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Coloman, King of Hungary

January 01, 1970

Coloman the Learned,[1][2] also the Book-Lover[3] or the Bookish[4] (Hungarian: Könyves Kálmán; Croatian: Koloman; Slovak: Koloman Učený; c. 1070 – 3 February 1116) was King of Hungary from 1095 and King of Croatia from 1097 until his death. Because Coloman and his younger brother Álmos were underage when their father Géza I died, their uncle Ladislaus I ascended the throne in 1077. Ladislaus prepared Coloman—who was "half-blind and humpbacked", according to late medieval Hungarian chronicles—for a church career, and Coloman was eventually appointed bishop of Eger or Várad (Oradea, Romania) in the early 1090s. The dying King Ladislaus preferred Álmos to Coloman when nominating his heir in early 1095. Coloman fled from Hungary but returned around 19 July 1095 when his uncle died. He was crowned in early 1096; the circumstances of his accession to the throne are unknown. He granted the Hungarian Duchy—one-third of the Kingdom of Hungary—to Álmos.

Coloman the Learned
King of Hungary
Reign1096 – 3 February 1116
Coronationspring of 1096, Székesfehérvár
PredecessorLadislaus I
SuccessorStephen II
King of Croatia
Reign1097 – 3 February 1116
Coronation1102, Biograd
PredecessorPetar Snačić
SuccessorStephen II
Bornc. 1070
Died3 February 1116 (aged 45–46)
Burial
Székesfehérvár Basilica
SpousesFelicia of Sicily
Eufemia of Kiev
Issue
more...		Sophia
Stephen II of Hungary
DynastyÁrpád dynasty
FatherGéza I of Hungary
MotherSophia
ReligionRoman Catholic

In the year of Coloman's coronation, at least five large groups of crusaders arrived in Hungary on their way to the Holy Land. He annihilated the bands who were entering his kingdom unauthorized or pillaging the countryside, but the main crusader army crossed Hungary without incident. He invaded Croatia in 1097, defeating its last native king Petar Snačić. Consequently, he was crowned king of Croatia in 1102. According to the late 14th-century Pacta conventa (the authenticity of which is not universally accepted by scholars), he was only crowned after having ratified a treaty with the leaders of the Croatian nobility. For centuries thereafter, the Hungarian monarchs were also the kings of Croatia.

Coloman had to face his brother's attempts to dethrone him throughout his life; Álmos devised plots to overthrow him on at least five occasions. In retaliation, he seized his brother's duchy in 1107 or 1108 and had Álmos and Álmos' son Béla blinded in about 1114. Hungarian chronicles, which were compiled in the reigns of kings descending from his mutilated brother and nephew, depict Coloman as a bloodthirsty and unfortunate monarch. On the other hand, he is portrayed as "the most well-versed in the science of letters among all the kings of his day"[5] by the contemporaneous chronicler Gallus Anonymus. Coloman's decrees, which governed many aspects of life—including taxation, trade and relations between his Christian and non-Christian subjects—remained unmodified for more than a century. He was the first Hungarian king to renounce control of the appointment of prelates in his realms.

Early years (c. 1070–1095) edit

 
Coloman's father Géza depicted on the lower part (Corona Graeca) of the Holy Crown of Hungary
 
Coloman's uncle Ladislaus depicted in the Chronica Hungarorum

Coloman was the elder of the two sons of King Géza I who survived infancy.[6][7] Géza's Byzantine second wife—whose baptismal name is unknown—left Hungary after her husband's death, implying that she was not his children's mother.[6] Consequently, the mother of Coloman and his younger brother, Álmos, must have been Géza's first wife, Sophia, whose family is unknown.[6] According to historians Gyula Kristó and Márta Font, the brothers were born around 1070, because they were mature enough to hold offices in the early 1090s.[6][8] Coloman's uncommon baptismal name was recorded as Colomanus or Colombanus in medieval documents written in Latin.[8] Kristó writes that he was most probably named after Saint Coloman of Stockerau, a missionary who was martyred in Austria in the early 11th century.[6][8] Another possibility is that his name is of Turkish origin (meaning "rest"), because his brother bore a Turkish name.[8]

 
The Kingdom of Hungary in the 1090s

Coloman's father ascended the throne in 1074.[9] Because Coloman and Álmos were minors when he died on 25 April 1077, Géza's brother Ladislaus I succeeded him.[9][10] The new king decided that Coloman should be prepared for a career in the Church.[8] The king's decision was unusual as Coloman was older than Álmos and elder brothers were rarely ordained priests.[11] The 14th-century Illuminated Chronicle stated that Coloman was "of mean stature, but astute and quick of apprehension", adding that he was "shaggy and hirsute, half-blind and humpbacked, and he walked with a limp and stammered in his speech".[12] If the chronicle preserved genuine tradition of his appearance, his physical deformity may have influenced his uncle's decision.[13] However, modern scholars tend to refute this view, emphasizing that the chronicle was completed in the reigns of kings descending from Álmos.[3][14]

In preparation for his clerical life, Coloman learnt to read and write and acquired a good knowledge of Latin.[15] His proficiency in canon law was praised in a letter that Pope Urban II addressed to him in 1096.[15][16] According to Kristó, upon finishing his studies he was ordained priest and in the early 1090s was appointed bishop.[15] Hungarian chronicles completed in the 14th and 15th centuries say that Coloman was bishop of either Eger or Várad.[15][17] For instance, the Illuminated Chronicle states that he was "bishop of Warad" (or Várad),[18] and Ladislaus I wanted to appoint him "bishop of Agria" (or Eger).[17][19][20]

According to the Illuminated Chronicle, both Coloman and Álmos accompanied their uncle on a military campaign against Bohemia in early 1095.[21][22] Before reaching the border of his kingdom, Ladislaus I "was overcome by a grave infirmity"[23] and decided to appoint Álmos as his heir.[22][24] Instead of obeying his uncle's decision, Coloman fled to Poland.[25][26] He returned to Hungary around 29 July 1095 when his uncle died.[26] The exact circumstances of his ascension to the throne are uncertain.[27] The Illuminated Chronicle states Ladislaus had invited him back from Poland.[27] The same source adds that Álmos, "in the true simplicity of his heart honoured his brother, Coloman, and yielded to him the crown of the kingdom",[23] which suggests that he ascended the throne without bloodshed.[25] On the other hand, Coloman was crowned king in early 1096, the delay implying that the two brothers had been fighting for the crown before they reached an agreement.[26][28] It is also possible, as proposed by Font, that he could only be crowned after Pope Urban II had released him from his clerical vows.[25]

Reign edit

Facing the crusaders (1095–1096) edit

 
Coloman—who is depicted as a hunchback in accordance with the tradition preserved in late medieval chronicles—is crowned king (from the Illuminated Chronicle).

Coloman was crowned in Székesfehérvár by Archbishop Seraphin of Esztergom.[25] According to the Illuminated Chronicle, at the same time he "granted the dukedom with full rights" to Álmos.[16][29] This report shows that Álmos only acknowledged his brother's rule in exchange for receiving the duchy once held by their father and grandfather, an area that comprised one third of the territory of the kingdom.[16][30]

Shortly after his coronation, Coloman had to face problems that the armies of the First Crusade caused while passing through Hungary.[2][31] For decades, Hungary had been able to supply a significant number of Western European pilgrims with food during their journey to the Holy Land, but the movement of tens of thousands of crusaders across the country endangered the natives' subsistence.[32] The first group of crusaders, led by Walter Sans Avoir, reached the frontier in early May 1096.[32][33] Coloman received them in a friendly way and allowed them into the kingdom.[32] He also authorized them to buy food in the markets, although harvest had not started yet.[34] They proceeded through Hungary without any major conflicts.[31][32] The only incident occurred near the Hungarian–Byzantine border at Zimony (Zemun, Serbia). Here, "certain Hungarians with evil minds"[35] attacked sixteen crusaders who had tried to buy weapons near the town, seizing the crusaders' clothes, armor, and money.[31][36]

The next arrivals, headed by Peter the Hermit, arrived in late May or early June.[32][33] Coloman permitted them to enter Hungary only after Peter pledged that he would prevent them from pillaging the countryside.[32] According to Guibert of Nogent's records, Peter could not keep his promise: the crusaders "burned the public granaries ..., raped virgins, dishonored many marriage beds by carrying off many women", although "the Hungarians, as Christians to Christians, had generously offered everything for sale" to them.[37][38] Peter himself claimed that he and his companions had passed through the country without incident until they reached Zimony, where they learnt of the story of the sixteen crusaders who had been robbed by the Hungarians.[39] The crusaders besieged and took the town, where they massacred "[a]bout four thousand Hungarians",[40] according to the contemporaneous Albert of Aix's estimation.[38][41] They only withdrew when Coloman's troops approached them.[39]

A third band of crusaders reached Nyitra (Nitra, Slovakia) and began plundering the region.[2][42] These were soon routed by the locals.[42][43] A fourth army came to Moson in the middle of June.[33][43] Coloman did not allow them to leave the region, either because he had learnt of their troublesome behavior during their journey, or he had realized that their movement across Hungary could jeopardize the stability of the local economy.[43][44] To seize food and wine, the crusaders made frequent pillaging raids against the nearby settlements.[43] Coloman decided to attack them, but the commanders of the army convinced him to persuade the crusaders to surrender their weapons and money, promising them that they would be supplied with food during their journey.[45] After the crusaders were disarmed, Coloman's troops attacked and massacred them near Pannonhalma in early July.[33][43][46]

[The crusaders] were even granted a licence to buy and sell necessary supplies, and peace was proclaimed on both sides according to [Coloman's] instructions, lest a dispute might arise from such a large army. But when they were delayed there for some days, they began to wander, and the Bavarians and Swabians, a bold race, and the rest of the soldiers foolishly drank too much; they violated the proclaimed peace, little by little stealing wine, barley, and other necessities from the Hungarians, finally seizing sheep and cattle in the fields and killing them; they destroyed those who stood up to them and wanted to drive them out. The others committed several crimes, all of which we cannot report, like a people foolish in their boorish habits, unruly and wild. For, as those say who were present, they stabbed a certain young Hungarian in the market street with a stake through his private parts, because of a most contemptible dispute. ... [Coloman] was disturbed by this scandal, ... so he ordered ... that the signal should be given to the whole of Hungary to stir to battle in vengeance of this crime and the other insults, and not one of the pilgrims was to be spared because they had carried out this vile deed.

— Albert of Aix: History of the Journey to Jerusalem[47]

Alarmed by these incidents, Coloman forbade the crusaders who arrived under the leadership of Count Emicho in the middle of July to enter Hungary.[33][48][49] Ignoring the king's order, they broke through the defensive lines and laid siege to Moson.[2][49] Their catapults destroyed the walls in two places, enabling them to storm into the fortress on 15 August.[49] Coloman made preparations to flee to Rus', fearing that the crusaders would occupy the whole country.[49] However, for no apparent reason, a panic broke out among the attackers that enabled the garrison to carry out a sortie and rout them.[49][50] Modern scholars agree that rumours about the sudden arrival of Coloman's army frightened the crusaders off from the fortress.[50][51] According to Albert of Aix, contemporaneous Christians thought that Emicho's defeat was a punishment that God inflicted on the pilgrims because they had massacred many Jews "rather from greed for their money than for divine justice".[50][52]

 
Coloman's meeting with Godfrey of Bouillon

The first crusader army organized by the Holy See reached the borders of Hungary in September 1096.[53] It was led by Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine.[53] Godfrey sent a knight who had already been known to Coloman to start negotiations about the crusaders' entry into Hungary.[54] Eight days later, Coloman agreed to meet with Godfrey in Sopron.[53][54] The king allowed the crusaders to march through his kingdom but stipulated that Godfrey's younger brother Baldwin and his family should stay with him as hostages.[54][55] The crusaders passed through Hungary peacefully along the right bank of the Danube; Coloman and his army followed them on the left bank.[2][53] He only released his hostages after all the crusaders had crossed the river Sava, which marked the kingdom's southern frontier.[56] The uneventful march of the main crusader army across Hungary established Coloman's good reputation throughout Europe.[57]

The contemporaneous Cosmas of Prague wrote that "some of the Jews" who had been persecuted by the crusaders in Bohemia arrived in Hungary and "secretly took their wealth away with them".[58][59] Although Cosmas does not specify their number, László Mezey and other historians say that the Jews represented a large influx.[59][60] Coloman issued a number of decrees and separate statutes—Capitula de Iudeis—regulating the position of Jews in Hungary.[59] For instance, he forbade them from holding Christian slaves and residing "outside episcopal sees".[59][61][62] Historian Nora Berend writes that the "defence of purity of Christians by interdictions against mingling with Jews plays a very minor role" in Coloman's legislation in comparison with late 12th-century canon law.[59] Whereas he did not try to convert the Jews, he issued decrees aimed at the conversion of his Muslim subjects.[63] For instance, he prescribed that if a Muslim "has a guest, or anyone invited to dinner, both he and his table companions shall eat only pork for meat"[64] in order to prevent Muslims from observing their dietary laws.[65]

Expansion, internal conflicts and legislation (1096–1105) edit

After Coloman's victories over the crusaders, Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, whom Ladislaus I had supported against Pope Urban II in his last years, wrote a letter to Duke Álmos.[66] The emperor stated that Coloman had neglected imperial interests "because of his own necessities",[67] and asked the duke to intervene on his behalf.[66] However, Coloman—a former bishop—abandoned his predecessor's foreign policy and supported the pope.[68][69] Historian Gyula Kristó writes that Álmos's close relationship with Emperor Henry may also have influenced Coloman's decision.[69] Coloman married Felicia, a daughter of Roger I of Sicily—a close ally of the Holy See—in 1097.[70] Her sister Constance had married Conrad, the elder son of Emperor Henry IV, after he allied with the pope against his father.[71][72]

Coloman invaded Croatia in 1097.[73][28] Ladislaus I had already occupied most of the country, but Petar Snačić, the last native king of Croatia, resisted him in the Mala Kapela mountains.[74] Petar Snačić died fighting against Coloman's army in the Battle of Gvozd Mountain.[75][76] The Hungarian troops reached the Adriatic Sea and occupied Biograd na Moru, an important port.[73][75] Threatened by the advance of Coloman's army, the citizens of the towns of Trogir and Split swore fidelity to the doge of Venice, Vitale Michiel, who had sailed to Dalmatia.[28][75] Having no fleet, Coloman sent envoys with a letter to the doge to "remove all the former misunderstandings concerning what is due to one of us or the other by right of our predecessors".[75][70] Their agreement of 1098—the so-called Conventio Amicitiae—determined the spheres of interest of each party by allotting the coastal regions of Croatia to Hungary and Dalmatia to the Republic of Venice.[77]

Taking advantage of Coloman's absence, Álmos began to conspire against the king and mustered his armies.[78] Coloman returned from Croatia and marched his army towards his brother's duchy in 1098.[78] The two armies met at Tiszavárkony, with only the river Tisza separating them.[79] However, the commanders of the two troops started negotiations and decided not to fight each other, compelling the king and the duke to make peace.[79][80]

[Coloman] and his army marched to [Tiszavárkony] against [Álmos], and [Álmos] drew near to [Tiszavárkony] from the opposite direction, and between them was the river [Tisza]. But loyal Hungarians sought to bring about a truce, in order that they could talk with each other, and they said: "Why do we fight? If they defeat us in battle, we shall die; and if they escape, they will flee: in times past our fathers fought against each other and brothers against brothers, and they died. Nor do we see any ground for fighting. Let those two fight if fighting pleases them; and whichever of them shall win, let us take as lord." Having taken this decision, the chief men dispersed. When Grak told [Coloman] of their decision and Ilia informed [Álmos], they kept the peace, though it was not by their own will.

— The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle[81]
 
The 14th-century manuscript of the Pacta conventa

Grand Prince Svyatopolk II of Kiev sent his son Iaroslav – who was the husband of one of Coloman's nieces – to Hungary to seek assistance against the princes of the westernmost regions of Rus' in 1099.[82][83] Iaroslav persuaded Coloman to intervene in the conflict.[83] Coloman and his army crossed the Carpathian Mountains and laid siege to Peremyshl (Przemyśl, Poland)—the seat of Volodar Rostislavich, one of the rebellious princes.[83] David Igorevich, one of Volodar Rostislavich's allies, persuaded the Cumans to attack the Hungarians.[82] In the ensuing battle, the Hungarian army was soundly defeated.[84] The Illuminated Chronicle says that "[r]arely did Hungarians suffer such slaughter as in this battle".[85][86] According to the Russian Primary Chronicle, many Hungarians "were drowned, some in the Vyagro and others in the San",[87] after the battle.[84] Coloman himself narrowly escaped from the battlefield through the valley of the San.[84] Shortly after his return from Rus', Coloman hastened towards the Bohemian border to assist the dukes of Moravia—Svatopluk and Otto—against Duke Bretislaus II of Bohemia.[82][88] He had a meeting with Bretislaus on the border river Olšava "in the field of Lučsko" where "they renewed their age-old bonds of friendship and peace and confirmed them with oaths",[89] according to Cosmas of Prague.[82]

Coloman decided to review his predecessors' decrees around 1100.[90] Because he regarded Stephen I of Hungary, who had been canonized in 1083,[91] as his ideal, he "assembled the magnates of the kingdom and reviewed with the advice of the entire council the text of the laws"[92] of Stephen I.[42][93] The assembly also passed decrees, which regulated several aspects of the economy and tempered the harshness of the legislation of Ladislaus I.[94][42] One of the decrees prohibited the persecution of strigae—vampires or mares—because they "do not exist".[95][96][97] The same law also dealt with malefici or "sorcerers",[98] punishing their misdeeds.[97] Taxes on trade were increased under Coloman, implying that commerce flourished in his reign.[94] However, his legislation prohibited the export of Hungarian slaves and horses.[99] Coins minted during his reign were smaller than those issued in his predecessor's reign to prevent the cutting down of their smooth edge.[100]

Coloman was crowned king of Croatia in Biograd na Moru in 1102.[76] In the 13th century, Thomas the Archdeacon wrote that the union of Croatia and Hungary was the consequence of conquest.[73] However, the late 14th-century Pacta conventa narrates that he was only crowned after he had reached an agreement with twelve leading Croatian noblemen, because the Croats were preparing to defend their kingdom against him by force.[73] Whether this document is a forgery[101] or an authentic source[102] is a subject of scholarly debate. According to the historian Pál Engel, even if the document is a forgery, its content "is concordant with reality in more than one respect" concerning the special status of Croatia throughout the Middle Ages.[2] For instance, in case of a foreign invasion, Croatian noblemen were obliged to fight at their own expense only up to the river Drava, which was considered the border between Croatian territories and Hungary.[73][101]

Coloman was a man of warlike spirit, and resolved to subjugate to his lordship all the land to the Adriatic Sea. He came with a force of arms and took possession of the remaining part of Slavonia, which Ladislas had passed over.

— Thomas the Archdeacon: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split[103]

In an attempt to prevent an alliance between Coloman and Bohemond I of Antioch, the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos arranged a marriage between his son and heir, John, and Coloman's cousin, Piroska, in 1104 or 1105.[104][105] The alliance with the Byzantine Empire also enabled[105] Coloman to invade Dalmatia in 1105.[76] According to the Life of the blessed John of Trogir, he personally commanded his troops besieging Zadar, the most influential among the Dalmatian towns.[105] The siege lasted until Bishop John of Trogir negotiated a treaty between Coloman and the citizens who accepted the king's suzerainty.[106] The town of Split likewise surrendered after a short siege, but two other Dalmatian towns—Trogir and Šibenik—capitulated without resistance.[106][107] The Life of St Christopher the Martyr also says that a Hungarian fleet subjugated the islands of the Gulf of Kvarner, including Cres, Krk, and Rab, as well as Brač.[105][107] Thomas the Archdeacon narrates that Coloman granted each Dalmatian town its own "charter of liberties" to secure their loyalty.[105][108] These liberties included the citizens' right to freely elect the bishop of their town and their exemption from any tribute payable to the monarch.[76][109] Following his conquest of Dalmatia, Coloman assumed a new title—"King of Hungary, Croatia and Dalmatia"—which was first recorded in 1108.[104][110]

Family affairs (1105–1113) edit

Coloman had his four-year-old son Stephen crowned in 1105, which caused Álmos to openly rebel against the king.[111][112] The duke left Hungary and sought the assistance of Emperor Henry IV.[104] Having realized that the emperor, who was facing a rebellion led by his own son, could not help him,[104] Álmos returned to Hungary in 1106, but then fled to his brother-in-law, Boleslaw III of Poland.[79][111] With Polish assistance he captured the fortress of Abaújvár in Hungary.[113] Coloman had a meeting with Boleslaw III, and the two monarchs "vowed perpetual friendship and brotherhood".[5][113][114] Without the Polish monarch's support, Álmos was forced to yield to Coloman.[113]

 
The reconciliation between Coloman and his brother Álmos at the consecration of the monastery of Dömös (from the Illuminated Chronicle)

Coloman sent envoys to the Council of Guastalla, which had been convoked by Pope Paschal II.[104] In October 1106 the envoys solemnly informed the pope of their king's renunciation of his royal prerogative to appoint the prelates of his realms.[104][115] According to historians Ferenc Makk and Márta Font, without this declaration the Holy See would not have acknowledged Coloman's conquest of Dalmatia.[104][115] During the civil war between Boleslaw III and his brother Zbigniew, Coloman intervened on the former's behalf and helped him overcome the latter's army in Mazovia in 1107.[116] Coloman also sent Hungarian reinforcements to the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos against Bohemond I of Antioch, who had invaded Byzantine territories in October 1107.[113] After suffering a sound defeat, Bohemond withdrew his troops and acknowledged the emperor's suzerainty over the Principality of Antioch in the Treaty of Devol in 1108.[113][117]

In 1107 or 1108 Álmos made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.[113] Coloman decided to take advantage of his absence and seized his duchy.[113] Although Álmos was allowed to keep his own private property, the annexation of his duchy secured Coloman's authority in the whole kingdom.[114] After returning from the Holy Land, Álmos set up a monastery at Dömös.[114] On the occasion of its consecration, at which Coloman was also present, Álmos was—falsely, according to the Illuminated Chronicle—accused of trying to assassinate the monarch.[114] Coloman had his brother arrested, but "the most reverend bishops and other well-disposed dignitaries" intervened on Álmos's behalf and "thus reconciliation was solemnly sworn"[118] between the king and his brother.[114]

Álmos left for Passau to meet Henry V of Germany.[113] Upon Álmos's request, Henry V invaded Hungary and laid siege to Pressburg (Bratislava, Slovakia) in September 1108.[42][113] At the same time, Duke Svatopluk of Bohemia, who also supported Álmos, made an incursion into the regions north of the Danube.[42] Coloman's ally Boleslaw III invaded Bohemia, forcing the Czech duke to withdraw.[113][119] The emperor's attempt to take Pressburg was a total failure, but he persuaded Coloman to forgive Álmos, who was allowed to return to Hungary.[120]

In the same year, Coloman visited Dalmatia and confirmed the privileges of Split, Trogir, and Zadar.[113] He returned to Zadar around 1111 and reaffirmed the Dalmatian towns' liberties.[113] The Zobor Abbey received two charters of grant from Coloman in 1111 and 1113.[121] The first diploma mentioned a provost in Nyitra (Nitra, Slovakia), but the second charter referred to the bishop of the same town.[121] According to a scholarly theory, the two documents show that Coloman set up the bishopric at Nyitra between 1111 and 1113.[121] These two royal charters also mention a Mercurius as "princeps Ultrasilvanus", which implies he was the first voivode of Transylvania, but he may have been only an important landowner in the province without holding any specific office.[122] In 1112 Coloman made an incursion into Austria.[123] He either wanted to take revenge for Leopold III of Austria's participation in the 1108 German campaign against Hungary, or simply to seize booty.[123]

In 1112 Coloman—who had been widowed—married Euphemia of Kiev, a daughter of Vladimir Monomakh, Prince of Pereyaslavl, in 1112.[123] However, as the Illuminated Chronicle narrated, the queen "was taken in the sin of adultery"[124] in 1113 or 1114.[125] Coloman soon disowned his wife, sending her back to her father.[123]

Last years (1113–1116) edit

 
Álmos and his son, Béla are blinded on Coloman's order (from the Illuminated Chronicle).

In 1113 Duke Boleslaw III of Poland, who had blinded his rebellious brother Zbigniew, causing his death, "undertook a journey of pilgrimage to St. Gilles and St. Stephen the King",[126] to the Somogyvár Abbey, and to the king's shrine at Székesfehérvár in Hungary.[8][120] Coloman received the Polish monarch cordially in Somogyvár.[8] Shortly afterwards—between 1113 and 1115—Coloman discovered that Álmos was again conspiring to seize the throne.[2][127] Having lost his patience, the king had Álmos and Álmos's young son Béla blinded to secure a peaceful succession for his own son.[2] On the same occasion, many of his brother's partisans were likewise mutilated.[128] According to one of the two versions of these events recorded in the Illuminated Chronicle, the king even ordered that Béla should be castrated but the soldier who was charged with this task refused to execute the order.[129] The chronicle also states that the child was believed to have died after his blinding, but he was actually kept in a monastery for more than a decade.[130]

[The] King took the Duke and his infant son Bela and blinded them. He also gave orders that the infant Bela should be castrated. But the man who was instructed to blind them feared God and the sterility of the royal line, and therefore he castrated a dog and brought its testicles to the King.

— The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle[131]

The fleet of Venice, commanded by Doge Ordelafo Faliero, invaded Dalmatia in August 1115.[132][133] The Venetians occupied the Dalmatian islands and some of the coastal cities but could not take Zadar and Biograd na Moru.[132] By that time, Coloman was gravely ill.[134] The symptoms recorded in the Illuminated Chronicle indicate a serious otitis, which caused encephalitis.[127] Before his death, he "instructed his son and his great men that after his death they should take vengeance on Russia for the injury done to him"[135] during his campaign of 1099.[134] Upon his councillor's advice, he also had Álmos, who had taken refuge in the monastery of Dömös, imprisoned.[136]

The King now began to be gravely ill, and he had a Latin doctor, named Draco, in whom he placed too much trust. This doctor applied a poultice to the ears of the King, who was oppressed by headaches, and the strength of the poultice drew out through the cavities of his ears no small part of his brain. When the poultice had been removed because he could endure it no longer, he showed it to Count Othmar. When he inspected it and saw upon it the matter drawn forth from the brain, he said to the King: "Lord, it behoves you to prepare yourself for extreme unction". When the King heard this, he groaned and was afraid.

— The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle[135]

Coloman died on 3 February 1116.[136] According to the Illuminated Chronicle, "divine vengeance made him drink the bitterness of early death" because of his "shedding of innocent blood"[137] when ordering the punishment of Álmos, Béla, and their partisans.[134] He was the first monarch to be buried near the shrine of Stephen I in the Székesfehérvár Cathedral.[134]

Family edit

Coloman's first wife Felicia—who is incorrectly named Busilla in earlier historiography—was the daughter of Count Roger I of Sicily.[78] There is scholarly uncertainty whether her mother was the count's first wife Judith of Évreux or his second wife Eremburga of Mortain.[140] The marriage of Coloman and Felicia took place in the spring of 1097.[141] She gave birth to at least three children.[70] According to Font, the eldest child Sophia was born in or before 1100.[70] In 1101 Sophia was followed by twin brothers Stephen and Ladislaus.[70][142] Felicia's death preceded that of Ladislaus, who died in 1112.[70][142]

Coloman married his second wife Eufemia in the summer of 1112.[112][123] Born in 1096 or 1097, she was at least 25 years younger than Coloman.[112] She was the daughter of Vladimir II Monomakh, who was Prince of Pereyaslavl at the time of her marriage.[112] After Coloman repudiated her on a charge of adultery, Eufemia fled to Kiev, where she gave birth to a son, Boris, who was never regarded as Coloman's son by his Hungarian relatives.[143]

The following family tree presents Coloman's ancestors and some of his relatives who are mentioned in the article.[142]

*Whether Géza's first or second wife was his children's mother is uncertain.

Legacy edit

 
Coloman's statue (Heroes' Square, Budapest, Hungary)

Late medieval Hungarian chronicles, written under kings descended from Álmos, preserved an unfavorable image of Coloman and his rule.[1] According to the Illuminated Chronicle, many "evil things were done" in Coloman's reign.[1][29] It states that the saintly Ladislaus I predicted that Coloman "would shed blood".[23][1] Modern historians—including Font,[1] László Kontler,[3] and Kristó,[134]—agree that this negative view was a form of "revenge" by his brother's descendants, who persuaded their chroniclers to emphasize Coloman's failures and to hide his successes. Earlier sources show that he was not always regarded as an evil and unlucky monarch.[57] In 1105 the abbess of a nunnery in Zadar stated that Coloman had restored the "peace of the land and the sea".[144] The 13th-century Roger of Torre Maggiore writes that he was "inscribed in the catalogue of saints"[145] along with the members of the Árpád dynasty who were actually canonized.[1][134] Coloman's decrees, which moderated the severity of Ladislaus I's laws, also contradict the chroniclers' reports of his bloodthirsty nature.[146] The preamble to his decrees described him as "the most Christian King Columban", who is "endowed with the artless grace of a dove and with all discernment of the virtues".[57][92]

Coloman's statesmanship is appreciated in modern historiography. According to Kontler, "it was ... under Coloman's reign that the medieval Hungarian state became consummate and acquired its final structure".[147] Font and Kristó write that Coloman's laws governed his kingdom without modifications for more than a century, even under monarchs hostile towards his memory.[148][149] Likewise, coinage in Hungary followed the pattern established by Coloman's small denars throughout the 12th century.[150]

His contemporaries Pope Urban II and Gallus Anonymus were aware of Coloman's "uncommon erudition".[3][151] According to the chronicles, the Hungarians called him Cunues[18] or Qunwes—the Learned or the Book-Lover—"because of the books he owned".[150][152] The Illuminated Chronicle says that Coloman "read the canonical hours like a bishop"[18] in his books.[150] According to Kristó, Coloman's court was a center of learning and literature.[153] Bishop Hartvik compiled his Life of King Stephen of Hungary under Coloman.[153][154] Kristó writes that it is probable that the Lesser Legend of Saint Gerard of Csanád (Cenad, Romania) was also written during Coloman's reign.[153] Historians also attribute the first compilation of Hungarian historical records to his efforts.[153][155]

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d e f Font 2001, p. 7.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Engel 2001, p. 35.
  3. ^ a b c d Kontler 1999, p. 63.
  4. ^ Klaniczay 2002, p. 129.
  5. ^ a b The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles (ch. 2.29), p. 173.
  6. ^ a b c d e Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 125.
  7. ^ Font 2001, p. 12.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Font 2001, p. 13.
  9. ^ a b Bartl et al. 2002, p. 27.
  10. ^ Kontler 1999, p. 61.
  11. ^ Font 2001, pp. 13–14.
  12. ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 143.102), p. 131.
  13. ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, pp. 126–127.
  14. ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 127.
  15. ^ a b c d Font 2001, p. 14.
  16. ^ a b c Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 133.
  17. ^ a b Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 128.
  18. ^ a b c The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 152.108), p. 133.
  19. ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 139.100), p. 130.
  20. ^ Font 2001, pp. 7, 14.
  21. ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 129.
  22. ^ a b Font 2001, p. 15.
  23. ^ a b c The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 140.101), p. 130.
  24. ^ Engel 2001, p. 34.
  25. ^ a b c d Font 2001, p. 16.
  26. ^ a b c Makk 1989, p. 11.
  27. ^ a b Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 131.
  28. ^ a b c Stephenson 2000, p. 197.
  29. ^ a b The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 142.102), p. 131.
  30. ^ Font 2001, p. 20.
  31. ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 67.
  32. ^ a b c d e f Rubenstein 2011, p. 56.
  33. ^ a b c d e Érszegi & Solymosi 1981, p. 97.
  34. ^ Tyerman 2006, p. 96.
  35. ^ Albert of Aachen: Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem (ch. i.6), p. 11.
  36. ^ Rubenstein 2011, pp. 56–58.
  37. ^ The Deeds of God through the Franks—Gesta Dei per Francos (Book Two), p. 148.
  38. ^ a b Rubenstein 2011, p. 60.
  39. ^ a b Rubenstein 2011, p. 61.
  40. ^ Albert of Aachen: Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem (ch. i.8), p. 17.
  41. ^ Runciman 1951, p. 124.
  42. ^ a b c d e f Bartl et al. 2002, p. 28.
  43. ^ a b c d e Rubenstein 2011, p. 64.
  44. ^ Tyerman 2006, p. 100.
  45. ^ Rubenstein 2011, p. 65.
  46. ^ Tyerman 2006, p. 95.
  47. ^ Albert of Aachen: Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem (ch. i.23–24), pp. 45–47.
  48. ^ Font 2001, pp. 67–68.
  49. ^ a b c d e Rubenstein 2011, p. 66.
  50. ^ a b c Runciman 1951, p. 141.
  51. ^ Tyerman 2006, p. 103.
  52. ^ Albert of Aachen: Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem (ch. i.29), p. 59.
  53. ^ a b c d Font 2001, p. 68.
  54. ^ a b c Rubenstein 2011, p. 72.
  55. ^ Runciman 1951, p. 148.
  56. ^ Rubenstein 2011, p. 73.
  57. ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 86.
  58. ^ Cosmas of Prague: The Chronicle of the Czechs (3.5), p. 187.
  59. ^ a b c d e Berend 2001, p. 75.
  60. ^ Kontler 1999, p. 75.
  61. ^ Laws of King Coloman (Coloman:75), p. 30.
  62. ^ Font 2001, p. 60.
  63. ^ Berend 2001, pp. 84–85.
  64. ^ Laws of King Coloman (Coloman:49), p. 28.
  65. ^ Berend 2001, p. 211.
  66. ^ a b Font 2001, p. 21.
  67. ^ The letters of Henry IV: Henry thanks Duke Almus for his support and promises him a reward, p. 171.
  68. ^ Font 2001, pp. 21–22.
  69. ^ a b Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 136.
  70. ^ a b c d e f Font 2001, p. 78.
  71. ^ Font 2001, p. 77.
  72. ^ Norwich 1992, pp. 272, 333.
  73. ^ a b c d e Magaš 2007, p. 51.
  74. ^ Curta 2006, p. 265.
  75. ^ a b c d Fine 1991, p. 284.
  76. ^ a b c d Curta 2006, p. 266.
  77. ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 197–198.
  78. ^ a b c Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 137.
  79. ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 22.
  80. ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 138.
  81. ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 144.102–103), p. 131.
  82. ^ a b c d Makk 1989, p. 13.
  83. ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 73.
  84. ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 74.
  85. ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 142.
  86. ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 145.104), p. 132.
  87. ^ Russian Primary Chronicle (year 6605), p. 196.
  88. ^ Engel 1994, p. 560.
  89. ^ Cosmas of Prague: The Chronicle of the Czechs (3.9), pp. 190–191.
  90. ^ Makk 1989, p. 31.
  91. ^ Engel 2001, p. 33.
  92. ^ a b Laws of King Coloman (Coloman:Preamble), p. 24.
  93. ^ Font 2001, p. 31.
  94. ^ a b Kontler 1999, p. 65.
  95. ^ Laws of King Coloman (Coloman:57), p. 24.
  96. ^ Engel 2001, p. 47.
  97. ^ a b Tóth, Béla (22 October 2004) [1984]. "Könyves Kálmán és a boszorkányok [Coloman the Learned and the witches]". Mendemondák: A világtörténelem furcsaságai [Rumours: Strange Facts of World History]. Helikon / Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár. Retrieved 3 January 2014.
  98. ^ Laws of King Coloman (Coloman:60), p. 24.
  99. ^ Font 2001, pp. 45–46.
  100. ^ Font 2001, p. 47.
  101. ^ a b Curta 2006, p. 267.
  102. ^ Fine 1991, pp. 284–285.
  103. ^ Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split (ch. 17), p. 95.
  104. ^ a b c d e f g Makk 1989, p. 14.
  105. ^ a b c d e Stephenson 2000, p. 199.
  106. ^ a b Stephenson 2000, p. 200.
  107. ^ a b Font 2001, p. 66.
  108. ^ Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split (ch. 17), p. 97.
  109. ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 200–201.
  110. ^ Engel 2001, p. 36.
  111. ^ a b Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 143.
  112. ^ a b c d Font 2001, p. 79.
  113. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Makk 1989, p. 15.
  114. ^ a b c d e Font 2001, p. 23.
  115. ^ a b Font 2001, p. 70.
  116. ^ Manteuffel 1982, p. 106.
  117. ^ Stephenson 2000, pp. 182–183.
  118. ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 148.105), p. 132.
  119. ^ Manteuffel 1982, p. 108.
  120. ^ a b Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 146.
  121. ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 71.
  122. ^ Curta 2006, p. 355.
  123. ^ a b c d e Makk 1989, p. 16.
  124. ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 149.106), p. 132.
  125. ^ Font 2001, p. 80.
  126. ^ The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles (ch. 2.25), p. 277.
  127. ^ a b Font 2001, p. 82.
  128. ^ Makk 1989, pp. 16–17.
  129. ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 161.
  130. ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 164.
  131. ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 150.106), p. 133.
  132. ^ a b Stephenson 2000, p. 203.
  133. ^ Makk 1989, p. 17.
  134. ^ a b c d e f Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 148.
  135. ^ a b The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 151.107), p. 133.
  136. ^ a b Font 2001, p. 83.
  137. ^ The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle (ch. 150.107), p. 133.
  138. ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, pp. Appendices 1–2.
  139. ^ Wiszewski 2010, pp. 29–30, 60, 376.
  140. ^ Norwich 1992, pp. 146, 333.
  141. ^ Makk 1989, p. 12.
  142. ^ a b c Kristó & Makk 1996, p. Appendix 2.
  143. ^ Font 2001, p. 81.
  144. ^ Font 2001, pp. 86–87.
  145. ^ Master Roger's Epistle (ch. 1.), pp. 135–137.
  146. ^ Font 2001, p. 85.
  147. ^ Kontler 1999, p. 64.
  148. ^ Font 2001, p. 35.
  149. ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 144.
  150. ^ a b c Font 2001, p. 48.
  151. ^ Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 126.
  152. ^ Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of the Hungarians (ch. 2.64), pp. 138–139.
  153. ^ a b c d Kristó & Makk 1996, p. 147.
  154. ^ Klaniczay 2002, p. 135.
  155. ^ Font 2001, p. 28.

Sources edit

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External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coloman of Hungary.
  • Coloman – Encyclopædia Britannica
Coloman, King of Hungary
Born: c. 1070 Died: 3 February 1116
Regnal titles
Preceded by King of Hungary
1095–1116 		Succeeded by
Preceded by King of Croatia
1097–1116

January 01, 1970
coloman, king, hungary, coloman, learned, also, book, lover, bookish, hungarian, könyves, kálmán, croatian, koloman, slovak, koloman, učený, 1070, february, 1116, king, hungary, from, 1095, king, croatia, from, 1097, until, death, because, coloman, younger, br. Coloman the Learned 1 2 also the Book Lover 3 or the Bookish 4 Hungarian Konyves Kalman Croatian Koloman Slovak Koloman Uceny c 1070 3 February 1116 was King of Hungary from 1095 and King of Croatia from 1097 until his death Because Coloman and his younger brother Almos were underage when their father Geza I died their uncle Ladislaus I ascended the throne in 1077 Ladislaus prepared Coloman who was half blind and humpbacked according to late medieval Hungarian chronicles for a church career and Coloman was eventually appointed bishop of Eger or Varad Oradea Romania in the early 1090s The dying King Ladislaus preferred Almos to Coloman when nominating his heir in early 1095 Coloman fled from Hungary but returned around 19 July 1095 when his uncle died He was crowned in early 1096 the circumstances of his accession to the throne are unknown He granted the Hungarian Duchy one third of the Kingdom of Hungary to Almos Coloman the LearnedColoman depicted in Janos Thuroczy s Chronicle of the HungariansKing of HungaryReign1096 3 February 1116Coronationspring of 1096 SzekesfehervarPredecessorLadislaus ISuccessorStephen IIKing of CroatiaReign1097 3 February 1116Coronation1102 BiogradPredecessorPetar SnacicSuccessorStephen IIBornc 1070Died3 February 1116 aged 45 46 BurialSzekesfehervar BasilicaSpousesFelicia of SicilyEufemia of KievIssuemore SophiaStephen II of HungaryDynastyArpad dynastyFatherGeza I of HungaryMotherSophiaReligionRoman Catholic In the year of Coloman s coronation at least five large groups of crusaders arrived in Hungary on their way to the Holy Land He annihilated the bands who were entering his kingdom unauthorized or pillaging the countryside but the main crusader army crossed Hungary without incident He invaded Croatia in 1097 defeating its last native king Petar Snacic Consequently he was crowned king of Croatia in 1102 According to the late 14th century Pacta conventa the authenticity of which is not universally accepted by scholars he was only crowned after having ratified a treaty with the leaders of the Croatian nobility For centuries thereafter the Hungarian monarchs were also the kings of Croatia Coloman had to face his brother s attempts to dethrone him throughout his life Almos devised plots to overthrow him on at least five occasions In retaliation he seized his brother s duchy in 1107 or 1108 and had Almos and Almos son Bela blinded in about 1114 Hungarian chronicles which were compiled in the reigns of kings descending from his mutilated brother and nephew depict Coloman as a bloodthirsty and unfortunate monarch On the other hand he is portrayed as the most well versed in the science of letters among all the kings of his day 5 by the contemporaneous chronicler Gallus Anonymus Coloman s decrees which governed many aspects of life including taxation trade and relations between his Christian and non Christian subjects remained unmodified for more than a century He was the first Hungarian king to renounce control of the appointment of prelates in his realms Contents 1 Early years c 1070 1095 2 Reign 2 1 Facing the crusaders 1095 1096 2 2 Expansion internal conflicts and legislation 1096 1105 2 3 Family affairs 1105 1113 2 4 Last years 1113 1116 3 Family 4 Legacy 5 References 6 Sources 6 1 Primary sources 6 2 Secondary sources 7 External linksEarly years c 1070 1095 edit nbsp Coloman s father Geza depicted on the lower part Corona Graeca of the Holy Crown of Hungary nbsp Coloman s uncle Ladislaus depicted in the Chronica Hungarorum Coloman was the elder of the two sons of King Geza I who survived infancy 6 7 Geza s Byzantine second wife whose baptismal name is unknown left Hungary after her husband s death implying that she was not his children s mother 6 Consequently the mother of Coloman and his younger brother Almos must have been Geza s first wife Sophia whose family is unknown 6 According to historians Gyula Kristo and Marta Font the brothers were born around 1070 because they were mature enough to hold offices in the early 1090s 6 8 Coloman s uncommon baptismal name was recorded as Colomanus or Colombanus in medieval documents written in Latin 8 Kristo writes that he was most probably named after Saint Coloman of Stockerau a missionary who was martyred in Austria in the early 11th century 6 8 Another possibility is that his name is of Turkish origin meaning rest because his brother bore a Turkish name 8 nbsp The Kingdom of Hungary in the 1090s Coloman s father ascended the throne in 1074 9 Because Coloman and Almos were minors when he died on 25 April 1077 Geza s brother Ladislaus I succeeded him 9 10 The new king decided that Coloman should be prepared for a career in the Church 8 The king s decision was unusual as Coloman was older than Almos and elder brothers were rarely ordained priests 11 The 14th century Illuminated Chronicle stated that Coloman was of mean stature but astute and quick of apprehension adding that he was shaggy and hirsute half blind and humpbacked and he walked with a limp and stammered in his speech 12 If the chronicle preserved genuine tradition of his appearance his physical deformity may have influenced his uncle s decision 13 However modern scholars tend to refute this view emphasizing that the chronicle was completed in the reigns of kings descending from Almos 3 14 In preparation for his clerical life Coloman learnt to read and write and acquired a good knowledge of Latin 15 His proficiency in canon law was praised in a letter that Pope Urban II addressed to him in 1096 15 16 According to Kristo upon finishing his studies he was ordained priest and in the early 1090s was appointed bishop 15 Hungarian chronicles completed in the 14th and 15th centuries say that Coloman was bishop of either Eger or Varad 15 17 For instance the Illuminated Chronicle states that he was bishop of Warad or Varad 18 and Ladislaus I wanted to appoint him bishop of Agria or Eger 17 19 20 According to the Illuminated Chronicle both Coloman and Almos accompanied their uncle on a military campaign against Bohemia in early 1095 21 22 Before reaching the border of his kingdom Ladislaus I was overcome by a grave infirmity 23 and decided to appoint Almos as his heir 22 24 Instead of obeying his uncle s decision Coloman fled to Poland 25 26 He returned to Hungary around 29 July 1095 when his uncle died 26 The exact circumstances of his ascension to the throne are uncertain 27 The Illuminated Chronicle states Ladislaus had invited him back from Poland 27 The same source adds that Almos in the true simplicity of his heart honoured his brother Coloman and yielded to him the crown of the kingdom 23 which suggests that he ascended the throne without bloodshed 25 On the other hand Coloman was crowned king in early 1096 the delay implying that the two brothers had been fighting for the crown before they reached an agreement 26 28 It is also possible as proposed by Font that he could only be crowned after Pope Urban II had released him from his clerical vows 25 Reign editFacing the crusaders 1095 1096 edit nbsp Coloman who is depicted as a hunchback in accordance with the tradition preserved in late medieval chronicles is crowned king from the Illuminated Chronicle Coloman was crowned in Szekesfehervar by Archbishop Seraphin of Esztergom 25 According to the Illuminated Chronicle at the same time he granted the dukedom with full rights to Almos 16 29 This report shows that Almos only acknowledged his brother s rule in exchange for receiving the duchy once held by their father and grandfather an area that comprised one third of the territory of the kingdom 16 30 Shortly after his coronation Coloman had to face problems that the armies of the First Crusade caused while passing through Hungary 2 31 For decades Hungary had been able to supply a significant number of Western European pilgrims with food during their journey to the Holy Land but the movement of tens of thousands of crusaders across the country endangered the natives subsistence 32 The first group of crusaders led by Walter Sans Avoir reached the frontier in early May 1096 32 33 Coloman received them in a friendly way and allowed them into the kingdom 32 He also authorized them to buy food in the markets although harvest had not started yet 34 They proceeded through Hungary without any major conflicts 31 32 The only incident occurred near the Hungarian Byzantine border at Zimony Zemun Serbia Here certain Hungarians with evil minds 35 attacked sixteen crusaders who had tried to buy weapons near the town seizing the crusaders clothes armor and money 31 36 The next arrivals headed by Peter the Hermit arrived in late May or early June 32 33 Coloman permitted them to enter Hungary only after Peter pledged that he would prevent them from pillaging the countryside 32 According to Guibert of Nogent s records Peter could not keep his promise the crusaders burned the public granaries raped virgins dishonored many marriage beds by carrying off many women although the Hungarians as Christians to Christians had generously offered everything for sale to them 37 38 Peter himself claimed that he and his companions had passed through the country without incident until they reached Zimony where they learnt of the story of the sixteen crusaders who had been robbed by the Hungarians 39 The crusaders besieged and took the town where they massacred a bout four thousand Hungarians 40 according to the contemporaneous Albert of Aix s estimation 38 41 They only withdrew when Coloman s troops approached them 39 A third band of crusaders reached Nyitra Nitra Slovakia and began plundering the region 2 42 These were soon routed by the locals 42 43 A fourth army came to Moson in the middle of June 33 43 Coloman did not allow them to leave the region either because he had learnt of their troublesome behavior during their journey or he had realized that their movement across Hungary could jeopardize the stability of the local economy 43 44 To seize food and wine the crusaders made frequent pillaging raids against the nearby settlements 43 Coloman decided to attack them but the commanders of the army convinced him to persuade the crusaders to surrender their weapons and money promising them that they would be supplied with food during their journey 45 After the crusaders were disarmed Coloman s troops attacked and massacred them near Pannonhalma in early July 33 43 46 The crusaders were even granted a licence to buy and sell necessary supplies and peace was proclaimed on both sides according to Coloman s instructions lest a dispute might arise from such a large army But when they were delayed there for some days they began to wander and the Bavarians and Swabians a bold race and the rest of the soldiers foolishly drank too much they violated the proclaimed peace little by little stealing wine barley and other necessities from the Hungarians finally seizing sheep and cattle in the fields and killing them they destroyed those who stood up to them and wanted to drive them out The others committed several crimes all of which we cannot report like a people foolish in their boorish habits unruly and wild For as those say who were present they stabbed a certain young Hungarian in the market street with a stake through his private parts because of a most contemptible dispute Coloman was disturbed by this scandal so he ordered that the signal should be given to the whole of Hungary to stir to battle in vengeance of this crime and the other insults and not one of the pilgrims was to be spared because they had carried out this vile deed Albert of Aix History of the Journey to Jerusalem 47 Alarmed by these incidents Coloman forbade the crusaders who arrived under the leadership of Count Emicho in the middle of July to enter Hungary 33 48 49 Ignoring the king s order they broke through the defensive lines and laid siege to Moson 2 49 Their catapults destroyed the walls in two places enabling them to storm into the fortress on 15 August 49 Coloman made preparations to flee to Rus fearing that the crusaders would occupy the whole country 49 However for no apparent reason a panic broke out among the attackers that enabled the garrison to carry out a sortie and rout them 49 50 Modern scholars agree that rumours about the sudden arrival of Coloman s army frightened the crusaders off from the fortress 50 51 According to Albert of Aix contemporaneous Christians thought that Emicho s defeat was a punishment that God inflicted on the pilgrims because they had massacred many Jews rather from greed for their money than for divine justice 50 52 nbsp Coloman s meeting with Godfrey of Bouillon The first crusader army organized by the Holy See reached the borders of Hungary in September 1096 53 It was led by Godfrey of Bouillon Duke of Lower Lorraine 53 Godfrey sent a knight who had already been known to Coloman to start negotiations about the crusaders entry into Hungary 54 Eight days later Coloman agreed to meet with Godfrey in Sopron 53 54 The king allowed the crusaders to march through his kingdom but stipulated that Godfrey s younger brother Baldwin and his family should stay with him as hostages 54 55 The crusaders passed through Hungary peacefully along the right bank of the Danube Coloman and his army followed them on the left bank 2 53 He only released his hostages after all the crusaders had crossed the river Sava which marked the kingdom s southern frontier 56 The uneventful march of the main crusader army across Hungary established Coloman s good reputation throughout Europe 57 The contemporaneous Cosmas of Prague wrote that some of the Jews who had been persecuted by the crusaders in Bohemia arrived in Hungary and secretly took their wealth away with them 58 59 Although Cosmas does not specify their number Laszlo Mezey and other historians say that the Jews represented a large influx 59 60 Coloman issued a number of decrees and separate statutes Capitula de Iudeis regulating the position of Jews in Hungary 59 For instance he forbade them from holding Christian slaves and residing outside episcopal sees 59 61 62 Historian Nora Berend writes that the defence of purity of Christians by interdictions against mingling with Jews plays a very minor role in Coloman s legislation in comparison with late 12th century canon law 59 Whereas he did not try to convert the Jews he issued decrees aimed at the conversion of his Muslim subjects 63 For instance he prescribed that if a Muslim has a guest or anyone invited to dinner both he and his table companions shall eat only pork for meat 64 in order to prevent Muslims from observing their dietary laws 65 Expansion internal conflicts and legislation 1096 1105 edit After Coloman s victories over the crusaders Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor whom Ladislaus I had supported against Pope Urban II in his last years wrote a letter to Duke Almos 66 The emperor stated that Coloman had neglected imperial interests because of his own necessities 67 and asked the duke to intervene on his behalf 66 However Coloman a former bishop abandoned his predecessor s foreign policy and supported the pope 68 69 Historian Gyula Kristo writes that Almos s close relationship with Emperor Henry may also have influenced Coloman s decision 69 Coloman married Felicia a daughter of Roger I of Sicily a close ally of the Holy See in 1097 70 Her sister Constance had married Conrad the elder son of Emperor Henry IV after he allied with the pope against his father 71 72 Coloman invaded Croatia in 1097 73 28 Ladislaus I had already occupied most of the country but Petar Snacic the last native king of Croatia resisted him in the Mala Kapela mountains 74 Petar Snacic died fighting against Coloman s army in the Battle of Gvozd Mountain 75 76 The Hungarian troops reached the Adriatic Sea and occupied Biograd na Moru an important port 73 75 Threatened by the advance of Coloman s army the citizens of the towns of Trogir and Split swore fidelity to the doge of Venice Vitale Michiel who had sailed to Dalmatia 28 75 Having no fleet Coloman sent envoys with a letter to the doge to remove all the former misunderstandings concerning what is due to one of us or the other by right of our predecessors 75 70 Their agreement of 1098 the so called Conventio Amicitiae determined the spheres of interest of each party by allotting the coastal regions of Croatia to Hungary and Dalmatia to the Republic of Venice 77 Taking advantage of Coloman s absence Almos began to conspire against the king and mustered his armies 78 Coloman returned from Croatia and marched his army towards his brother s duchy in 1098 78 The two armies met at Tiszavarkony with only the river Tisza separating them 79 However the commanders of the two troops started negotiations and decided not to fight each other compelling the king and the duke to make peace 79 80 Coloman and his army marched to Tiszavarkony against Almos and Almos drew near to Tiszavarkony from the opposite direction and between them was the river Tisza But loyal Hungarians sought to bring about a truce in order that they could talk with each other and they said Why do we fight If they defeat us in battle we shall die and if they escape they will flee in times past our fathers fought against each other and brothers against brothers and they died Nor do we see any ground for fighting Let those two fight if fighting pleases them and whichever of them shall win let us take as lord Having taken this decision the chief men dispersed When Grak told Coloman of their decision and Ilia informed Almos they kept the peace though it was not by their own will The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle 81 nbsp The 14th century manuscript of the Pacta conventa Grand Prince Svyatopolk II of Kiev sent his son Iaroslav who was the husband of one of Coloman s nieces to Hungary to seek assistance against the princes of the westernmost regions of Rus in 1099 82 83 Iaroslav persuaded Coloman to intervene in the conflict 83 Coloman and his army crossed the Carpathian Mountains and laid siege to Peremyshl Przemysl Poland the seat of Volodar Rostislavich one of the rebellious princes 83 David Igorevich one of Volodar Rostislavich s allies persuaded the Cumans to attack the Hungarians 82 In the ensuing battle the Hungarian army was soundly defeated 84 The Illuminated Chronicle says that r arely did Hungarians suffer such slaughter as in this battle 85 86 According to the Russian Primary Chronicle many Hungarians were drowned some in the Vyagro and others in the San 87 after the battle 84 Coloman himself narrowly escaped from the battlefield through the valley of the San 84 Shortly after his return from Rus Coloman hastened towards the Bohemian border to assist the dukes of Moravia Svatopluk and Otto against Duke Bretislaus II of Bohemia 82 88 He had a meeting with Bretislaus on the border river Olsava in the field of Lucsko where they renewed their age old bonds of friendship and peace and confirmed them with oaths 89 according to Cosmas of Prague 82 Coloman decided to review his predecessors decrees around 1100 90 Because he regarded Stephen I of Hungary who had been canonized in 1083 91 as his ideal he assembled the magnates of the kingdom and reviewed with the advice of the entire council the text of the laws 92 of Stephen I 42 93 The assembly also passed decrees which regulated several aspects of the economy and tempered the harshness of the legislation of Ladislaus I 94 42 One of the decrees prohibited the persecution of strigae vampires or mares because they do not exist 95 96 97 The same law also dealt with malefici or sorcerers 98 punishing their misdeeds 97 Taxes on trade were increased under Coloman implying that commerce flourished in his reign 94 However his legislation prohibited the export of Hungarian slaves and horses 99 Coins minted during his reign were smaller than those issued in his predecessor s reign to prevent the cutting down of their smooth edge 100 Coloman was crowned king of Croatia in Biograd na Moru in 1102 76 In the 13th century Thomas the Archdeacon wrote that the union of Croatia and Hungary was the consequence of conquest 73 However the late 14th century Pacta conventa narrates that he was only crowned after he had reached an agreement with twelve leading Croatian noblemen because the Croats were preparing to defend their kingdom against him by force 73 Whether this document is a forgery 101 or an authentic source 102 is a subject of scholarly debate According to the historian Pal Engel even if the document is a forgery its content is concordant with reality in more than one respect concerning the special status of Croatia throughout the Middle Ages 2 For instance in case of a foreign invasion Croatian noblemen were obliged to fight at their own expense only up to the river Drava which was considered the border between Croatian territories and Hungary 73 101 Coloman was a man of warlike spirit and resolved to subjugate to his lordship all the land to the Adriatic Sea He came with a force of arms and took possession of the remaining part of Slavonia which Ladislas had passed over Thomas the Archdeacon History of the Bishops of Salona and Split 103 In an attempt to prevent an alliance between Coloman and Bohemond I of Antioch the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos arranged a marriage between his son and heir John and Coloman s cousin Piroska in 1104 or 1105 104 105 The alliance with the Byzantine Empire also enabled 105 Coloman to invade Dalmatia in 1105 76 According to the Life of the blessed John of Trogir he personally commanded his troops besieging Zadar the most influential among the Dalmatian towns 105 The siege lasted until Bishop John of Trogir negotiated a treaty between Coloman and the citizens who accepted the king s suzerainty 106 The town of Split likewise surrendered after a short siege but two other Dalmatian towns Trogir and Sibenik capitulated without resistance 106 107 The Life of St Christopher the Martyr also says that a Hungarian fleet subjugated the islands of the Gulf of Kvarner including Cres Krk and Rab as well as Brac 105 107 Thomas the Archdeacon narrates that Coloman granted each Dalmatian town its own charter of liberties to secure their loyalty 105 108 These liberties included the citizens right to freely elect the bishop of their town and their exemption from any tribute payable to the monarch 76 109 Following his conquest of Dalmatia Coloman assumed a new title King of Hungary Croatia and Dalmatia which was first recorded in 1108 104 110 Family affairs 1105 1113 edit Coloman had his four year old son Stephen crowned in 1105 which caused Almos to openly rebel against the king 111 112 The duke left Hungary and sought the assistance of Emperor Henry IV 104 Having realized that the emperor who was facing a rebellion led by his own son could not help him 104 Almos returned to Hungary in 1106 but then fled to his brother in law Boleslaw III of Poland 79 111 With Polish assistance he captured the fortress of Abaujvar in Hungary 113 Coloman had a meeting with Boleslaw III and the two monarchs vowed perpetual friendship and brotherhood 5 113 114 Without the Polish monarch s support Almos was forced to yield to Coloman 113 nbsp The reconciliation between Coloman and his brother Almos at the consecration of the monastery of Domos from the Illuminated Chronicle Coloman sent envoys to the Council of Guastalla which had been convoked by Pope Paschal II 104 In October 1106 the envoys solemnly informed the pope of their king s renunciation of his royal prerogative to appoint the prelates of his realms 104 115 According to historians Ferenc Makk and Marta Font without this declaration the Holy See would not have acknowledged Coloman s conquest of Dalmatia 104 115 During the civil war between Boleslaw III and his brother Zbigniew Coloman intervened on the former s behalf and helped him overcome the latter s army in Mazovia in 1107 116 Coloman also sent Hungarian reinforcements to the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos against Bohemond I of Antioch who had invaded Byzantine territories in October 1107 113 After suffering a sound defeat Bohemond withdrew his troops and acknowledged the emperor s suzerainty over the Principality of Antioch in the Treaty of Devol in 1108 113 117 In 1107 or 1108 Almos made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land 113 Coloman decided to take advantage of his absence and seized his duchy 113 Although Almos was allowed to keep his own private property the annexation of his duchy secured Coloman s authority in the whole kingdom 114 After returning from the Holy Land Almos set up a monastery at Domos 114 On the occasion of its consecration at which Coloman was also present Almos was falsely according to the Illuminated Chronicle accused of trying to assassinate the monarch 114 Coloman had his brother arrested but the most reverend bishops and other well disposed dignitaries intervened on Almos s behalf and thus reconciliation was solemnly sworn 118 between the king and his brother 114 Almos left for Passau to meet Henry V of Germany 113 Upon Almos s request Henry V invaded Hungary and laid siege to Pressburg Bratislava Slovakia in September 1108 42 113 At the same time Duke Svatopluk of Bohemia who also supported Almos made an incursion into the regions north of the Danube 42 Coloman s ally Boleslaw III invaded Bohemia forcing the Czech duke to withdraw 113 119 The emperor s attempt to take Pressburg was a total failure but he persuaded Coloman to forgive Almos who was allowed to return to Hungary 120 In the same year Coloman visited Dalmatia and confirmed the privileges of Split Trogir and Zadar 113 He returned to Zadar around 1111 and reaffirmed the Dalmatian towns liberties 113 The Zobor Abbey received two charters of grant from Coloman in 1111 and 1113 121 The first diploma mentioned a provost in Nyitra Nitra Slovakia but the second charter referred to the bishop of the same town 121 According to a scholarly theory the two documents show that Coloman set up the bishopric at Nyitra between 1111 and 1113 121 These two royal charters also mention a Mercurius as princeps Ultrasilvanus which implies he was the first voivode of Transylvania but he may have been only an important landowner in the province without holding any specific office 122 In 1112 Coloman made an incursion into Austria 123 He either wanted to take revenge for Leopold III of Austria s participation in the 1108 German campaign against Hungary or simply to seize booty 123 In 1112 Coloman who had been widowed married Euphemia of Kiev a daughter of Vladimir Monomakh Prince of Pereyaslavl in 1112 123 However as the Illuminated Chronicle narrated the queen was taken in the sin of adultery 124 in 1113 or 1114 125 Coloman soon disowned his wife sending her back to her father 123 Last years 1113 1116 edit nbsp Almos and his son Bela are blinded on Coloman s order from the Illuminated Chronicle In 1113 Duke Boleslaw III of Poland who had blinded his rebellious brother Zbigniew causing his death undertook a journey of pilgrimage to St Gilles and St Stephen the King 126 to the Somogyvar Abbey and to the king s shrine at Szekesfehervar in Hungary 8 120 Coloman received the Polish monarch cordially in Somogyvar 8 Shortly afterwards between 1113 and 1115 Coloman discovered that Almos was again conspiring to seize the throne 2 127 Having lost his patience the king had Almos and Almos s young son Bela blinded to secure a peaceful succession for his own son 2 On the same occasion many of his brother s partisans were likewise mutilated 128 According to one of the two versions of these events recorded in the Illuminated Chronicle the king even ordered that Bela should be castrated but the soldier who was charged with this task refused to execute the order 129 The chronicle also states that the child was believed to have died after his blinding but he was actually kept in a monastery for more than a decade 130 The King took the Duke and his infant son Bela and blinded them He also gave orders that the infant Bela should be castrated But the man who was instructed to blind them feared God and the sterility of the royal line and therefore he castrated a dog and brought its testicles to the King The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle 131 The fleet of Venice commanded by Doge Ordelafo Faliero invaded Dalmatia in August 1115 132 133 The Venetians occupied the Dalmatian islands and some of the coastal cities but could not take Zadar and Biograd na Moru 132 By that time Coloman was gravely ill 134 The symptoms recorded in the Illuminated Chronicle indicate a serious otitis which caused encephalitis 127 Before his death he instructed his son and his great men that after his death they should take vengeance on Russia for the injury done to him 135 during his campaign of 1099 134 Upon his councillor s advice he also had Almos who had taken refuge in the monastery of Domos imprisoned 136 The King now began to be gravely ill and he had a Latin doctor named Draco in whom he placed too much trust This doctor applied a poultice to the ears of the King who was oppressed by headaches and the strength of the poultice drew out through the cavities of his ears no small part of his brain When the poultice had been removed because he could endure it no longer he showed it to Count Othmar When he inspected it and saw upon it the matter drawn forth from the brain he said to the King Lord it behoves you to prepare yourself for extreme unction When the King heard this he groaned and was afraid The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle 135 Coloman died on 3 February 1116 136 According to the Illuminated Chronicle divine vengeance made him drink the bitterness of early death because of his shedding of innocent blood 137 when ordering the punishment of Almos Bela and their partisans 134 He was the first monarch to be buried near the shrine of Stephen I in the Szekesfehervar Cathedral 134 Family editAncestors of Coloman of Hungary 138 139 16 Michael8 Vazul4 Bela I of Hungary9 A lady of the Tatony clan2 Geza I of Hungary20 Boleslav I of Poland10 Mieszko II Lambert of Poland21 Emnilda5 Richeza or Adelaide of Poland22 Ezzo of Lotharingia11 Richeza of Lotharingia23 Matilda of Germany1 Coloman of Hungary3 Sophia Coloman s first wife Felicia who is incorrectly named Busilla in earlier historiography was the daughter of Count Roger I of Sicily 78 There is scholarly uncertainty whether her mother was the count s first wife Judith of Evreux or his second wife Eremburga of Mortain 140 The marriage of Coloman and Felicia took place in the spring of 1097 141 She gave birth to at least three children 70 According to Font the eldest child Sophia was born in or before 1100 70 In 1101 Sophia was followed by twin brothers Stephen and Ladislaus 70 142 Felicia s death preceded that of Ladislaus who died in 1112 70 142 Coloman married his second wife Eufemia in the summer of 1112 112 123 Born in 1096 or 1097 she was at least 25 years younger than Coloman 112 She was the daughter of Vladimir II Monomakh who was Prince of Pereyaslavl at the time of her marriage 112 After Coloman repudiated her on a charge of adultery Eufemia fled to Kiev where she gave birth to a son Boris who was never regarded as Coloman s son by his Hungarian relatives 143 The following family tree presents Coloman s ancestors and some of his relatives who are mentioned in the article 142 Bela IRicheza or Adelaide Sophia Geza Iunnamed Synadene Ladislaus I Felicia of SicilyColomanEufemia of KievAlmosPiroskaJohn II Komnenos SophiaStephen IILadislausKings of Hungary from 1131 Saul Whether Geza s first or second wife was his children s mother is uncertain Legacy edit nbsp Coloman s statue Heroes Square Budapest Hungary Late medieval Hungarian chronicles written under kings descended from Almos preserved an unfavorable image of Coloman and his rule 1 According to the Illuminated Chronicle many evil things were done in Coloman s reign 1 29 It states that the saintly Ladislaus I predicted that Coloman would shed blood 23 1 Modern historians including Font 1 Laszlo Kontler 3 and Kristo 134 agree that this negative view was a form of revenge by his brother s descendants who persuaded their chroniclers to emphasize Coloman s failures and to hide his successes Earlier sources show that he was not always regarded as an evil and unlucky monarch 57 In 1105 the abbess of a nunnery in Zadar stated that Coloman had restored the peace of the land and the sea 144 The 13th century Roger of Torre Maggiore writes that he was inscribed in the catalogue of saints 145 along with the members of the Arpad dynasty who were actually canonized 1 134 Coloman s decrees which moderated the severity of Ladislaus I s laws also contradict the chroniclers reports of his bloodthirsty nature 146 The preamble to his decrees described him as the most Christian King Columban who is endowed with the artless grace of a dove and with all discernment of the virtues 57 92 Coloman s statesmanship is appreciated in modern historiography According to Kontler it was under Coloman s reign that the medieval Hungarian state became consummate and acquired its final structure 147 Font and Kristo write that Coloman s laws governed his kingdom without modifications for more than a century even under monarchs hostile towards his memory 148 149 Likewise coinage in Hungary followed the pattern established by Coloman s small denars throughout the 12th century 150 His contemporaries Pope Urban II and Gallus Anonymus were aware of Coloman s uncommon erudition 3 151 According to the chronicles the Hungarians called him Cunues 18 or Qunwes the Learned or the Book Lover because of the books he owned 150 152 The Illuminated Chronicle says that Coloman read the canonical hours like a bishop 18 in his books 150 According to Kristo Coloman s court was a center of learning and literature 153 Bishop Hartvik compiled his Life of King Stephen of Hungary under Coloman 153 154 Kristo writes that it is probable that the Lesser Legend of Saint Gerard of Csanad Cenad Romania was also written during Coloman s reign 153 Historians also attribute the first compilation of Hungarian historical records to his efforts 153 155 References edit a b c d e f Font 2001 p 7 a b c d e f g h Engel 2001 p 35 a b c d Kontler 1999 p 63 Klaniczay 2002 p 129 a b The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles ch 2 29 p 173 a b c d e Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 125 Font 2001 p 12 a b c d e f g Font 2001 p 13 a b Bartl et al 2002 p 27 Kontler 1999 p 61 Font 2001 pp 13 14 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 143 102 p 131 Kristo amp Makk 1996 pp 126 127 Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 127 a b c d Font 2001 p 14 a b c Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 133 a b Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 128 a b c The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 152 108 p 133 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 139 100 p 130 Font 2001 pp 7 14 Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 129 a b Font 2001 p 15 a b c The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 140 101 p 130 Engel 2001 p 34 a b c d Font 2001 p 16 a b c Makk 1989 p 11 a b Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 131 a b c Stephenson 2000 p 197 a b The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 142 102 p 131 Font 2001 p 20 a b c Font 2001 p 67 a b c d e f Rubenstein 2011 p 56 a b c d e Erszegi amp Solymosi 1981 p 97 Tyerman 2006 p 96 Albert of Aachen Historia Ierosolimitana History of the Journey to Jerusalem ch i 6 p 11 Rubenstein 2011 pp 56 58 The Deeds of God through the Franks Gesta Dei per Francos Book Two p 148 a b Rubenstein 2011 p 60 a b Rubenstein 2011 p 61 Albert of Aachen Historia Ierosolimitana History of the Journey to Jerusalem ch i 8 p 17 Runciman 1951 p 124 a b c d e f Bartl et al 2002 p 28 a b c d e Rubenstein 2011 p 64 Tyerman 2006 p 100 Rubenstein 2011 p 65 Tyerman 2006 p 95 Albert of Aachen Historia Ierosolimitana History of the Journey to Jerusalem ch i 23 24 pp 45 47 Font 2001 pp 67 68 a b c d e Rubenstein 2011 p 66 a b c Runciman 1951 p 141 Tyerman 2006 p 103 Albert of Aachen Historia Ierosolimitana History of the Journey to Jerusalem ch i 29 p 59 a b c d Font 2001 p 68 a b c Rubenstein 2011 p 72 Runciman 1951 p 148 Rubenstein 2011 p 73 a b c Font 2001 p 86 Cosmas of Prague The Chronicle of the Czechs 3 5 p 187 a b c d e Berend 2001 p 75 Kontler 1999 p 75 Laws of King Coloman Coloman 75 p 30 Font 2001 p 60 Berend 2001 pp 84 85 Laws of King Coloman Coloman 49 p 28 Berend 2001 p 211 a b Font 2001 p 21 The letters of Henry IV Henry thanks Duke Almus for his support and promises him a reward p 171 Font 2001 pp 21 22 a b Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 136 a b c d e f Font 2001 p 78 Font 2001 p 77 Norwich 1992 pp 272 333 a b c d e Magas 2007 p 51 Curta 2006 p 265 a b c d Fine 1991 p 284 a b c d Curta 2006 p 266 Stephenson 2000 pp 197 198 a b c Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 137 a b c Font 2001 p 22 Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 138 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 144 102 103 p 131 a b c d Makk 1989 p 13 a b c Font 2001 p 73 a b c Font 2001 p 74 Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 142 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 145 104 p 132 Russian Primary Chronicle year 6605 p 196 Engel 1994 p 560 Cosmas of Prague The Chronicle of the Czechs 3 9 pp 190 191 Makk 1989 p 31 Engel 2001 p 33 a b Laws of King Coloman Coloman Preamble p 24 Font 2001 p 31 a b Kontler 1999 p 65 Laws of King Coloman Coloman 57 p 24 Engel 2001 p 47 a b Toth Bela 22 October 2004 1984 Konyves Kalman es a boszorkanyok Coloman the Learned and the witches Mendemondak A vilagtortenelem furcsasagai Rumours Strange Facts of World History Helikon Magyar Elektronikus Konyvtar Retrieved 3 January 2014 Laws of King Coloman Coloman 60 p 24 Font 2001 pp 45 46 Font 2001 p 47 a b Curta 2006 p 267 Fine 1991 pp 284 285 Archdeacon Thomas of Split History of the Bishops of Salona and Split ch 17 p 95 a b c d e f g Makk 1989 p 14 a b c d e Stephenson 2000 p 199 a b Stephenson 2000 p 200 a b Font 2001 p 66 Archdeacon Thomas of Split History of the Bishops of Salona and Split ch 17 p 97 Stephenson 2000 pp 200 201 Engel 2001 p 36 a b Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 143 a b c d Font 2001 p 79 a b c d e f g h i j k l Makk 1989 p 15 a b c d e Font 2001 p 23 a b Font 2001 p 70 Manteuffel 1982 p 106 Stephenson 2000 pp 182 183 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 148 105 p 132 Manteuffel 1982 p 108 a b Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 146 a b c Font 2001 p 71 Curta 2006 p 355 a b c d e Makk 1989 p 16 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 149 106 p 132 Font 2001 p 80 The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles ch 2 25 p 277 a b Font 2001 p 82 Makk 1989 pp 16 17 Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 161 Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 164 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 150 106 p 133 a b Stephenson 2000 p 203 Makk 1989 p 17 a b c d e f Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 148 a b The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 151 107 p 133 a b Font 2001 p 83 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle ch 150 107 p 133 Kristo amp Makk 1996 pp Appendices 1 2 Wiszewski 2010 pp 29 30 60 376 Norwich 1992 pp 146 333 Makk 1989 p 12 a b c Kristo amp Makk 1996 p Appendix 2 Font 2001 p 81 Font 2001 pp 86 87 Master Roger s Epistle ch 1 pp 135 137 Font 2001 p 85 Kontler 1999 p 64 Font 2001 p 35 Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 144 a b c Font 2001 p 48 Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 126 Simon of Keza The Deeds of the Hungarians ch 2 64 pp 138 139 a b c d Kristo amp Makk 1996 p 147 Klaniczay 2002 p 135 Font 2001 p 28 Sources editPrimary sources edit Albert of Aachen Historia Ierosolimitana History of the Journey to Jerusalem Edited and translated by Susan B Edgington 2007 Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 920486 1 Anna Comnena The Alexiad Translated by E R A Sewter 1969 Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 044958 7 Archdeacon Thomas of Split History of the Bishops of Salona and Split Latin text by Olga Peric edited translated and annotated by Damir Karbic Mirjana Matijevic Sokol and James Ross Sweeney 2006 CEU Press ISBN 963 7326 59 6 Cosmas of Prague The Chronicle of the Czechs Translated with an introduction and notes by Lisa Wolverton 2009 The Catholic University of America Press ISBN 978 0 8132 1570 9 Master Roger s Epistle to the Sorrowful Lament upon the Destruction of the Kingdom of Hungary by the Tatars Translated and Annotated by Janos M Bak and Martyn Rady 2010 In Rady Martyn Veszpremy Laszlo Bak Janos M 2010 Anonymus and Master Roger CEU Press ISBN 978 963 9776 95 1 Simon of Keza The Deeds of the Hungarians Edited and translated by Laszlo Veszpremy and Frank Schaer with a study by Jeno Szucs 1999 CEU Press ISBN 963 9116 31 9 The Deeds of God through the Franks Gesta Dei per Francos Guibert de Nogent Translated by Robert Levine 1997 The Boydell Press ISBN 978 0 85115 693 4 The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles Translated and annotated by Paul W Knoll and Frank Schaer with a preface by Thomas N Bisson 2003 CEU Press ISBN 963 9241 40 7 The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum Edited by Dezso Dercsenyi 1970 Corvina Taplinger Publishing ISBN 0 8008 4015 1 The Laws of King Coloman 1095 1116 In The Laws of the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary 1000 1301 Translated and Edited by Janos M Bak Gyorgy Bonis James Ross Sweeney with an essay on previous editions by Andor Czizmadia Second revised edition In collaboration with Leslie S Domonkos 1999 Charles Schlacks Jr Publishers pp 23 31 ISBN 1 884445 29 2 OCLC 495379882 OCLC 248424393 LCCN 89 10492 OL 12153527M ISBN may be misprinted in the book as 88445 29 2 The letters of Henry IV Henry thanks Duke Almus for his support and promises him a reward 2000 In Imperial Lives amp Letters of the Eleventh Century Translated by Theodor E Mommsen and Karl F Morrison with a historical introduction and new suggested readings by Karl F Morrison edited by Robert L Benson Columbia University Press pp 52 100 ISBN 978 0 231 12121 7 The Russian Primary Chronicle Laurentian Text Translated and edited by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P Sherbowitz Wetzor 1953 Medieval Academy of America ISBN 978 0 915651 32 0 Secondary sources edit Bartl Julius Cicaj Viliam Kohutova Maria Letz Robert Seges Vladimir Skvarna Dusan 2002 Slovak History Chronology amp Lexicon Bolchazy Carducci Publishers Slovenske Pedegogicke Nakladatel stvo ISBN 0 86516 444 4 Berend Nora 2001 At the Gate of Christendom Jews Muslims and Pagans in Medieval Hungary c 1000 c 1300 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 02720 5 Curta Florin 2006 Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages 500 1250 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 89452 4 Engel Pal 1994 Premysl The Premyslids In Kristo Gyula Engel Pal Makk Ferenc eds Korai magyar torteneti lexikon 9 14 szazad Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History 9th 14th centuries in Hungarian Akademiai Kiado pp 559 561 ISBN 963 05 6722 9 Engel Pal 2001 The Realm of St Stephen A History of Medieval Hungary 895 1526 I B Tauris Publishers ISBN 1 86064 061 3 Erszegi Geza Solymosi Laszlo 1981 Az Arpadok kiralysaga 1000 1301 The Monarchy of the Arpads 1000 1301 In Solymosi Laszlo ed Magyarorszag torteneti kronologiaja I a kezdetektol 1526 ig Historical Chronology of Hungary Volume I From the Beginning to 1526 in Hungarian Akademiai Kiado pp 79 187 ISBN 963 05 2661 1 Fine John V A Jr 1991 1983 The Early Medieval Balkans A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press ISBN 0 472 08149 7 Font Marta 2001 Koloman the Learned King of Hungary Supervised by Gyula Kristo Translated by Monika Miklan Marta Font supported by the Publication Commission of the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Pecs ISBN 963 482 521 4 Klaniczay Gabor 2002 Holy Rulers and Blessed Princes Dynastic Cults in Medieval Central Europe Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 42018 0 Kontler Laszlo 1999 Millennium in Central Europe A History of Hungary Atlantisz Publishing House ISBN 963 9165 37 9 Kristo Gyula Makk Ferenc 1996 Az Arpad haz uralkodoi Rulers of the House of Arpad in Hungarian I P C Konyvek ISBN 963 7930 97 3 Magas Branka 2007 Croatia Through History SAQI ISBN 978 0 86356 775 9 Makk Ferenc 1989 The Arpads and the Comneni Political Relations between Hungary and Byzantium in the 12th century Translated by Gyorgy Novak Akademiai Kiado ISBN 963 05 5268 X Manteuffel Tadeusz 1982 The Formation of the Polish State The Period of Ducal Rule 963 1194 Translated and with an Introduction by Andrew Gorski Wayne State University Press ISBN 0 8143 1682 4 Norwich John Julius 1992 The Normans in Sicily Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 015212 8 Rubenstein Jay 2011 Armies of Heaven The First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 01929 8 Runciman Steven 1951 A History of the Crusades Volume I The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 06161 X Stephenson Paul 2000 Byzantium s Balkan Frontier A Political Study of the Northern Balkans 900 1204 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 02756 4 Tyerman Christopher 2006 God s War A New History of the Crusades The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 02387 1 Wiszewski Przemyslaw 2010 Domus Bolezlai Values and Social Identity in Dynastic Traditions of Medieval Poland c 966 1138 Brill ISBN 978 90 04 18142 7 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coloman of Hungary Coloman Encyclopaedia Britannica Coloman King of HungaryHouse of ArpadBorn c 1070 Died 3 February 1116 Regnal titles Preceded byLadislaus I King of Hungary1095 1116 Succeeded byStephen II Preceded byPetar Snacic King of Croatia1097 1116 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Coloman King of Hungary amp oldid 1220507528, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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