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Wikipedia

Gender pay gap in sports

March 18, 2023

This page specifically shows/ discusses the gender pay gap in sports. For other disparities, see Gender pay gap.

Gender pay gap in sports is the persistence of unequal pay in sports, particularly for female athletes who do not receive equal revenue compared to their counterparts, which differs depending on the sport.[1] According to the research conducted by BBC, "a total of 83% of sports now reward men and women equally".[2] However, it does not mean that the wage gap in sports has narrowed or disappeared. In 2018, Forbes released the list of the top 100 highest-paid athletes, all of them being male athletes.[3] A similar situation also occurred in 2017, where there was only one female athlete – tennis player Serena Williams — who joined the list and ranked No.56. Billie Jean King brought awareness to the issue of unequal pay in the early 1970s, when she was awarded $2,900 less than her male counterpart at the Italian Open.[4] The timeline of the gender pay gap in sports displays the significant events that have occurred since the 1970s.

Murray and Williams Wimbledon 2019
Serena Williams, the highest-paid female athlete in 2017.

Factors

Except for prize money, there are other factors that affect female athletes' income, which include both internal and external factors

Endorsement deals

Male sports attract far more viewership and are in far higher demand than women's sports. The majority of sports are also dominated by males, and this is due to several factors.

The first factor is the fewer chances for female athletes to negotiate endorsement deals. Assuming a male and female athlete receives equal prize money, generally speaking, the top male athletes earn more due to better sponsorship and endorsement deals.[5] Research conducted by a United Kingdom organization shows that sponsors are more attracted by male athletes as male athletes tend to be more marketable.[6] A study has found that female athletes are rarely employed as the spokesperson by companies.[7] Between 2011 and 2013, another study found female sports to account for 0.4% of total sports sponsorships.[8] The imbalance of endorsement deals expands the income gap between male and female athletes. A comparison of Roger Federer's income with Serena Williams' income based on their prize money shows that Williams earned $2 million more than Federer. However, Federer is the most lucrative athlete endorsement and makes $58  million, which is five times more than Serena Williams.[9]

Media coverage

 
Media coverage of male and female athletes in Australia, United Kingdom, and the United States. Source based on research conducted by experts.

Media coverage takes forms such as News reports, television (TV) programs, and social media articles. Media coverage does not only enhance the popularity of athletes but also reveals the commercial nature of sports.[10] Male's sports have higher production values and are going to seem more exciting.[11] Novak Djokovic, the former world No.1 in men's single tennis said that male players deserve to be paid more than female players because "statistics are showing that we have much more spectators on the men's tennis matches", which means male athletes have gained more interests and attention.[12] The economic logic is, the viewership determines the commercial value of a sport, as the media producers hope to attract more audiences to make profits. This factor may affect the media coverage of female athletes. Despite greatly increased participation of women in sports, over the years media coverage of female athletes has remained unchanged.[13] It has been argued that visibility of women's sports in media is necessary for its advancement and is a determining factor in closing the gender pay gap. Broadcasting deals and television exposure play an important role in the ability for athletes to gain sponsors and endorsements. With increased TV marketing comes larger and more profitable sponsors, this gain of profit in an industry will eventually lead to an increase in wages of sportswomen.[14] While coverage of female athletes is lacking in traditional and online media outlets, personal social media accounts offer sportswomen new means to gain exposure, promote themselves, develop a fan base and reconstruct traditional gender stereotypes in sport.[15] Whereas a study examined 1,587 images on the Instagram accounts of four major American sports networks and found women in gender "appropriate" sports were more likely to be featured along with those appearing nonathletic and next to a male.[16]

In Australia, female's sports make up 7% of all sports media coverage, the same as the United Kingdom. Similarly, in the United States, nearly 40% of athletes are female, but they own 4% of media coverage.[17] In a 2015 study, Billings and Young compared coverage of women's sports on ESPN's Sports Center and Fox Sports 1's Fox Sports Live, in which both TV programs were found to cover women's sports less than 1% of the time.[18] In the Nordic welfare states women obtain 10% of routine newspaper or TV sports coverage.[19] A 2015 analysis of International sports news websites found the three websites covering the most female athletics dedicated 7% of coverage.[20]

Except for the quantity, the quality of media coverage also matters. The media portrayal of female athletes tends to be less professional, and sometimes involve entertaining or sexualised contents instead of portraying their athletic abilities.[21] A study found that this type of sexist language was used in women's sports coverage in regard to athletes and teams from 1989 to 2000. Whereas in 2014 language shifted and became "gender bland", framing women's sports performances and achievements in uninteresting ways in comparison to men.[22] Televised sports media jobs are also dominated and controlled by a majority of men and 90% of sports editors and 95% of sports news anchors and co-anchors were found to be male in a 2017 analysis of televised coverage of women's sports.[22] In a study published in the Journal of Developmental Psychology, after viewing sexualized athletes, both girls and young women criticized the status of women in society, suggesting that more performance imagery of female athletes should be included in media coverage.[23] In addition to being featured less frequently than men in the media, female athletes are also subject to far more criticism. A qualitative analysis established that tweets in sports media tend to underscore female athletes’ achievements and exaggerate their losses.[24] Considering sports broadcasting, women are breaking into the industry into large numbers even though gender-based stereotypes serve as a roadblock to their career advancement. In an experimental design study, a number of U.S. executives concluded that women are not accepted as sports analysts by general sports audiences and that women should solely commentate on gender-appropriate (feminine) sports.[25]

In the United States, viewership for the 2019 Women's World Cup Final in France was 22% higher than the viewership of the 2018 Men’s World Cup Final in Russia. Roughly 14.3 Million people in the United States watched the Women's final while only 11.4 million watched the 2018 men's final. The 2015 Women’s World Cup Final peaked at 25.4 million viewers, even higher than the 2019 Final. The reason for the lack of viewership in the 2019 final compared to the 2015 final was due to scheduling conflicts on the day of the 2019 final. At the same time that the women's final was taking place, the Men’s Copa América final and Men’s CONCACAF Gold Cup final were happening all on the same day.[26]

Economic return

In a study that analyzed over 460 occupations, athletes have the worst gender pay gap. The average female athlete makes $15,232 in comparison to male athletes who make $38,008 on average, a 149.5% increase.[27]

Economic elements also affect the pay equity within sports. In 2018, the WNBA team attracted 7,716 fans per game, which is more than 10,000 fans below the audience attracted by NBA teams per game.[28] Female teams attracted fewer fans compares to male teams, indicates female teams sold less ticket and hence generated less revenue. The highest-paid female wrestler Ronda Rousey says she thinks how much female athletes get paid should relate to how much revenue they bring in.[29] The different marketability of athletes affects the corresponding earnings of male and female athletes. The economic benefits will occur as long as female athletes generate outstanding revenue as their male counterparts do.[30]

However, the pay gap between men and women players is extreme and far outstrips these differences in revenue. Again comparing the NBA and WNBA: in 2019, the average NBA player earned $8,321,937, while a WNBA player earned $75,181. Golf also presents a massive pay gap between men and women athletes, with a PGA player earning around $1,235,495 and an LPGA player earning $48,993 on average. The soccer pay gap between MLS and NWSL is over $300,000, with men earning around $410,730 and women earning an average of $35,000. The MLB and NPF difference in pay is over $4,000,000, with women averaging around $6,000 a year in 2019. The difference in pay between ATP and WTA turns out to be around $50,000 a year as well.[31]

Furthermore, the women players' earnings as a proportion of WNBA profits has changed over time. In the 1954–55 season, players grossed a total of 45% of the WNBA operating income.[32] This eventually grew even higher, almost to 60%, but recently the WNBA players have been earning only 21% of the league's revenue.

Others

There are other factors which also affect the earning of female athletes – for example, the lack of women holding governing positions in the sports organization. In Europe sports foundations, there are 14% of all decision-making positions which are occupied by women.[33] Motherhood also reduces the earning of female athletes as they miss many chances of attending tournaments due to their physical condition. After the labor, it still takes time to train and rebuild the body shape.[34] Pregnancy brings a commercial difference, and this mainly reflects through endorsement deals.[35] Professional beach volleyball player Kerri Walsh once said that she was told to hold off on starting a new family by sponsors. The professional snowboarder Kimmy Fasani also faced the fear of losing her endorsement deals when she found out she is pregnant.[36]

Advancements are being made to reduce the impact of motherhood on wages of female athletes. In 2020, a new collective bargaining agreement of the WNBA included an improved maternity leave policy allowing players to receive a full salary during their parental leave.[37]

The WNBA and NBA is one of the most prominent examples of the pay gap. In 2018, Aja Wilson was drafted the number one pick and earned a salary of $52,564. Deandre Ayton, was drafted the number one pick in the NBA and earned a salary of $5,091,500.

The average max salary cap for a player in the WNBA is roughly about $117,500. For an NBA player it's about 300 times more than that. For example, Steph Curry sits at $40.2 million.

Though the pay gap seen between the top ranking players in professional sports reveals to be alarming, wage discrepancies between lower ranked players proves to be equally as concerning. In 2015, the twenty-fifth ranked soccer player from the US Women's National Soccer team (USWNT) was compensated $341,721, while the twenty-fifth ranked player from the US Men's National Soccer team (USMNT) received $580,522. A similar trend can be seen in looking at the fiftieth ranked soccer players, where the female player received $25,516 while the male player received $246,238.[38]

The USWNT is an exemplary organization that advocates for equal pay for the players. After these women won the World Cup in 2015, and broke records, many players decided together to battle against The United States Soccer Federation.[39] In 2014, the men’s winner of the World Cup received 35 million dollars and the following year the USWNT won the World Cup and only received 2 million dollars.[39] Moreover in 2014, the United States Men’s National Soccer Team USMNT placed 11th and received nearly 10 million dollars.[39]

WNBA's low ticket sales and low salary may be due to marketing, as more resources are devoted to the NBA than the WNBA. Top NBA players are encouraged to appeal to female viewers.[40]

In 2019, the WNBA signed a deal with CBS to broadcast 40 games a year. ESPN will also broadcast an additional 16 games on their network. NBATV will also broadcast more games as well.

Impacts

Gender pay gap in sports links to the broader world and causes wider imbalance. In the financial point of view, this issue may cause the loss of financial revenue, as the pay gap in sports may lead to the less incentive of the female athletes to push themselves and to actively participate in sports because they feel unsupported.[41] Except for professional athletes, other female participation in sports may also be affected. Ruth Holdaway, the chief executive officer at advocacy group Women in Sport, says if the public aims to close the pay gap in the long term, the public should be working with young girls to let them understand that sports are worth participating. Closing the pay gap in sports helps to create an environment where all female participation can enjoy equal rights as males.[42] Furthermore, there is strong evidence of positive externalities from women’s empowerment that leads to the successful results in women’s football. In countries where women's empowerment is supported, we see more promotion of women's sports which tends to help decrease the gap in gender inequalities.[43]

Public response

Female athletes' actions

Some professional female athletes have taken steps forward to oppose the pay gap. The women's US soccer team has been especially vocal on this topic. The women's team's past includes placing in the top three for the World Cup for three decades yet the players don't believe that their pay reflects their success.[44] In 2019 a player on the US men's soccer team would be paid $1.1 million if they won the World Cup. In the same year, a player on the US women's team would be paid $261,000 for a 1st place victory.[45] When a team qualifies for the World Cup, there are built in bonuses when the team places in the top three. If the men's team were to place first, each player would receive a bonus of around half a million dollars. Comparing this to the women teams, a first place win would guarantee each player a bonus of under $100,000.[45] After years began to go by with no changes made to equalize pay, the entire USWNT filed a gender discrimination lawsuit against US soccer.[46] The specific accusations included unequal pay, medical treatment, transportation, and poor working conditions.[44] Additionally, the USWNT aimed to establish a violation of the EPA through proving that different wages were paid for equal work; proving this does not require showing that the employees’ work is identical, rather just that the work requires substantially equal skill, effort, and responsibility. "Skill" is measured in terms of performance requirements such as experience, education, training, and ability. "Effort" is measured in terms of the amount of mental and physical exertion needed to perform, as well as looking at the total requirements of the job. "Responsibility" is concerned with the job obligations and the degree of accountability required in the athlete's performance. Though skill levels may vary among women and men athletes across sports and effort may be exerted in different ways among players, it is highly likely to be found that male and female athletes exhibit equal amounts of skill, effort, and responsibility required of employees.[38] Their efforts ultimately made minimal advances, but the team still remains and continues to be an active part in the gender equality movement. With the public support that the USWNT has gained from their lawsuit for equal pay, new courses of action are being discussed to provide these women athletes with an available remedy. Above all, these efforts will be highly influential in the way other professional female athletes negotiate their salaries and Collective bargaining agreements (CBAs) to further advance pay equality going forward.[38] Although the USWNT is a leader in this movement, one of the most noteworthy cases happens in tennis. In 2006, American tennis player Venus Williams wrote an open letter to the London Times after she won the championship of Wimbledon but received lower prize money compared with her male counterpart. In that letter, Williams questioned that the disparity in prize money disregards female's hard work and Wimbledon conveys a faulty value. Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at that time, started to focus on the issue of the pay disparity in sports.[47] In the followed year, Wimbledon adjusted the prize money structure and offered an equal amount of prize money to male and female athletes. Williams' letter drew the attention of the public and was later featured in a special series for ESPN, celebrating the 40th anniversary of the passing of the Title IX amendment, ensuring gender equality in any college program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.

Introducing regulations and eligibility

Introducing official regulations also plays an essential role in closing the pay gap in sports. The Male Champions of Change (MCC) is an Australian institute which redefines men's role in "taking action on gender inequality and encourage men of power and influence to contribute to gender equality issues in the communities".[48] In 2019, MCC released the report of Pathway to Pay Equality, which aims to create new systems and cultures which can breed pay equity across all elite sports.[49] The report details the specific actions and supports need to be taken to close the gender pay gap in sports. Pathway to Pay Equality assembles 17 Australian sporting chief executives as the signatories, to ensure female athletes have the same rights and opportunities in sports by evaluating and reporting their performance annually. The report introduced by MCC is considered to be the first time that the sports organizations have united globally to address the issue of unequal pay in sports, this can be a role model for other countries and institutes to emulate.[50]

The eligibility requirements of the NBA versus the WNBA differ in such a way to allow male athletes to start their professional careers earlier.[51] The NBA requires incoming athletes to be only one year removed from high school, whereas the WNBA requires incoming athletes to be 4 years removed from high school.[51] Although the NBA oversees and runs both the NBA and WNBA, the eligibility requirements are in favor of male sports and therefore allow male athletes to begin their careers sooner than females.[51]

This phenomenon has profound implications for an athlete’s education. Considering NCAA athletics, female athletes are statistically among the highest achievers in all of postsecondary education while male athletes are doing just fine. But at the highest levels of football and men's basketball, much of the public believes that these athletes are on their way to the NFL or NBA. So, their academic advisers discover the simplest ways, at any cost, to keep them winning on the field.[52]

Statistics

Some popular and widespread sports still retain a significant pay gap. The following statistics show the income disparities between female athletes and their male counterparts.

 
The income of the top 10 highest-paid female and male athletes based on the statistics released by Forbes in 2017.

Football

In soccer, the United States women's national football team is paid almost four times less than the men's team.[53] The women's team won the 2014 World Cup tournament but was paid $7 million prize money less than their male counterparts who failed in Round 16. In 2016, the two-time Olympic gold medalist, American football player Hope Amelia Solo files lawsuit against the U.S Soccer Federation for disregarding pay equity with her teammates.

Basketball

The gender pay gap continues to affect all female professional athletes in almost all sports. Considering basketball, the maximum salary for a Women’s National Basketball Player (WNBA) player is $111,500 whereas for the National Basketball Association (NBA), the minimum salary is $525,093. Further, the average salary in the NBA is $4,500,000 and the average salary in the WNBA is $72,000.[54]

The pay gap in basketball also exists. In 2014, 5 teams of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) out of overall 12 made a profit.[55] The WNBA player who received the highest income is nearly one-fifth of the income of the lowest-paid NBA player.[56] In 2018, the WNBA paid its players much less of their revenue, less than 25%, than the NBA does, about 50%. If the WNBA revenues were shared with its players as the NBA revenues are, their average salary would rise from $77,878 to around $191,083 in the 2018 season.[57] In 2020 a new WNBA collective bargaining agreement was put in place and will go until 2027. Players in the WNBA will on average earn a salary of $130,000, with minimum and maximum salaries of $68,000 and $215,000 respectively; with the possibility for top athletes to earn over $500,000 annually. The players in the WNBA are unable to get their revenues from jersey sales, unlike the mens league, where the sale goes directly to the player.[58] The WNBA league will spend up to $250,000 a player and at least $1 million in promoting and marketing of players annually. Significant change in the revenue sharing could allow players in the WNBA to earn 50% of their revenues as of the 2021 season.[59]

Golf

The gender pay gap in golf is far from over. According to Golf Support, the prize money disparity between male and female athletes is 83% in professional golf. If a male and female golf player both wins a tournament, the male player can earn 6 times more than the female player.[60] The average salary for a golfer in the Professional Golfers' Association (PGA) is $973,000 versus $162,000 for a player in the Ladies’ Professional Golfers' Association (LPGA), demonstrating that women in professional golf make 16.6% of what male golfers make annually.[54]

Skiing

The income disparity in professional skiing is outstanding, too. The U.S Olympian ski racer Lindsey Vonn points out that to those female ski racers who are not at the top, many of them have to give up their practice time to do part-time jobs to increase their income due to the insufficient prize money they receive.[61] For Vonn, although she has won Olympic medals and World Cup titles, a large part of her income comes from endorsements instead of prize money.

Despite the disparity, statistics also show the equity of income in sports. Global research conducted by BBC Sport found that in the total of 44 sports that have been surveyed, 35 sports reward the same prize money to male and female athletes which shows an improvement compares to previous years.[62] The following examples are sports which offer equal prize money.

Baseball/Softball

The pay gap between baseball and softball is very far off from each other. The average salary for an MLB player is 4.47 million dollars a year. The average pay for a professional softball player is 6,000 a year. However, the pay gap showed signs of improvement as Monica Abbot signed a record 1 million dollar contract over six years.[63] This is still only 200,000 a year. There is still room for improvement, but there are strides being made in the world of baseball.[64]

After a 12-year hiatus, baseball and softball returned to the Olympics. The World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC), the governing body for both sports, led the effort to secure the reinstatement. The WBSC provides a unique model in that one federation manages two very different sports. The work of the WBSC has become complicated by the prevailing cultural beliefs that deem baseball as male and softball as female. The global governance of baseball and softball under the WBSC might risk upholding long-standing gender stereotypes.[65]

Tennis

 
The Us Open logo

Tennis has been considered as the leader of pay equity in sports. In 1973, the American tennis player Billie Jean King moved into areas of pay equity in tennis. Her efforts led to the change of the prize money of the United States Open.[66] In tennis, Venus Williams advocated for equal prize money to be awarded to female athletes in the most high-stakes tournaments. After 9 years of addressing the pay gap in prize money, Wimbledon finally gave both singles winners the same amount.[54] Starting with the United States Open, up to now, all of the four Grand Slam tournaments offer the same prize money to female and male athletes.[67] The list of the top 10 highest-paid female athletes in 2018 released by Forbes shows that tennis is the best-paying sports for female athletes as eight tennis player joined that list.[68] In 2019, Serena Williams is the highest of all women's tennis players on the Forbes World's Highest-Paid Athletes list. She currently is sitting at number sixty-three. Williams is the highest of all female athletes on the list.[69]

Volleyball

Volleyball is also one of the pioneers of promoting pay equity in sports. The International Volleyball Federation (FIVB) rewards the same prize money to both female and male athletes since 2004.[70] Specifically, in 2015, the winning male team and female team were all rewarded the equal prize money of $60,000.[71]

Surfing

The World Surf League (WSL) has altered the prize money structure and announced that female and males athletes would be paid the same amount of prize money from 2019 season in all the range of events that WSL controlled. This announcement also says that equal prize money campaign will also be managed to introduce to the second-tier surfing matches.[72]

Professional surfing remains currently organized globally by the World Surf League (WSL), the governing body that took over from the Association of Surfing Professionals (ASP) in 2014. The WSL, in addition to the ASP, has faced criticism for its focus on the male surfer. At the highest level of the sport, there are 18 spots for women versus 36 for men, a gender imbalance that can be observed in major qualifiers worldwide. Similar to other professional sports, debate has arisen around distributing equal prize money. In 2016, initiatives to address the gender pay gap in surfing, and the women’s purse and earnings increased significantly. Under this new rule, the men’s purse is $551,000 USD (split between 36 surfers), and the women’s purse is $275,500 USD (divided among 18 surfers).[73]

Padel

World Padel Tour, the world's leading professional padel competition announced equal prize money for male and female players in March 8, 2022.[74]

Sports industry

On top of athletes, the gender pay gap is also present in sports industry positions. A PayScale Survey has found that female sport marketing managers and sport event coordinators earn 82 cents and 92 cents respectively, for every dollar a male earns.[75] Disparities in the wages of female and male Head coaches exist, a study on head coaches in Division One programs finds the gender wage gap to be larger in this sports industry. A study done at the University of Northern Colorado involved a sample of 72 head coaches in Division One Basketball across the United States and found that male coaches earned an average of $2,716,191 million, whereas female coaches earned much less with an average salary of $689,879.[76]

Although, all women may face forms of inequality in sports workplaces, the intersection of gender and race leads to more severe barriers in place for black women in this industry. The lack of women of color in the athletic administrative and coaching positions in sports is greater as they not only face the challenges brought on by gender discrimination but also that of racial discrimination.[77]

Despite the growth of women participating in sports, especially after the passing of Title IX, black women have not been able to benefit as much as white women. While female athletes still face more discrimination in comparison to male athletes, larger inequities due to being black and a woman have been left out of the Title IX discussion, exemplifying a dual invisibility for black female athletes. This remains an issue at both predominantly white institutions and historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs).[78]

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External links

March 18, 2023
gender, sports, this, article, written, style, debate, rather, than, encyclopedic, summary, require, cleanup, meet, wikipedia, quality, standards, make, more, accessible, general, audience, please, discuss, this, issue, talk, page, february, 2023, learn, when,. This article is written in the style of a debate rather than an encyclopedic summary It may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia s quality standards and make it more accessible to a general audience Please discuss this issue on the talk page February 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message This page specifically shows discusses the gender pay gap in sports For other disparities see Gender pay gap Gender pay gap in sports is the persistence of unequal pay in sports particularly for female athletes who do not receive equal revenue compared to their counterparts which differs depending on the sport 1 According to the research conducted by BBC a total of 83 of sports now reward men and women equally 2 However it does not mean that the wage gap in sports has narrowed or disappeared In 2018 Forbes released the list of the top 100 highest paid athletes all of them being male athletes 3 A similar situation also occurred in 2017 where there was only one female athlete tennis player Serena Williams who joined the list and ranked No 56 Billie Jean King brought awareness to the issue of unequal pay in the early 1970s when she was awarded 2 900 less than her male counterpart at the Italian Open 4 The timeline of the gender pay gap in sports displays the significant events that have occurred since the 1970s Murray and Williams Wimbledon 2019 Serena Williams the highest paid female athlete in 2017 Contents 1 Factors 1 1 Endorsement deals 1 2 Media coverage 1 3 Economic return 1 4 Others 2 Impacts 3 Public response 3 1 Female athletes actions 3 2 Introducing regulations and eligibility 4 Statistics 4 1 Football 4 2 Basketball 4 3 Golf 4 4 Skiing 4 5 Baseball Softball 4 6 Tennis 4 7 Volleyball 4 8 Surfing 4 9 Padel 4 10 Sports industry 5 References 6 External linksFactors EditExcept for prize money there are other factors that affect female athletes income which include both internal and external factors Endorsement deals Edit Male sports attract far more viewership and are in far higher demand than women s sports The majority of sports are also dominated by males and this is due to several factors The first factor is the fewer chances for female athletes to negotiate endorsement deals Assuming a male and female athlete receives equal prize money generally speaking the top male athletes earn more due to better sponsorship and endorsement deals 5 Research conducted by a United Kingdom organization shows that sponsors are more attracted by male athletes as male athletes tend to be more marketable 6 A study has found that female athletes are rarely employed as the spokesperson by companies 7 Between 2011 and 2013 another study found female sports to account for 0 4 of total sports sponsorships 8 The imbalance of endorsement deals expands the income gap between male and female athletes A comparison of Roger Federer s income with Serena Williams income based on their prize money shows that Williams earned 2 million more than Federer However Federer is the most lucrative athlete endorsement and makes 58 million which is five times more than Serena Williams 9 Media coverage Edit Media coverage of male and female athletes in Australia United Kingdom and the United States Source based on research conducted by experts Media coverage takes forms such as News reports television TV programs and social media articles Media coverage does not only enhance the popularity of athletes but also reveals the commercial nature of sports 10 Male s sports have higher production values and are going to seem more exciting 11 Novak Djokovic the former world No 1 in men s single tennis said that male players deserve to be paid more than female players because statistics are showing that we have much more spectators on the men s tennis matches which means male athletes have gained more interests and attention 12 The economic logic is the viewership determines the commercial value of a sport as the media producers hope to attract more audiences to make profits This factor may affect the media coverage of female athletes Despite greatly increased participation of women in sports over the years media coverage of female athletes has remained unchanged 13 It has been argued that visibility of women s sports in media is necessary for its advancement and is a determining factor in closing the gender pay gap Broadcasting deals and television exposure play an important role in the ability for athletes to gain sponsors and endorsements With increased TV marketing comes larger and more profitable sponsors this gain of profit in an industry will eventually lead to an increase in wages of sportswomen 14 While coverage of female athletes is lacking in traditional and online media outlets personal social media accounts offer sportswomen new means to gain exposure promote themselves develop a fan base and reconstruct traditional gender stereotypes in sport 15 Whereas a study examined 1 587 images on the Instagram accounts of four major American sports networks and found women in gender appropriate sports were more likely to be featured along with those appearing nonathletic and next to a male 16 In Australia female s sports make up 7 of all sports media coverage the same as the United Kingdom Similarly in the United States nearly 40 of athletes are female but they own 4 of media coverage 17 In a 2015 study Billings and Young compared coverage of women s sports on ESPN s Sports Center and Fox Sports 1 s Fox Sports Live in which both TV programs were found to cover women s sports less than 1 of the time 18 In the Nordic welfare states women obtain 10 of routine newspaper or TV sports coverage 19 A 2015 analysis of International sports news websites found the three websites covering the most female athletics dedicated 7 of coverage 20 Except for the quantity the quality of media coverage also matters The media portrayal of female athletes tends to be less professional and sometimes involve entertaining or sexualised contents instead of portraying their athletic abilities 21 A study found that this type of sexist language was used in women s sports coverage in regard to athletes and teams from 1989 to 2000 Whereas in 2014 language shifted and became gender bland framing women s sports performances and achievements in uninteresting ways in comparison to men 22 Televised sports media jobs are also dominated and controlled by a majority of men and 90 of sports editors and 95 of sports news anchors and co anchors were found to be male in a 2017 analysis of televised coverage of women s sports 22 In a study published in the Journal of Developmental Psychology after viewing sexualized athletes both girls and young women criticized the status of women in society suggesting that more performance imagery of female athletes should be included in media coverage 23 In addition to being featured less frequently than men in the media female athletes are also subject to far more criticism A qualitative analysis established that tweets in sports media tend to underscore female athletes achievements and exaggerate their losses 24 Considering sports broadcasting women are breaking into the industry into large numbers even though gender based stereotypes serve as a roadblock to their career advancement In an experimental design study a number of U S executives concluded that women are not accepted as sports analysts by general sports audiences and that women should solely commentate on gender appropriate feminine sports 25 In the United States viewership for the 2019 Women s World Cup Final in France was 22 higher than the viewership of the 2018 Men s World Cup Final in Russia Roughly 14 3 Million people in the United States watched the Women s final while only 11 4 million watched the 2018 men s final The 2015 Women s World Cup Final peaked at 25 4 million viewers even higher than the 2019 Final The reason for the lack of viewership in the 2019 final compared to the 2015 final was due to scheduling conflicts on the day of the 2019 final At the same time that the women s final was taking place the Men s Copa America final and Men s CONCACAF Gold Cup final were happening all on the same day 26 Economic return Edit In a study that analyzed over 460 occupations athletes have the worst gender pay gap The average female athlete makes 15 232 in comparison to male athletes who make 38 008 on average a 149 5 increase 27 Economic elements also affect the pay equity within sports In 2018 the WNBA team attracted 7 716 fans per game which is more than 10 000 fans below the audience attracted by NBA teams per game 28 Female teams attracted fewer fans compares to male teams indicates female teams sold less ticket and hence generated less revenue The highest paid female wrestler Ronda Rousey says she thinks how much female athletes get paid should relate to how much revenue they bring in 29 The different marketability of athletes affects the corresponding earnings of male and female athletes The economic benefits will occur as long as female athletes generate outstanding revenue as their male counterparts do 30 However the pay gap between men and women players is extreme and far outstrips these differences in revenue Again comparing the NBA and WNBA in 2019 the average NBA player earned 8 321 937 while a WNBA player earned 75 181 Golf also presents a massive pay gap between men and women athletes with a PGA player earning around 1 235 495 and an LPGA player earning 48 993 on average The soccer pay gap between MLS and NWSL is over 300 000 with men earning around 410 730 and women earning an average of 35 000 The MLB and NPF difference in pay is over 4 000 000 with women averaging around 6 000 a year in 2019 The difference in pay between ATP and WTA turns out to be around 50 000 a year as well 31 Furthermore the women players earnings as a proportion of WNBA profits has changed over time In the 1954 55 season players grossed a total of 45 of the WNBA operating income 32 This eventually grew even higher almost to 60 but recently the WNBA players have been earning only 21 of the league s revenue Others Edit There are other factors which also affect the earning of female athletes for example the lack of women holding governing positions in the sports organization In Europe sports foundations there are 14 of all decision making positions which are occupied by women 33 Motherhood also reduces the earning of female athletes as they miss many chances of attending tournaments due to their physical condition After the labor it still takes time to train and rebuild the body shape 34 Pregnancy brings a commercial difference and this mainly reflects through endorsement deals 35 Professional beach volleyball player Kerri Walsh once said that she was told to hold off on starting a new family by sponsors The professional snowboarder Kimmy Fasani also faced the fear of losing her endorsement deals when she found out she is pregnant 36 Advancements are being made to reduce the impact of motherhood on wages of female athletes In 2020 a new collective bargaining agreement of the WNBA included an improved maternity leave policy allowing players to receive a full salary during their parental leave 37 The WNBA and NBA is one of the most prominent examples of the pay gap In 2018 Aja Wilson was drafted the number one pick and earned a salary of 52 564 Deandre Ayton was drafted the number one pick in the NBA and earned a salary of 5 091 500 The average max salary cap for a player in the WNBA is roughly about 117 500 For an NBA player it s about 300 times more than that For example Steph Curry sits at 40 2 million Though the pay gap seen between the top ranking players in professional sports reveals to be alarming wage discrepancies between lower ranked players proves to be equally as concerning In 2015 the twenty fifth ranked soccer player from the US Women s National Soccer team USWNT was compensated 341 721 while the twenty fifth ranked player from the US Men s National Soccer team USMNT received 580 522 A similar trend can be seen in looking at the fiftieth ranked soccer players where the female player received 25 516 while the male player received 246 238 38 The USWNT is an exemplary organization that advocates for equal pay for the players After these women won the World Cup in 2015 and broke records many players decided together to battle against The United States Soccer Federation 39 In 2014 the men s winner of the World Cup received 35 million dollars and the following year the USWNT won the World Cup and only received 2 million dollars 39 Moreover in 2014 the United States Men s National Soccer Team USMNT placed 11th and received nearly 10 million dollars 39 WNBA s low ticket sales and low salary may be due to marketing as more resources are devoted to the NBA than the WNBA Top NBA players are encouraged to appeal to female viewers 40 In 2019 the WNBA signed a deal with CBS to broadcast 40 games a year ESPN will also broadcast an additional 16 games on their network NBATV will also broadcast more games as well Impacts EditGender pay gap in sports links to the broader world and causes wider imbalance In the financial point of view this issue may cause the loss of financial revenue as the pay gap in sports may lead to the less incentive of the female athletes to push themselves and to actively participate in sports because they feel unsupported 41 Except for professional athletes other female participation in sports may also be affected Ruth Holdaway the chief executive officer at advocacy group Women in Sport says if the public aims to close the pay gap in the long term the public should be working with young girls to let them understand that sports are worth participating Closing the pay gap in sports helps to create an environment where all female participation can enjoy equal rights as males 42 Furthermore there is strong evidence of positive externalities from women s empowerment that leads to the successful results in women s football In countries where women s empowerment is supported we see more promotion of women s sports which tends to help decrease the gap in gender inequalities 43 Public response EditFemale athletes actions Edit Some professional female athletes have taken steps forward to oppose the pay gap The women s US soccer team has been especially vocal on this topic The women s team s past includes placing in the top three for the World Cup for three decades yet the players don t believe that their pay reflects their success 44 In 2019 a player on the US men s soccer team would be paid 1 1 million if they won the World Cup In the same year a player on the US women s team would be paid 261 000 for a 1st place victory 45 When a team qualifies for the World Cup there are built in bonuses when the team places in the top three If the men s team were to place first each player would receive a bonus of around half a million dollars Comparing this to the women teams a first place win would guarantee each player a bonus of under 100 000 45 After years began to go by with no changes made to equalize pay the entire USWNT filed a gender discrimination lawsuit against US soccer 46 The specific accusations included unequal pay medical treatment transportation and poor working conditions 44 Additionally the USWNT aimed to establish a violation of the EPA through proving that different wages were paid for equal work proving this does not require showing that the employees work is identical rather just that the work requires substantially equal skill effort and responsibility Skill is measured in terms of performance requirements such as experience education training and ability Effort is measured in terms of the amount of mental and physical exertion needed to perform as well as looking at the total requirements of the job Responsibility is concerned with the job obligations and the degree of accountability required in the athlete s performance Though skill levels may vary among women and men athletes across sports and effort may be exerted in different ways among players it is highly likely to be found that male and female athletes exhibit equal amounts of skill effort and responsibility required of employees 38 Their efforts ultimately made minimal advances but the team still remains and continues to be an active part in the gender equality movement With the public support that the USWNT has gained from their lawsuit for equal pay new courses of action are being discussed to provide these women athletes with an available remedy Above all these efforts will be highly influential in the way other professional female athletes negotiate their salaries and Collective bargaining agreements CBAs to further advance pay equality going forward 38 Although the USWNT is a leader in this movement one of the most noteworthy cases happens in tennis In 2006 American tennis player Venus Williams wrote an open letter to the London Times after she won the championship of Wimbledon but received lower prize money compared with her male counterpart In that letter Williams questioned that the disparity in prize money disregards female s hard work and Wimbledon conveys a faulty value Tony Blair the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at that time started to focus on the issue of the pay disparity in sports 47 In the followed year Wimbledon adjusted the prize money structure and offered an equal amount of prize money to male and female athletes Williams letter drew the attention of the public and was later featured in a special series for ESPN celebrating the 40th anniversary of the passing of the Title IX amendment ensuring gender equality in any college program or activity receiving federal financial assistance Introducing regulations and eligibility Edit Introducing official regulations also plays an essential role in closing the pay gap in sports The Male Champions of Change MCC is an Australian institute which redefines men s role in taking action on gender inequality and encourage men of power and influence to contribute to gender equality issues in the communities 48 In 2019 MCC released the report of Pathway to Pay Equality which aims to create new systems and cultures which can breed pay equity across all elite sports 49 The report details the specific actions and supports need to be taken to close the gender pay gap in sports Pathway to Pay Equality assembles 17 Australian sporting chief executives as the signatories to ensure female athletes have the same rights and opportunities in sports by evaluating and reporting their performance annually The report introduced by MCC is considered to be the first time that the sports organizations have united globally to address the issue of unequal pay in sports this can be a role model for other countries and institutes to emulate 50 The eligibility requirements of the NBA versus the WNBA differ in such a way to allow male athletes to start their professional careers earlier 51 The NBA requires incoming athletes to be only one year removed from high school whereas the WNBA requires incoming athletes to be 4 years removed from high school 51 Although the NBA oversees and runs both the NBA and WNBA the eligibility requirements are in favor of male sports and therefore allow male athletes to begin their careers sooner than females 51 This phenomenon has profound implications for an athlete s education Considering NCAA athletics female athletes are statistically among the highest achievers in all of postsecondary education while male athletes are doing just fine But at the highest levels of football and men s basketball much of the public believes that these athletes are on their way to the NFL or NBA So their academic advisers discover the simplest ways at any cost to keep them winning on the field 52 Statistics EditSome popular and widespread sports still retain a significant pay gap The following statistics show the income disparities between female athletes and their male counterparts The income of the top 10 highest paid female and male athletes based on the statistics released by Forbes in 2017 Football Edit In soccer the United States women s national football team is paid almost four times less than the men s team 53 The women s team won the 2014 World Cup tournament but was paid 7 million prize money less than their male counterparts who failed in Round 16 In 2016 the two time Olympic gold medalist American football player Hope Amelia Solo files lawsuit against the U S Soccer Federation for disregarding pay equity with her teammates Basketball Edit The gender pay gap continues to affect all female professional athletes in almost all sports Considering basketball the maximum salary for a Women s National Basketball Player WNBA player is 111 500 whereas for the National Basketball Association NBA the minimum salary is 525 093 Further the average salary in the NBA is 4 500 000 and the average salary in the WNBA is 72 000 54 The pay gap in basketball also exists In 2014 5 teams of the Women s National Basketball Association WNBA out of overall 12 made a profit 55 The WNBA player who received the highest income is nearly one fifth of the income of the lowest paid NBA player 56 In 2018 the WNBA paid its players much less of their revenue less than 25 than the NBA does about 50 If the WNBA revenues were shared with its players as the NBA revenues are their average salary would rise from 77 878 to around 191 083 in the 2018 season 57 In 2020 a new WNBA collective bargaining agreement was put in place and will go until 2027 Players in the WNBA will on average earn a salary of 130 000 with minimum and maximum salaries of 68 000 and 215 000 respectively with the possibility for top athletes to earn over 500 000 annually The players in the WNBA are unable to get their revenues from jersey sales unlike the mens league where the sale goes directly to the player 58 The WNBA league will spend up to 250 000 a player and at least 1 million in promoting and marketing of players annually Significant change in the revenue sharing could allow players in the WNBA to earn 50 of their revenues as of the 2021 season 59 Golf Edit The gender pay gap in golf is far from over According to Golf Support the prize money disparity between male and female athletes is 83 in professional golf If a male and female golf player both wins a tournament the male player can earn 6 times more than the female player 60 The average salary for a golfer in the Professional Golfers Association PGA is 973 000 versus 162 000 for a player in the Ladies Professional Golfers Association LPGA demonstrating that women in professional golf make 16 6 of what male golfers make annually 54 Skiing Edit The income disparity in professional skiing is outstanding too The U S Olympian ski racer Lindsey Vonn points out that to those female ski racers who are not at the top many of them have to give up their practice time to do part time jobs to increase their income due to the insufficient prize money they receive 61 For Vonn although she has won Olympic medals and World Cup titles a large part of her income comes from endorsements instead of prize money Despite the disparity statistics also show the equity of income in sports Global research conducted by BBC Sport found that in the total of 44 sports that have been surveyed 35 sports reward the same prize money to male and female athletes which shows an improvement compares to previous years 62 The following examples are sports which offer equal prize money Baseball Softball Edit The pay gap between baseball and softball is very far off from each other The average salary for an MLB player is 4 47 million dollars a year The average pay for a professional softball player is 6 000 a year However the pay gap showed signs of improvement as Monica Abbot signed a record 1 million dollar contract over six years 63 This is still only 200 000 a year There is still room for improvement but there are strides being made in the world of baseball 64 After a 12 year hiatus baseball and softball returned to the Olympics The World Baseball Softball Confederation WBSC the governing body for both sports led the effort to secure the reinstatement The WBSC provides a unique model in that one federation manages two very different sports The work of the WBSC has become complicated by the prevailing cultural beliefs that deem baseball as male and softball as female The global governance of baseball and softball under the WBSC might risk upholding long standing gender stereotypes 65 Tennis Edit The Us Open logo Tennis has been considered as the leader of pay equity in sports In 1973 the American tennis player Billie Jean King moved into areas of pay equity in tennis Her efforts led to the change of the prize money of the United States Open 66 In tennis Venus Williams advocated for equal prize money to be awarded to female athletes in the most high stakes tournaments After 9 years of addressing the pay gap in prize money Wimbledon finally gave both singles winners the same amount 54 Starting with the United States Open up to now all of the four Grand Slam tournaments offer the same prize money to female and male athletes 67 The list of the top 10 highest paid female athletes in 2018 released by Forbes shows that tennis is the best paying sports for female athletes as eight tennis player joined that list 68 In 2019 Serena Williams is the highest of all women s tennis players on the Forbes World s Highest Paid Athletes list She currently is sitting at number sixty three Williams is the highest of all female athletes on the list 69 Volleyball Edit Volleyball is also one of the pioneers of promoting pay equity in sports The International Volleyball Federation FIVB rewards the same prize money to both female and male athletes since 2004 70 Specifically in 2015 the winning male team and female team were all rewarded the equal prize money of 60 000 71 Surfing Edit The World Surf League WSL has altered the prize money structure and announced that female and males athletes would be paid the same amount of prize money from 2019 season in all the range of events that WSL controlled This announcement also says that equal prize money campaign will also be managed to introduce to the second tier surfing matches 72 Professional surfing remains currently organized globally by the World Surf League WSL the governing body that took over from the Association of Surfing Professionals ASP in 2014 The WSL in addition to the ASP has faced criticism for its focus on the male surfer At the highest level of the sport there are 18 spots for women versus 36 for men a gender imbalance that can be observed in major qualifiers worldwide Similar to other professional sports debate has arisen around distributing equal prize money In 2016 initiatives to address the gender pay gap in surfing and the women s purse and earnings increased significantly Under this new rule the men s purse is 551 000 USD split between 36 surfers and the women s purse is 275 500 USD divided among 18 surfers 73 Padel Edit World Padel Tour the world s leading professional padel competition announced equal prize money for male and female players in March 8 2022 74 Sports industry Edit On top of athletes the gender pay gap is also present in sports industry positions A PayScale Survey has found that female sport marketing managers and sport event coordinators earn 82 cents and 92 cents respectively for every dollar a male earns 75 Disparities in the wages of female and male Head coaches exist a study on head coaches in Division One programs finds the gender wage gap to be larger in this sports industry A study done at the University of Northern Colorado involved a sample of 72 head coaches in Division One Basketball across the United States and found that male coaches earned an average of 2 716 191 million whereas female coaches earned much less with an average salary of 689 879 76 Although all women may face forms of inequality in sports workplaces the intersection of gender and race leads to more severe barriers in place for black women in this industry The lack of women of color in the athletic administrative and coaching positions in sports is greater as they not only face the challenges brought on by gender discrimination but also that of racial discrimination 77 Despite the growth of women participating in sports especially after the passing of Title IX black women have not been able to benefit as much as white women While female athletes still face more discrimination in comparison to male athletes larger inequities due to being black and a woman have been left out of the Title IX discussion exemplifying a dual invisibility for black female athletes This remains an issue at both predominantly white institutions and historically black colleges and universities HBCUs 78 References Edit Examining the Gender Pay Gap in Sports 15 May 2019 Women s Sport Week 2017 Gender 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Sports American Behavioral Scientist 56 11 1581 1603 doi 10 1177 0002764212458282 ISSN 0002 7642 S2CID 146366759 Theune Felecia March 2016 The Shrinking Presence of Black Female Student Athletes at Historically Black Colleges and Universities Sociology of Sport Journal 33 1 66 74 doi 10 1123 ssj 2015 0037 ISSN 0741 1235 External links EditCalls For Pay Equality in Sports Debate by Studio 10 Will Men and Women Ever Be Paid the Same in Sport by Good Morning Britain Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Gender pay gap in sports amp oldid 1140241513, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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