List of rulers of Damascus

This is a list of rulers of Damascus from ancient times to the present.

General context: History of Damascus.

Aram Damascus

• Rezon I (c. 950 BC)
• Tabrimmon
• Ben-Hadad I (c. 885 BCE–c. 865 BC)
• Hadadezer (c. 865 BC–c. 842 BC)
• Hazael (c. 842 BC–c. 804 BC)
• Ben-Hadad III (c. 796 BC)
• Tab-El (c. 770 BC)
• Rezon II (c. 740 BC–732 BC)

Period of non-independence

• to Assyria (732 BC–609 BC)
  • Ilu-Ittia (c. 8th century BC)
• to Babylon (609 BC–539 BC)
• to Persian Achaemenid Empire (539 BC–332 BC)
• to Macedon (332 BC–323 BC)
• to Antigonids (323 BC–301 BC)
• to Ptolemaic Kingdom (301 BC–198 BC)
• to Seleucids (198 BC–167 BC)
• to Ituraea (167 BC–110 BC) (Semi independent from Seleucids)
• to the Decapolis (110 BC–85 BC) (Semi independent from Seleucids)
• to Nabataea (85 BC–64 BC)
• to the Roman Republic/Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire (64 BC–635)
  • to the Ghassanids (529–584; ?–635)

Rashidun period

• Khalid ibn al-Walid (635–636)
• Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah (636–637)
• Amr ibn al-Aas (637–640)
• Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan (640)
• Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan (640–661)

Umayyad period

• Muawiyah I ibn Abu Sufyan (661–680)
• Yazid I ibn Muawiyah (680–683)
• Muawiya II ibn Yazid (683–684)
• Marwan I ibn Hakam (684–685)
• Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (685–705)
• al-Walid I ibn Abd al-Malik (705–715)
• Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik (715–717)
• Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (717–720)
• Yazid II ibn Abd al-Malik (720–724)
• Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (724–743)
• al-Walid II ibn Yazid II (743–744)
• Yazid III ibn al-Walid (744)
• Ibrahim ibn al-Walid (744)
• Marwan II ibn Muhammad (ruled from Harran in the Jazira, 744–750)

Abbasid period

^[1]

• Abdallah ibn Ali (750–754)
• Salih ibn Ali (754)
• Abd al-Wahhab ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad al-Abbasi (754–764)
• Al-Fadl ibn Salih (766–775)
• Abu Ja'far Harun ibn al-Mahdi (783–786)
• Ibrahim ibn as-Salih ibn Ali (c. 785)
• Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Imam (?–788)
• Ibrahim ibn as-Salih ibn Ali (c. 788–791)
• Musa ibn Isa (c. 792)
• Musa ibn Yahya al-Barmaki (c. 792)
• Abd al-Malik ibn Salih (793–795)
• Ishaq ibn Isa ibn Ali (c. 795–?)
• Shu'ayb ibn Khazim (802–803)
• Ja'far ibn Yahya (803)
• Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad (803–804)
• Sulayman ibn al-Mansur (804–805)
• Yahya ibn Mu'adh ibn Muslim (c. 806)
• Ali ibn al-Hasan ibn Qahtaba (807–809)
• Mansur ibn Muhammad al-Mahdi (809–810)
• Ahmad ibn Sa'id al-Harashi (810)
• Sulayman ibn al-Mansur (810)
• Muhammad ibn Salih ibn Bayhas (813–823 or 824/825)
• Ma'yuf ibn Yahya ibn Ma'yuf al-Hamdani or Sadaqa ibn Uthman al-Murri (appointed by viceroy Abdallah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani) (825–?)
• Abu Ishaq Muhammad ibn Harun al-Rashid (c. 828)
• Dinar ibn Abd Allah (c. 839)
• Muhammed ibn al-Jahm al-Sami (c. 839)
• Musa ibn Ibrahim al Rafiqi (c. 842)
• Rija ibn Ayyub al-Hadari (841–847)
• Malik ibn Tawk (847–850)
• Ibrahim al-Mu'ayyad ibn al-Mutawakkil (850–855)
• al-Fath ibn Hakan al-Turki (856–861)
• Yunus ibn Tarja (c. 861)
• Isa ibn Muhammad al-Nawshari (861–866)
• Salih ibn al-Abbasi al-Turki (c. 866)
• Ahmad ibn Khalil al Shaybani (c. 866)
• Yamkjur al-Turki (c. 869)
• Asram al-Turki (c. 870)
• Isa ibn al-Shaykh al-Shaybani, rebel governor (c. 870)
• Amajur al-Turki (870–878)

• to Tulunid Egypt (877–904)
  • Ali ibn Amajur al-Turki (878)
  • Ahmad ibn Wasif
  • Tughj ibn Juff (896–905)

• Abbasid restauration:
  • Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh (905–906)
  • al-Rashidi (928–931)
  • Muhammad ibn Tughj (931–935)

• to Ikhshidid Egypt (935–969), except for:
  • Muhammad Ibn Ra'iq (939–942)
  • Muhammad ibn Yazdad al-Shahrzuri (943–945)
  • Sayf al-Dawla (briefly in 945 and 947)

Fatimid emirs

• Abu Ali Ja'far ibn Fallah al-Kutami (970–971)

Qarmatian occupation of Damascus

• Zalim ibn Mauhab al-Ukayli (973–974)
• Jaysh ibn Muhammad (974)
• Rayn al-Mu'izzi (974)
• Alptakin al-Mu'izzi (975–978)
• Qassam al-Turab (978–983)

Fatimid recovery of Damascus

• Baltakin al-Turki (983)
• Bakjur (983–991)
• Ya'qub al-Siqlabi (991)
• Manjutakin (993–996)
• Sulayman ibn Fallah (996)
• Bishara al-Ikhshidi (997–998)
• Jaysh ibn Muhammad (998–1000)
• Sulayman ibn Fallah (1000–1002)
• Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn Jafar (1002–1004)
• Abu Salih Muflih al-Lihyani (1004–1009)
• Hamid ibn Mulham (1009)
• Wajik ad-Dawlah Abu al-Muta Zu-l-Karnayn Hamdan (1010–1011)
• Badr al-Attar (1011–1012)
• Abu Abdallah al-Muzahhir (1012–1014)
• Abd ar-Rahman ibn Ilyas (1015–1021)
• Wajik ad-Dawlah Abu al-Muta Zu-l-Karnayn Hamdan (1021–1023)
• Shihab ad-Dawlah Shah Tegin (1023–1024)
• Wajik ad-Dawlah Abu al-Muta Zu-l-Karnayn Hamdan (1024–1028)
• Anushtakin ad-Dizbari (1028–1041)
• Nasir ad-Dawlah al-Hamdani (1041–1048)
• Baha ad-Dawlah Takiq al-Saklabi (1048–1049)
• Rifq al-Khadim (1049)
• Mu'in ad-Dawlah Haydar ibn Adud ad-Dawlah (1049–1058)
• Makin ad-Dawlah Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn 'Ali (1058)
• Nasir ad-Dawlah al-Hamdani (1058–1060)
• Sebuq Tegin (1060)
• Muwaffaq ad-Dawlah Jauhar al-Mustansiri (1060–1061)
• Hasam ad-Dawlah ibn al-Bachinaki (1061)
• Uddat ad-Dawlah ibn al-Husein (1061)
• Mu'in ad-Dawlah Haydar ibn Adud ad-Dawla (1061–1063)
• Badr al-Jamali (1063)
• Hisn ad-Dawlah Haydar ibn Mansur (1063–1067)
• Qutb ad-Din Baris Tegin (1068–1069)
• Hisn ad-Dawlah Mualla al-Kitami (1069–1071)
• Zain ad-Dawlah Intisar ibn Yahya al-Masmudi (1075–1076)

Seljuk emirs

• Atsiz ibn Abaq (1076–1079)
• Tutush I (1079–1095)
• Duqaq, son of Tutush I (1095–1104)
• Tutush II, son of Duqaq (1104)
• Irtash, son of Tutush I (1104)

Burid emirs

• Toghtekin (1104–1128)
• Taj al-Muluk Buri (1128–1132)
• Shams al-Mulk Isma'il (1132–1135)
• Shihab ad-Din Mahmud (1135–1139)
• Jamal ad-Din Muhammad (1139–1140)
• Mu'in ad-Din Unur (Regent, 1140–1149)
• Mujir ad-Din Abaq (1140–1154)

Zengid atabegs

• Nur ad-Din Mahmud (1154–1174)
• As-Salih Ismail al-Malik (1174)

Ayyubid emirs (some were also sultans of Egypt)

• Saladin (1174–1186)
• Al-Afdal (1186–1196), Son of Saladin
• Al-Adil I (1196–1218)
• Al-Mu'azzam (1218–1227)
• An-Nasir Dawud (1227–1229)
• Al-Ashraf (1229–1237)
• As-Salih Ismail (1237)
• Al-Kamil (1237–1238)
• Al-Adil II (1238–1239)
• As-Salih Ayyub (1239)
• As-Salih Ismail (1239–1245)
• As-Salih Ayyub (1245–1249)
• Al-Muazzam Turanshah (1249–1250)
• An-Nasir Yusuf (1250–1260)

Mamluk na'ibs

• Sanjar as-Salihi (August/September 1260–October 1260)^[2]
• Taybars al-Waziri (October 1260–1264)^[2]
• Aqqush as-Salihi (1264–)^[2]
• Sunqur al-Ashqar (1279–1280)
• Lajin al-Ashqar (1280–?)
• Aqush Bey (c. 1290s)
• Izz ad-Din Aybak (?–1296)
• Shuja ad-Din Adirlu (1296–1297)
• Sayf ad-Din Kipchak (1297–1299)
• Aqqush al-Afram (1299–1309)
• Sayf ad-Din Tanqiz as-Nasiri (1312–1340)
• Yilbugha an-Nasiri (1340–1350)
• Sayf ad-Din Manjak (1350)
• Tash Timur (c. 1380)
• Yilbugha al-Nasiri (?–1393)
• Sayf ad-Din Tanibak (1393–1399)
• Sudun (1399–1400)
• occupied by Timur (1400–1401)
• Taghribirdi az-Zahiri (1401–?)
• Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq (1418–1420)
• Kijmas (c. 1470s)
• Ghazali Arab (c. 16th century)
• Sibai (c. 16th century)^[3]
• Shihab ad-Din Ahmad (1516–1517)
• Janbirdi al-Ghazali (1518–1521)

Ottoman walis

• Yunus Pasha (c. 1516)
• Janbirdi al-Ghazali (1518–1521)
• Ayas Mehmed Pasha (1521–1522)
• Ferhad Pasha (1522–1523)
• Hurram Pasha (1523–1525)
• Sulayman Pasha al-Tawashi (1525–1526)
• Lutf Pasha (1526–1528)
• Isa Bey Pasha Chenderli (1528–1531)
• Mustafa Ablaq Pasha (1531–1534)
• Lutf Pasha (1534–1535)
• Isa Bey Pasha Chenderli (1535)
• Muhammad Kuzal Pasha (1536–1537)
• Topal Sulayman Pasha (1537–1538)
• Ahmed Pasha I (1538–1539)
• Qese Husrau Pasha (1539–1541)
• Isa Pasha (1541–1543)
• Piri Pasha (1543–1545)
• Sinan Pasha al-Tuwashi (1545–1548)^[4]
• Piri Pasha (1550–1551)
• Muhammad Pasha Bartaki (1551–1552)
• Şemsi Pasha (1552–1555)
• Hizr Pasha (1555–1561)
• Ali Pasha Lankun (1561–1563)
• Khusrau Pasha I (1563)
• Lala Mustafa Pasha (1563–1569)
• Murad Pasha Shaitan (1569)
• Ali Pasha Lankun (1569–1570)
• Haji Ahmed Pasha (1570–1571)
• Darwish Pasha (1571–1574)
• Lala Jafar Pasha (1574–1575)
• Murad Pasha (1575–1577)
• Sokulluzade Hasan Pasha (1577–1581)
• Bahram Pasha (1581–1582)
• Hüseyin Pasha Boljanić (1582–1583)
• Sokulluzade Hasan Pasha (1583)
• Qubad Sulayman Pasha (1584)
• Üveys Pasha (1584–1585)
• Elvendoglu Ali Pasha (October 1585–1586)
• Üveys Pasha (1586–1587)
• Muhammad Pasha Farhad (1587–1588)
• Üveys Pasha (1588–1589)
• Elwanzade Ali Pasha (1589–1590)
• Koca Sinan Pasha (1590)
• Sokulluzade Hasan Pasha (1590–1591)
• Mustafa Pasha I (1591–1592)
• Khalil Pasha (1592–1593)
• Qachirji Mohammad Pasha (1593–1594)
• Sokulluzade Hasan Pasha (1594)
• Kuyucu Murad Pasha (1594–1595)
• Khusrau Pasha II (1595–1596)
• Razia Hutunzade Mustafa Pasha (1596–1597)
• Yusuf Sinan Pasha (1597–1598)
• Ahmed Pasha II (1598)
• Ahmed Pasha III (1598)
• Khusrau Pasha II (1599)
• Emir Mehmed Pasha (1599–1600)
• Osman Pasha (1601–1603)
• Farhad Pasha Bustanji (1603–1604)
• Mustafa Pasha II (1604–1607)
• Mahmud Pasha (1607–1608)
• Sufi Sinan Pasha (1608–1609)
• Ahmad al-Hafiz (1609–1615)
• Silihdar Mehmed Pasha (1615–1618)
• Ahmad al-Hafiz (1618–1619)
• Mustafa Pasha III (1619–1620)
• Sulayman Pasha I (1620–1621)
• Murtaza Pasha Bustanji (1621–1622)
• Mehmed Pasha Rushand (1622–1623)
• Mustafa Pasha al-Hannaq (1623–1624)
• Nigdeli Mustafa Pasha (1624–1625)
• Gurju Mehmed Pasha I (1625–1626)
• Tayar Oglu Mehmed Pasha (1626–1628)
• Küçük Ahmed Pasha (1628–1629)
• Mustafa Pasha IV (1629–1630)
• Nawaya Mehmed Pasha (1630–1631)
• Ilyas Pasha (1632–1633)
• Deli Yusuf Pasha (1633–1635)
• Küçük Ahmed Pasha (1635–1636)
• Dervish Mehmed Pasha (1636–1638)
• Mustafa Pasha IV (1638–1639)
• Chifteli Othman Pasha (1639–1640)
• Mehmed Pasha I (1640–1641)
• Serji Ahmed Pasha (1641–1642)
• Melik Ahmed Pasha (1642–1643)
• Sultanzade Mehmed Pasha (1643)
• Silihdar Yusuf Pasha (1643–1644)
• Gurju Mehmed Pasha II (1644–1645)
• Ibrahim Pasha I (1645)
• Mehmed Pasha Salami (1645–1646)
• Gürcê Mehmed (1646)
• Silahdar Yusuf Pasha (1646–1647)
• Sufi Murteza Pasha (1647)
• Sofu Mehmed Pasha (1648)
• Ibşir Mustafa Pasha (1649)
• Mehmed Pasha II (1649–1650)
• Silahdar Murtaza Pasha (1650)
• Sivaslı Mustafa Pasha (1650)
• Haseki Mehmed Pasha (1650–1652)
• Defterzade Mehmed Pasha (1653–1655)
• Kara Murat Pasha (1655; died before taking office)
• Haseki Mehmed Pasha (1656)
• Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed Pasha (1659–1661)
• Sulayman Pasha II (1661–1663)
• Ribleli Mustafa Pasha (1663–1665)
• Salih Pasha I (1665–1666)
• Qara Mustafa Pasha (1666–1667)
• Mehmed Pasha Chewish Oglu (1667–1669)
• Ibrahim Pasha Shaytan (1669–1671)
• Abazekh Husein Pasha (1671–1672)
• Qara Mehmed Pasha (1672–1673)
• Ibrahim Pasha Shushman (1673–1674)
• Qer Husein Pasha (1674–1675)
• Ibrahim Pasha II (1675–1676)
• Bosniak Osman Pasha (1676–1679)
• Abazekh Husein Pasha (1679–1683)
• Ibrahim Pasha III (1684)
• Bosniak Osman Pasha (1684–1685)
• Kaplan Pasha (1686–1687)
• Arap Salih Pasha (1687–1688)
• Hamza Pasha (1688–1689)
• Bozoklu Mustafa Pasha (1690)
• Murtaza Pasha (1690–1691)
• Gurju Mehmed Pasha III (1691–1692)
• Çelebi Ismail Pasha (1692–1693)
• Ibshir Mustafa Pasha (1693–1694)
• Silihdar Osman Pasha (1695–1696)
• Silihdar Buuqli Mustafa Pasha (1696–1697)
• Ahmad Pasha Hacigirai (1697–1698)
• Silihdar Husein Pasha (1699)
• Silihdar Hasan Pasha (1700)
• Arslan Mehmed Pasha Matracyoghlu (1701)
• Salih Agha (1702)
• Mehmed Pasha Kurd-Bayram (1702–1703)
• Osman Pasha Arnavud (1703)
• Arslan Mehmed Pasha Matracyoghlu (1703–1704)
• Defterdar Mustafa Pasha (1704)
• Firari Hüseyin Pasha (1704–1705)
• Mehmed Pasha Kurd-Bayram (1705–1706)
• Baltaci Süleyman Pasha (1706–1707)
• Yusuf Pasha Qapudan (1707–1708)
• Nasuh Pasha al-Aydini (1708–1714)^[5]
• Topal Yusuf Pasha (1714–1716)^[5]
• Kapudan Ibrahim Pasha (1716–1717)^[5]
• Köprülü Abdullah Pasha (1717–1718)^[5]
• Recep Pasha (1718–1719)^[5]
• Çerkes Osman Pasha Abu Tawq (1719–1721)^[5]
• Ali Pasha Maqtuloğlu (1721–1723)
• Çerkes Osman Pasha Abu Tawq (1723–1725)
• Ismail Pasha al-Azm (1725–November/December 1730)
• Muhsinzâde Abdullah Pasha (November/December 1730–December 1730)
• Ayndınlı Abdullah Pasha (December 1730–1734)^[5]
• Sulayman Pasha al-Azm (1734–1738)^[5]
• Hüseyin Pasha Bostancı (1738–1739)^[5]
• Muhassıl Osman Pasha (1739–1740)^[5]
• Abdî Pashazâde Ali Pasha (1740–1741)^[5]
• Sulayman Pasha al-Azm (1741–1743)^[5]
• As'ad Pasha al-Azm (1743–1757)^[5]
• Husayn Pasha ibn Makki (1757–1758)^[5]
• Çeteci Abdullah Pasha (1758–1759)^[5]
• Muhammad Pasha al-Shalik (1759–1760)
• Uthman Pasha al-Kurji (1760–1771)
• Muhammad Pasha al-Azm (1771–1772)
• Hafiz Mustafa Pasha Bustanji (1773–1783)
• Mehmed Pasha al-Kurji (1783)
• Darwish Pasha al-Kurji (1783–1784)
• Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (1784–1786)
• Husayn Pasha Battal (1786–1787)
• Abdi Pasha (1787–1788)
• Ibrahim Pasha al-Dalati (1788–1789)
• Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (1790–1795)
• Abdullah Pasha al-Azm (1795–1798)
• Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (1798–1799)
• Abdullah Pasha al-Azm (1799–1803)
• Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (1803–1804)
• Abdullah Pasha al-Azm (1804–1807)
• Kunj Yusuf Pasha (1807–1810)
• Sulayman Pasha al-Adil (1810–1812)^[6]
• Silahdar Süleyman Pasha (February 1812–May 1816)^[7]
• Sulayman Pasha al-Adil (1816; interim)
• Hafiz Amasyali Ali Pasha (1816–March 1817)
• Salih Pasha (March 1817–1817)
• Izmirli Süleyman Pasha (1817–1819)
• Dervish Mehmed Pasha (1819–1822)
• Beylanli Mustafa Pasha (June 1822–April 1823)
• Salih Pasha (April 1823–January 1824)
• Muftizade Ahmed Pasha (1824–May 1824)
• Haci Veliyeddin Pasha (1825–1826)
• Hakki Ismail Pasha (October 1826–1827)
• Izmirli Haci Salih Pasha (1827–1828)
• Mehmed Emin Rauf Pasha (1828–1831)
• Mehmed Selim Pasha (1831–1832)
• to Egypt, autonomous from the Ottoman Empire
  • Ahmed Bey (1831–1832)
  • Ibrahim Pasha (1832)
  • Muhammad Sharif Pasha al-Kabir (1832–1838)
  • vacant (1838–1840)
• Izzet Mehmed Pasha (1840–1841)
• Mehmed Reshid Pasha (1841–1844)
• Mehmed Namık Pasha (1845–1846)
• Riza Pasha (1845–1846)
• Musa Sefveti Pasha (1846)
• Namiq Pasha (1848)
• Mehmed Namık Pasha (1848–1850)
• Osman Pasha Said Pasha (1850–1852)
• Izzet Mehmed Pasha (1852)
• Açaf Pasha (1852–1854)
• Arif Mehmed Pasha (1854–1855)
• Mehmed Namık Pasha (1855)
• Mahmud Nedim Pasha (1855–1857)
• Izzet Ahmed Pasha (1857)
• Ali Pasha II (1858)
• Mu'amer Pasha (1860)
• Mehmed Fuad Pasha (1860–1861)
• Ahmed Pasha IV (1861)
• Emin Muhlis Pasha (1861–1862)
• Mehmed Reshid Pasha (1862–1864)
• Müterçim Mehmed Rüstü Pasha (1864–1865)
• Reshid Pasha (1865–1871)
• Subhi Pasha (1871–1873)
• Sherif Mehmed Re'uf Pasha (1873–1874)
• Esad Pasha (1874–1875)
• Ahmed Hamdi Pasha (1875–1876)
• Ahmed Pasha V (1876–1877)
• Küçük Ömer Fevzi Pasha (1877–1878)
• Midhat Pasha (13 November 1878–1 August 1880)^[8]
• Hamdi Pasha (1880–1885)
• Rashid Nashid Pasha (1885–1888)
• Manastirli Mehmed Nazif Pasha (1888–1889)
• Mustafa Asim Pasha (1889–1891)
• Topal Osman Nuri Pasha (1891–1892)
• Sherif Mehmed Rauf Pasha (1892–1894)
• Haçi Osman Nuri Pasha (1894–1895)
• Hasan Pasha II (1896–1897)
• Hüseyin Nâzım Pasha (1897–1906)
• Shukri Pasha (1906–1909)
• Ismail Fazil Bey (1909–1911)
• Ismail Ghalib Bey (1911–1912)
• Kiazim Pasha (1912–1913)
• Arif Bey (1913)
• Mehmed Arif Bey Mardin (1914)
• Jamal Pasha (1915)
• Azmi Pasha (1915–1916)
• Tahsin Bey (1916–1918)
• Mehmed Gabriel Pasha (1918)
• Shukri Pasha (October 1–2, 1918)

Arab Kingdom of Syria

Further information: Arab Kingdom of Syria

• Faisal (1918–1920)

Capital of Syria

Main article: List of Presidents of Syria

• French Syria (1920–1946)
• Republic of Syria (1946–1958)
• United Arab Republic (1958–1961)
• Syrian Arab Republic (1961–present)

See also

• Timeline of Damascus
• List of rulers of Aleppo

References

1. Paul M. Cobb (22 March 2001). White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750-880. p. 137. ISBN 9780791448809.
2. Sato, p. 79.
3. Burns 2007, p. 144
4. Abu-Husayn 1985, pp. 187–188. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAbu-Husayn1985 (help)
5. Barbir 1980, p. xv.
6. Sajdi, 2013, p. 98.
7. Douwes, 2000, p. 58.
8. Saliba 1978, pp. 307, 315–316.

Bibliography

• Barbir, Karl K. (1980). Ottoman Rule in Damascus, 1708–1758. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400853205.
• Burns, Ross (2007), Damascus: A History, Routledge, ISBN 9781134488490
• Saliba, Najib E. (1978). "The Achievements of Midhat Pasha as Governor of the Province of Syria, 1878–1880". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 9 (3): 307–323. JSTOR 162767.