs) ensure that qualified applicants of any color are accepted and most top institutions actively recruit minority students.^[59] Well qualified minority students are often the target of frenzied competition (Cross, 2007).^[59] This competition is reflected in the inducements offered by PWIs to qualified black applicants, most notably monetary incentives, which many students and their parents find too attractive to pass up.^[59] For this reason and others, fewer black undergraduates are choosing to attend HBCUs, this figure has gradually declined to 22% as of 2002 (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).^[59] This dwindling percentage, coupled with opportunities at PWIs, have led some to speculate whether the HBCU has outlived its purpose and lost its relevance for black youth (Lemelle, 2002; Sowell 1993; Suggs, 1997b).^[59]

Racial diversity post-2000

Following the enactment of Civil Rights laws in the 1960s, many educational institutions in the United States that receive federal funding have undertaken affirmative action to increase their racial diversity. Some historically black colleges and universities now have non-black majorities, including West Virginia State University and Bluefield State University, whose student bodies have had large white majorities since the mid-1960s.^[13][60][61]

As many HBCUs have made a concerted effort to maintain enrollment levels and often offer relatively affordable tuition, the percentage of non–African-American enrollment has risen.^{[62][63][64][65]} The following table highlights HBCUs with high non–African American enrollments:

Racial diversity at HBCUs, 2016–2017 school year^[66]

College name	State	Percentage
		African American	Non-African American
Bluefield State University^[67]	West Virginia	8	92
West Virginia State University^[68]	West Virginia	8	92
Kentucky State University^[69]	Kentucky	46	54
University of the District of Columbia^[70]	District of Columbia	59	41
Delaware State University^[71]	Delaware	64	36
Fayetteville State University^[72]	North Carolina	60	40
Winston-Salem State University^[73]	North Carolina	71	29
Elizabeth City State University^[74]	North Carolina	76	24
Xavier University of Louisiana^[75]	Louisiana	70	30
North Carolina A&T State University^[76]	North Carolina	80	20
Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)^[77]	Pennsylvania	84	16

Other HBCUs with relatively high non–African American student populations

According to the U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges 2011 edition, the proportion of white American students at Langston University was 12%; at Shaw University, 12%; at Tennessee State University, 12%; at the University of Maryland Eastern Shore, 12%; and at North Carolina Central University, 10%. The U.S. News & World Report's statistical profiles indicate that several other HBCUs have relatively significant percentages of non–African American student populations consisting of Asian, Hispanic, white American, and foreign students.^[78]

Special academic programs

HBCU libraries have formed the HBCU Library Alliance. That alliance, together with Cornell University, have a joint program to digitize HBCU collections. The project is funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.^[79] Additionally, more historically black colleges and universities are offering online education programs. As of November 23, 2010, nineteen historically black colleges and universities offer online degree programs.^[80] The growth in these programs is driven by partnerships with online educational entrepreneurs like Ezell Brown.^{[citation needed]}

Intercollegiate sports

See also: List of black college football classics, Black college football national championship, and Black College Football Hall of Fame

NCAA Division I has two historically black athletic conferences: Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference and Southwestern Athletic Conference. The top football teams from the conferences have played each other in postseason bowl games: the Pelican Bowl (1970s), the Heritage Bowl (1990s), and the Celebration Bowl (2015–present). These conferences are home to all Division I HBCUs except for Hampton University and Tennessee State University. Tennessee State has been a member of the Ohio Valley Conference since 1986, while Hampton left the MEAC in 2018 for the Big South Conference. In 2021, North Carolina A&T State University made the same conference move that Hampton made three years earlier (MEAC to Big South).^[81] Both Hampton and North Carolina A&T later moved their athletic programs to the Colonial Athletic Association and its technically separate football league of CAA Football; Hampton joined both sides of the CAA in 2022,^[82] while A&T joined the all-sports CAA in 2022 before joining CAA Football in 2023.^[83]

The mostly HBCU Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association and Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference are part of the NCAA Division II, whereas the HBCU Gulf Coast Athletic Conference is part of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics.^[84]

Notable HBCU alumni

See also the "Notable alumni" sections of each institution's article.

 

Vice President and HBCU alumna Kamala Harris with students attending HBCUs

HBCUs have a rich legacy of matriculating many leaders in the fields of business, law, science, education, military service, entertainment, art, and sports.

• Ralph Abernathy, civil rights activist, minister – Clark Atlanta University, Alabama State University
• Ed Bradley, first black White House correspondent for CBS News - Cheyney University of Pennsylvania
• Toni Braxton, Grammy-winning R&B artist with over 70 million records sold - Bowie State
• Edward Brooke, first African-American elected by popular vote to United States Senate and to serve as Massachusetts Attorney General - Howard University
• Roscoe Lee Browne, prolific actor and director - Lincoln University
• James Clyburn, US Congressman from South Carolina's 6th congressional district and Majority Whip of the 116th United States Congress – South Carolina State University
• Medgar Wiley Evers, civil rights leader - Alcorn State University
• NASA mathematician Katherine Johnson attended West Virginia State University.
• Althea Gibson, the first African American to win a Grand Slam title had a full athletic scholarship to Florida A&M University
• Nikki Giovanni, poet – Fisk University
• Alcee Hastings, US Congressman from Florida's 20th congressional district – Fisk University, Howard University, Florida A&M University
• Randy Jackson, original judge on American Idol - Southern University
• Lonnie Johnson, inventor, NASA engineer – Tuskegee University
• Tom Joyner, first African-American inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame - Tuskegee University
• Reginald Lewis, first African-American to build and own a billion dollar company - Virginia State
• Claude McKay, poet, Tuskegee University
• Omarosa Manigault Newman,Actress, Producer, Best Selling Author, Graduated from Central State University, Howard University Southern University attended, Payne Theological Seminary
• Astronaut Ronald McNair graduated from North Carolina A&T State University.
• Rod Paige, first African-American to serve as the U.S. education chief - Jackson State University
• Walter Payton, considered one of the greatest running backs in NFL history – Jackson State University
• Anika Noni Rose, the original voice of the first African American Disney princess (Tiana) - Florida A&M University
• Jerry Rice, considered the greatest NFL wide receiver of all-time - Mississippi Valley State
• Stephen A. Smith, well-known sports journalist and television personality - Winston-Salem State University
• Megan Thee Stallion, Grammy-winning rapper and actress - Texas Southern
• Leon H. Sullivan, developer of the Sullivan Principles used to end apartheid in South Africa, attended West Virginia State University.
• Wanda Sykes, Emmy-winning comedian, novelist, writer, and actress – Hampton University
• André Leon Talley, first African-American editor-at-large of Vogue - Virginia State
• The Tuskegee Airmen were educated at Tuskegee University.
• Alice Walker, novelist and poet – Spelman College
• Ben Wallace, former 4-time NBA All-Star and NBA Defensive Player of the Year - Virginia Union University
• Doug Williams, first black NFL quarterback to win a Super Bowl - Grambling State

•  
  Booker T. Washington, educator, orator, and advisor (Hampton)
•  
  W. E. B. Du Bois, sociologist, historian, and activist (Fisk)
•  
  Thurgood Marshall, first black Supreme Court justice (Lincoln, Howard)
•  
  Martin Luther King Jr., leader of the civil rights movement (Morehouse)
•  
  Toni Morrison, acclaimed novelist and Nobel laureate (Howard)
•  
  Jesse Jackson, minister and politician (North Carolina A&T)
•  
  Spike Lee, film director and producer (Morehouse)
•  
  Samuel L. Jackson, actor and film producer (Morehouse)
•  
  Ruth Simmons, first African American president in the Ivy League (Dillard)
•  
  Oprah Winfrey, talk show host and media mogul (Tenn State)
•  
  Kamala Harris, Vice President of the United States (Howard)
•  
  Taraji P. Henson, actress (Howard)
•  
  Chadwick Boseman, actor and playwright (Howard)
•  
  Common, rapper and actor (Florida A&M)
•  
  Michael Strahan, NFL Hall of Famer, entrepreneur, TV personality, and actor (Texas Southern)
•  
  Erykah Badu, singer, entrepreneur, and actress (Grambling State)
•  
  Leontyne Price, internationally acclaimed soprano (Central State)
•  
  Lionel Richie, singer, songwriter, record producer, and TV personality (Tuskegee)
•  
  Joycelyn Elders, first African American Surgeon General of the U.S. (Philander Smith)
•  
  Stacey Abrams, voting rights leader, lawyer, and author (Spelman)

Modern presidential and federal support

Federal funding for HBCUs has notably increased in recent years. Proper federal support of HBCUs has become more of a key issue in modern U.S. presidential elections. ^[85]

In President Barack Obama's eight years in office, he invested more than $4 billion to HBCUs.^[86]

In 2019, President Donald Trump signed a bipartisan bill that permanently invested more than $250 million a year to HBCUs.^[87]

In 2021, President Joe Biden's first year in office, he invested a historic $5.8 billion to support HBCUs.^[88] In 2022, Biden's administration announced an additional $2.7 billion through his American Rescue Plan.^[89]

HBCU homecomings

Homecoming is a tradition at almost every American college and university, however homecoming has a more unique meaning at HBCUs. Homecoming plays a significant role in the culture and identity of HBCUs. The level of pageantry and local black community involvement (parades, business vendors, etc.) helps make HBCU homecomings more distinctive. Due to higher campus traffic and activity, classes at HBCUs are usually cancelled on Friday and Saturday of homecoming.^[90] Millions of alumni, students, celebrity guests, and visitors attend HBCU homecomings every year. In addition to being a highly cherished tradition and festive week, homecomings generate strong revenue for HBCUs and many black owned businesses.^[91][92][93]

See also

•  United States portal
•  Education portal

• Black Ivy League
• History of education in the Southern United States
• Colleges in the United States
• HBCU Library Alliance
• Honda Battle of the Bands
• Minority-serving institution
• National Museum of African American History and Culture
• Thurgood Marshall College Fund
• United Negro College Fund

References

1. 20 U.S. Code sec.1061, [1] December 20, 2022, at the Wayback Machinehttps://USCode.house.gov December 20, 2022, at the Wayback Machine For a compact overview of HBCU history, see Walter R. Allen, Joseph O. Jewell, Kimberly A. Griffin, & De'Sha S. Wolf, Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Honoring the Past, Engaging the Present, Touching the Future, 76 Journal of Negro Education, pp. 263–280 (2007).
2. Anderson, J.D. (1988). The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935. University of North Carolina Press.
3. . U.S. Department of Education. April 11, 2008. Archived from the original on October 5, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2008.
4. Wooten, Melissa E. (2016). In the face of inequality. State Univ of New York Press. ISBN 978-1438456904. OCLC 946968175.
5. Jones, Brandy. "Predominantly Black Institutions: Pathways to Black Student Educational Attainment" (PDF). Center for Minority Serving Institutions.
6. Harris, Leslie M. (March 26, 2015). "The Long, Ugly History of Racism at American Universities". The New Republic.
7. Marybeth Gasman, Envisioning Black Colleges: A History of the United Negro College Fund (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).
8. Marybeth Gasman and Felecia Commodore (eds.), Opportunities and Challenges at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (New York: Palgrave Press, 2014). ISBN 978-1-349-50267-7
9. Favors, J. (2020). Shelter in a time of storm: How Black colleges fostered generations of leadership and activism. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1469648330
10. "The story of historically black colleges in the US". BBC News. February 15, 2019.
11. "Despite Obstacles, Black Colleges Are Pipelines to the Middle Class, Study Finds. Here's Its List of the Best". The Chronicle of Higher Education. September 30, 2019. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
12. "African Americans and College Education by the Numbers". UNCF. November 29, 2018. Retrieved July 17, 2021.
13. "A look at historically black colleges and universities as Howard turns 150". Pewresearch.org. February 28, 2017. Retrieved October 25, 2017.
14. "Historically Black Colleges and Universities – American School Search". American-school-search.com. Retrieved October 25, 2017.
15. Marybeth Gasman, The Changing Face of Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Philadelphia: Penn Center for Minority Serving Institutions, University of Pennsylvania, 2013.^{[ISBN missing]}
16. Casey Boland, Marybeth Gasman et al., Contemporary Public HBCUs: A Four State Comparison, Philadelphia, PA: Penn Center for Minority Serving Institutions, University of Pennsylvania, Spring 2014.^{[ISBN missing]}
17. "The Tide That Binds: Learning from Experience at HBCU's". November 8, 2022.
18. For detail of the university's early history from its origins as the Institute for Colored Youth, see Milton M. James, The Institute for Colored Youth, 21 Negro History Bulletin p. 83 (1958)
19. Initially chartered as the Ashmun Institute, it changed its name in 1866. It was the first degree-granting HBCU. See Lincoln University, History, [2] https://www.lincoln.edu/about/history May 31, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. See also Andrew E. Murray, The Founding of Lincoln University, 51 Journal of Presbyterian History p. 392 (1973).
20. Originally proposed as Ohio African University, the founders changed the name to Wilberforce University, to honor the English abolitionist William Wilberforce, before its corporate charter was granted. Frederick Alphonso McGinnis, A History and Interpretation of Wilberforce University p. 33 (1941). See also Charles Killian, Wilberforce University: The Reality of Bishop Payne's Dream, 34 Negro History Bulletin p. 83 (1971).
21. Marybeth Gasman, Envisioning Black Colleges: A History of the United Negro College Fund (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).ISBN 978-0-8018-8604-1
22. Robert C. Lieberman, "The Freedmen’s Bureau and the politics of institutional structure." Social Science History 18.3 (1994): 405-437.
23. Ronald E. Butchart, "Freedmen’s education during reconstruction." New Georgia Encyclopedia 13 (2016): 4-13 online.
24. Carrillo, Karen Juanita (2012). African American History Day By Day – A Reference Guide To Events. Abc-Clio. ISBN 978-1598843613.
25. Roy, Lisa (December 18, 2013). "Storer College (1867–1956)". Retrieved December 4, 2020.
26. (7 U.S.C. § 301 et seq.)
27. John W. Davis, The Negro Land-Grant College, 2 Journal of Negro Education p. 312 (1933).
28. See generally, John W. Davis, The Negro Land-Grant College, 2 Journal of Negro Education (1933).
29. 20 U.S.C. § 1059e
30. "List of Minority Serving Institutions: 2022" (PDF). Center for Minority Serving Institutions.
31. Miller, Patrick B. (1995). "To "Bring the Race along Rapidly": Sport, Student Culture, and Educational Mission at Historically Black Colleges during the Interwar Years". History of Education Quarterly. 35 (2): 111–33. doi:10.2307/369629. ISSN 0018-2680. JSTOR 369629. S2CID 147170256.
32. Miller, Patrick B; Wiggins, David Kenneth, eds. (2004). Sport and the color line: black athletes and race relations in twentieth-century America. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415946100. OCLC 53155353.
33. "Jewish Prof's and HBCU's – African American Registry". African American Registry. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
34. Hoch, Paul K. (May 11, 1983). "The reception of central European refugee physicists of the 1930s: USSR, UK, US". Annals of Science. 40 (3): 217–46. doi:10.1080/00033798300200211. ISSN 0003-3790.
35. Gilligan, Heather (February 10, 2017). "After fleeing the Nazis, many Jewish refugee professors found homes at historically black colleges". Timeline. Retrieved December 6, 2018.
36. Marybeth Gasman, "Scylla and Charybdis: Navigating the Waters of Academic Freedom at Fisk University during Charles S. Johnson's Administration (1946–1956)", American Educational Research Journal 36, no. 4 (1999): 739–58.
37. Willie, Charles Vert; Reddick, Richard J.; Brown, Ronald (2006). The Black College Mystique. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0742546172. jewish refugees teaching in black colleges.
38. Foster, Lenoar (November 11, 2001). "The Not-So-Invisible Professors". Urban Education. 36 (5): 611–29. doi:10.1177/0042085901365006. ISSN 0042-0859. S2CID 145633996.
39. Jewell, Joseph O. (January 1, 2002). "To Set an Example: The Tradition of Diversity at Historically Black Colleges and Universities". Urban Education. 37 (1): 7–21. doi:10.1177/0042085902371002. S2CID 145115998.
40. "How HBCUs Contributed to the 1940s War Effort". Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. July 12, 2012.
41. Philo Hutcheson, Marybeth Gasman, and Kijua Sanders-McMurtry, "Race and Equality in the Academy: Rethinking Higher Education Actors and the Struggle for Equality in the Post-World War II Period", Journal of Higher Education 82, no. 2 (2011): 121–53
42. Smith, Walter L. (1994), The Magnificent Twelve: Florida's Black Junior Colleges, Winter Park, Florida: FOUR-G Publishers, ISBN 1885066015
43. 20 U.S.C. § 1062.
44. The Act, as amended, defines a "part B institution" as: "...any historically black college or university that was established before 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the education of black Americans, and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the Secretary [of Education] to be a reliable authority as to the quality of training offered or is, according to such an agency or association, making reasonable progress toward accreditation." U.S. Department of Education (January 15, 2008). . White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Archived from the original on May 13, 2008. Retrieved February 8, 2008.
    20 U.S.C. § 1061.
45. "About Us – White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities". Sites.ed.gov. Retrieved August 24, 2016.
46. Gasman, Marybeth; Tudico, Christopher L. (2008). Historically Black Colleges and Universities: triumphs, troubles, and taboos (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0230617261.
47. "HBCU Library Alliance". Hbuclibraries.org. April 23, 2010. Retrieved May 15, 2010.
48. "Members of Congress Launch Bipartisan Congressional HBCU Caucus". Byrne.house.gov. April 28, 2015. Retrieved August 24, 2016.
49. "Bipartisan Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) Caucus". October 11, 2016.
50. "2015 HBCU Week Conference – White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities". Sites.ed.gov. Retrieved August 24, 2016.
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Further reading

• Arnold, Bruce Makoto; Mitchell, Roland; Arnold, Noelle W. (2015). "Massified Illusions of Difference: Photography and the Mystique of the American Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)". Journal of American Studies of Turkey. 41: 69–94. Retrieved September 3, 2019.
• Betsey, Charles L., ed. (2011). Historically black colleges and universities. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1412812191.
• Boonshoft, Mark. "Histories of Nineteenth-Century Education and the Civil War Era." Journal of the Civil War Era 12.2 (2022): 234–261.
• Brooks, F. Erik; Starks, Glenn L. (2011). Historically Black colleges and universities: an encyclopedia. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0313394164.
• Cohen, Rodney T. (2000). . Arcadia Pub. ISBN 978-0738505541. Archived from the original on May 22, 2009. Retrieved January 14, 2020.
• Favors, Jelani M. (2019). Shelter in a Time of Storm: How Black Colleges Fostered Generations of Leadership and Activism. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9781469648330. OCLC 1048660765.
• Gasman, Marybeth; Tudico, Christopher L., eds. (2008). Historically Black colleges and universities: triumphs, troubles, and taboos (1st ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230602731.
• Harris, Adam (2021). The State Must Provide: Why America's Colleges Have Always Been Unequal—and How to Set Them Right. New York: Ecco. ISBN 9780062976482. OCLC 1204635631.
• Lovett, Bobby L. (2015). America's historically Black colleges & universities: a narrative history from the nineteenth century into the twenty-first century (First ed.). Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0881465341.
• Mays, Benjamin E. (1960). "The Significance of the Negro Private and Church-Related College". The Journal of Negro Education. 29 (3): 245–51. doi:10.2307/2293639. ISSN 0022-2984. JSTOR 2293639.
• Minor, James T. (2008). "A Contemporary Perspective on the Role of Public HBCUs: Perspicacity from Mississippi". The Journal of Negro Education. 77 (4): 323–35. ISSN 0022-2984. JSTOR 25608702.
• One among the others (March 29, 2018). "Reflections of an HBCU Alumnus (Howard University)". Anuntoldstoryblog.
• Palmer, Robert T.; Hilton, Adriel A.; Fountaine, Tiffany P., eds. (2012). Black graduate education at historically Black colleges and universities trends, experiences, and outcomes. Information Age Pub. ISBN 978-1617358524.
• Provasnik, Stephen; Shafer, Linda L. (2004). Historically Black Colleges and Universities, 1976 to 2001. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Government Printing Office. NCES 2004–062.
• Roebuck, Julian B.; Murty, Komanduri Srinivasa (1993). Historically black colleges and universities: their place in American higher education. Praeger. ISBN 978-0275942670.
• Wright, Stephanie R. (2008). "Self-Determination, Politics, and Gender on Georgia's Black College Campuses, 1875–1900". The Georgia Historical Quarterly. 92 (1): 93–119. ISSN 0016-8297. JSTOR 40585040.

Primary sources

• Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States, Volume II. (Bulletin, 1916, No. 39) (1917) 725pp online

External links

• "Historically Black Colleges and Universities" (2023)
• National Center for Education Statistics' College Navigator information about HBCUs
• Divine Nine
• HBCU Sports history

 

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