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Bessus

January 01, 1970

This article is about the self-proclaimed Achaemenid king. For the Christian saint, see Saint Bessus.

Bessus or Bessos (Old Persian: *Bayaçā; Greek: Βήσσος), also known by his throne name Artaxerxes V (Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠 Artaxšaçāʰ; Greek: Ἀρταξέρξης; died summer 329 BC), was a Persian satrap of the eastern Achaemenid satrapy of Bactria, as well as the self-proclaimed King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 330 to 329 BC.

Bessus
King of Kings
Great King
King of Persia
"Alexander executes Janushyar and Mahiyar, the slayers of Darius." Folio from a manuscript of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh ("Book of Kings"), created in Shiraz, dated 1482.
King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire
Reign330–329 BC
PredecessorDarius III
SuccessorAlexander the Great (Macedonian Empire)
Died329 BC
Ecbatana
DynastyAchaemenid dynasty
ReligionZoroastrianism

A member of the ruling Achaemenid dynasty, Bessus came to power shortly after killing the legitimate Achaemenid ruler Darius III (r. 336–330 BC), and subsequently attempted to hold the eastern part of the empire against the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC). His realm quickly started to fall apart, including Bactria, which was the main center. Fleeing into Sogdia, he was arrested by his own officers, who handed him over to Alexander, who had him executed at Ecbatana.

Bessus appears in the 11th-century Persian epic Shahnameh under the name of Janusipar/Janushyar.

Name edit

"Bessus" (Βήσσος) is the Greek transliteration of the Old Persian name *Bayaçā ("protecting from fear").[1][2] Artaxerxes is the Latin form of the Greek Artaxerxes (Αρταξέρξης), itself from the Old Persian Artaxšaçā (𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠, "whose reign is through truth").[3] It is known in other languages as; Elamite Ir-tak-ik-ša-iš-ša, Ir-da-ik-ša-iš-ša; Akkadian Ar-ta-ʾ-ḫa-šá-is-su; Middle Persian and New Persian Ardašīr.[4][5]

Career edit

Nothing is known about the background of Bessus, except that he belonged to the ruling Achaemenid dynasty.[6][7] During the reign of the King of Kings Darius III (r. 336–330 BC), Bessus was made the satrap of Bactria, an important satrapy in the eastern part of the empire.[7] Bactria, which had been under Achaemenid rule since 545–540 BC, was prosperous and populous. As shown by archaeological findings, agriculture, trade, commerce and handicraft thrived in the area.[8] The office of satrap of Bactria seems to have occasionally been equivalent to a "vice‐king of the east" type of position.[9]

As the satrap of Bactria, Bessus was able to exert his rule over Sogdia to the north, and regions that bordered India. He managed to retain the loyalty of the Iranian nomadic groups in Central Asia, the Saka, the Dahae and the Massagetae.[7] According to the Iranologist Richard Foltz, the eastern satrapies were practically Bessus' personal domain.[10] Following the Persian defeat at the Battle of Issus against the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC) in 333 BC, Darius III summoned Bessus to aid him.[11]

Bessus later took part in the Battle of Gaugamela against Alexander in 331 BC, where he supplied Darius III with a contingent composed of Bactrians, Sogdians, Indians, as well as his Saka allies.[12][7] He led the cavalry on the left wing of the Persian forces, with the intention of crippling Alexander's attack on that flank. Following the Persian defeat at the battle, Bessus followed Darius III in his flight to the city of Ecbatana in Media. There Bessus conspired against Darius III with other Persian grandees, such as the chiliarch Nabarzanes, and Barsaentes, the satrap of Arachosia–Drangiana.[11][7] Together they arrested Darius III in mid-330 BC, with Bessus being chosen as the leader of the Achaemenid forces, probably due to his Achaemenid descent.[11] The arrest of Darius III gave Alexander the pretext of avenging him. Fleeing from the pursuing Macedonian forces, Bessus and the rebels carried Darius III in a covered wagon, reportedly in golden chains. In order to buy some time for their escape, Bessus and his co-conspirators killed Darius III and left his body by the road.[13] The murder took place near Hecatompylus, in July 330 BC. Darius III's body was later found by Alexander, who had him buried in the royal crypt in Persepolis.[14][15]

Reign edit

 
List of supplies for Bessus, November–December 330 BC, from a collection of Achaemenid administrative documents

In the autumn of 330, at the Bactrian capital of Bactra, Bessus declared himself King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, assuming the royal name of Artaxerxes V.[7] There he attempted to hold the eastern part of the empire against Alexander.[16] His domain encompassed Bactria, the main center; Sogdia, administered by officers such as Spitamenes and Oxyartes; the nomadic Iranian tribes of Central Asia; Aria, governed by the satrap Satibarzanes, who had initially surrendered to Alexander; Arachosia-Drangiana, governed by Barsaentes; Parthia and Hyrcania, governed by Nabarazanes following his appointment by Bessus; and western India.[7][17] Bessus' usurpation and the invigorated resistance in Central Asia created a new problem for the Macedonians. If they failed to confront Bessus, his usurpation could be seen as change in government, thus rendering Darius III's death irrelevant.[18] However, Bessus' empire quickly started to fall apart; Nabarzanes, accepting his hopeless position, surrendered to Alexander and was pardoned with the help of Bagoas.[17][19] Satibarzanes was defeated and killed by the Macedonian forces in 329 BC, before Bessus was able to help him.[7][20] Around the same time, Barsaentes fled to India to escape the Macedonian forces.[21]

According to the 1st-century BC Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (died 30 BC), Bessus had plans to defend Bactria, and urged its inhabitants to fight for their independence. He was able to muster a satrapal levy of 8,000 Bactrians, seemingly the remnants of the troops that had fought under him at Gaugamela. However, many of those soldiers dispersed after receiving news that Alexander had crossed the Hindu Kush. Instead of making a stand, Bessus fled into Sogdia by crossing the Oxus, where he hoped to obtain aid from the Sogdians, the Chorasmians, and the "Scythians dwelling beyond the river Tanais".[22][9] His flight from Bactria alienated many of his Bactrian supporters.[23] The Canadian historian Waldemar Heckel suggests that Bessus may have in reality not been particularly popular, and adds that his most prominent supporters had either been killed or fled. The hyparchs and local dynasts of Bactria-Sogdiana now realized that they were isolated, and so a victory – at least a great one – was unlikely.[23]

 
The Punishment of Bessus (André Castaigne, 1899)

Alexander, since his victory at Gaugamela, had behaved in the same manner as a sovereign ruler, and had been on several occasions afterwards acknowledged as the "King of Asia." His actions indicated that he planned to continue the administrative system of the Achaemenid Empire, which meant that the local leaders in Central Asia would be allowed to maintain their authority. Furthermore, Alexander had not only pardoned many of his former opponents, but had also restored them to their former satrapies. Thus, the indigenous rulers now regarded Bessus as being a threat to their continued security.[24] At Nautaca (present-day Shahrisabz) Bessus was arrested by his Sogdian officers, who included Spitamenes, Dataphernes, and Catanes. They then handed him over to the following Macedonian forces.[20][9] The handing over of Bessus took place in a village, where he had been left by Spitamenes and Dataphernes. He was picked up by the Macedonian general Ptolemy who following Alexander's instructions, had Bessus brought to him naked in bonds.[25] Bessus was at first flogged in public, and then his ears and nose were cut off, a traditional Persian punishment. He was finally sent to Ecbatana, where the Macedonians had him executed.[26] The execution was supervised by Darius III's brother Oxyathres.[27]

In Persian literature edit

Bessus appears in the 11th-century Persian epic Shahnameh ("Book of Kings") under the name of Janusipar/Janushyar.[28] Seeing as they are in a hopeless position, Janusipar along with Mahyar (Nabarzanes) murders Dara II (Darius III) and then attempt to negotiate with Iskandar (Alexander), eventually meeting up with him.[29] Following the funeral of Dara, Iskandar has Janusipar and Mahyar executed.[30]

References edit

  1. ^ Tavernier 2007, p. 149.
  2. ^ Tuplin 2020, p. 149.
  3. ^ Schmitt 1986, pp. 654–655.
  4. ^ Frye 1983, p. 178.
  5. ^ Wiesehöfer 1986, pp. 371–376.
  6. ^ Briant 2002, p. 871.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Weiskopf 1989, pp. 174–175.
  8. ^ Olbrycht 2021, p. 45.
  9. ^ a b c Stark 2021, p. 702.
  10. ^ Foltz 2019, p. 35.
  11. ^ a b c Heckel 2006, p. 71.
  12. ^ Arrian, Chapter VIII.
  13. ^ Heckel 2020, p. 164.
  14. ^ Binder 2021, p. 469.
  15. ^ EIr. 1994, pp. 51–54.
  16. ^ Kuhrt & Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2006.
  17. ^ a b Heckel 2006, p. 171.
  18. ^ Heckel 2020, p. 171.
  19. ^ Heckel 2020, p. 167.
  20. ^ a b Heckel 2006, p. 72.
  21. ^ Heckel 2006, p. 69.
  22. ^ Heckel 2020, p. 175 (see also note 19).
  23. ^ a b Heckel 2020, p. 176.
  24. ^ Heckel 2020, pp. 176–177.
  25. ^ Heckel 2020, pp. 177–178.
  26. ^ Heckel 2020, p. 178.
  27. ^ Nawotka 2021, p. 479.
  28. ^ Briant 2015, p. 394.
  29. ^ Briant 2015, pp. 384, 404.
  30. ^ Briant 2015, p. 404.

Bibliography edit

Ancient works edit

Modern works edit

  • Binder, Carsten (2021). "From Darius II to Darius III". In Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (eds.). A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 457–473. ISBN 978-1119174288.
  • Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575060316.
  • Briant, Pierre (2015), Darius in the Shadow of Alexander, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674493094
  • EIr. (1994). "Darius v. Darius III". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume VII/2: Dastūr al-Afāżel–Dehqān I. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 51–54. ISBN 978-1-56859-020-2.
  • Foltz, Richard (2019). A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1784539559.
  • Frye, R. N. (1983). "The political history of Iran under the Sasanians". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20092-X.
  • Heckel, Waldemar (2006). Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1405188395.
  • Heckel, Waldemar (2020). In the Path of Conquest: Resistance to Alexander the Great. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190076689.
  • Kuhrt, Amélie; Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Helen (2006). "Bessus". In Salazar, Christine F.; Landfester, Manfred; Gentry, Francis G. (eds.). Brill's New Pauly. Brill Online.
  • Nawotka, Krzysztof (2021). "The Conquest by Alexander". In Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (eds.). A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 473–485. ISBN 978-1119174288.
  • Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2021). Early Arsakid Parthia (ca. 250-165 B.C.). Brill. ISBN 978-9004460751.
  • Tavernier, Jan (2007). Iranica in the Achaeamenid Period (ca. 550-330 B.C.): Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts. Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-1833-7.
  • Tuplin, Christopher J. (2020). "The Bodleian Letters: Commentary". In Tuplin, Christopher J.; Ma, John (eds.). Aršāma and his World: The Bodleian Letters in Context: Volume I: The Bodleian Letters. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199687640.
  • Schmitt, R. (1986). "Artaxerxes". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume II/6: Art in Iran I–ʿArūż. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 654–655. ISBN 978-0-71009-106-2.
  • Stark, Sören (2021). "The Iranian East". In Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (eds.). A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 695–711. ISBN 978-1119174288.
  • Weiskopf, Michael (1989). "Bessos". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume IV/2: Behruz–Bibliographies II. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 174–175. ISBN 978-0-71009-125-3.
  • Wiesehöfer, Joseph (1986). "Ardašīr I i. History". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume II/4: Architecture IV–Armenia and Iran IV. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 371–376. ISBN 978-0-71009-104-8.

Further reading edit

  • Tafazzoli, Ahmad (1994). "Dārā(b) (1)". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume VII/1: Dārā(b)–Dastūr al-Afāżel. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-56859-019-6.
  • Müller, Sabine (2023). "Besas and Ariobarzanes: Trials and Tribulations regarding the Reception of the Identity, Deed, and Punishment of Darius' assassins". In Wulfram, Hartmut (ed.). Der lateinische 'Alexanderroman' des Iulius Valerius. De Gruyter. pp. 99–114.
Bessus
Born:  ? Died: 329 BC
Regnal titles
Preceded by King of Kings of Persia
330–329 BC 		Succeeded by

January 01, 1970
bessus, this, article, about, self, proclaimed, achaemenid, king, christian, saint, saint, bessos, persian, bayaçā, greek, Βήσσος, also, known, throne, name, artaxerxes, persian, 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠, artaxšaçāʰ, greek, Ἀρταξέρξης, died, summer, persian, satrap, eastern, a. This article is about the self proclaimed Achaemenid king For the Christian saint see Saint Bessus Bessus or Bessos Old Persian Bayaca Greek Bhssos also known by his throne name Artaxerxes V Old Persian 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠 Artaxsacaʰ Greek Ἀrta3er3hs died summer 329 BC was a Persian satrap of the eastern Achaemenid satrapy of Bactria as well as the self proclaimed King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 330 to 329 BC BessusKing of KingsGreat KingKing of Persia Alexander executes Janushyar and Mahiyar the slayers of Darius Folio from a manuscript of Ferdowsi s Shahnameh Book of Kings created in Shiraz dated 1482 King of Kings of the Achaemenid EmpireReign330 329 BCPredecessorDarius IIISuccessorAlexander the Great Macedonian Empire Died329 BCEcbatanaDynastyAchaemenid dynastyReligionZoroastrianism A member of the ruling Achaemenid dynasty Bessus came to power shortly after killing the legitimate Achaemenid ruler Darius III r 336 330 BC and subsequently attempted to hold the eastern part of the empire against the Macedonian king Alexander the Great r 336 323 BC His realm quickly started to fall apart including Bactria which was the main center Fleeing into Sogdia he was arrested by his own officers who handed him over to Alexander who had him executed at Ecbatana Bessus appears in the 11th century Persian epic Shahnameh under the name of Janusipar Janushyar Contents 1 Name 2 Career 3 Reign 4 In Persian literature 5 References 6 Bibliography 6 1 Ancient works 6 2 Modern works 7 Further readingName edit Bessus Bhssos is the Greek transliteration of the Old Persian name Bayaca protecting from fear 1 2 Artaxerxes is the Latin form of the Greek Artaxerxes Arta3er3hs itself from the Old Persian Artaxsaca 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠 whose reign is through truth 3 It is known in other languages as Elamite Ir tak ik sa is sa Ir da ik sa is sa Akkadian Ar ta ʾ ḫa sa is su Middle Persian and New Persian Ardasir 4 5 Career editNothing is known about the background of Bessus except that he belonged to the ruling Achaemenid dynasty 6 7 During the reign of the King of Kings Darius III r 336 330 BC Bessus was made the satrap of Bactria an important satrapy in the eastern part of the empire 7 Bactria which had been under Achaemenid rule since 545 540 BC was prosperous and populous As shown by archaeological findings agriculture trade commerce and handicraft thrived in the area 8 The office of satrap of Bactria seems to have occasionally been equivalent to a vice king of the east type of position 9 As the satrap of Bactria Bessus was able to exert his rule over Sogdia to the north and regions that bordered India He managed to retain the loyalty of the Iranian nomadic groups in Central Asia the Saka the Dahae and the Massagetae 7 According to the Iranologist Richard Foltz the eastern satrapies were practically Bessus personal domain 10 Following the Persian defeat at the Battle of Issus against the Macedonian king Alexander the Great r 336 323 BC in 333 BC Darius III summoned Bessus to aid him 11 Bessus later took part in the Battle of Gaugamela against Alexander in 331 BC where he supplied Darius III with a contingent composed of Bactrians Sogdians Indians as well as his Saka allies 12 7 He led the cavalry on the left wing of the Persian forces with the intention of crippling Alexander s attack on that flank Following the Persian defeat at the battle Bessus followed Darius III in his flight to the city of Ecbatana in Media There Bessus conspired against Darius III with other Persian grandees such as the chiliarch Nabarzanes and Barsaentes the satrap of Arachosia Drangiana 11 7 Together they arrested Darius III in mid 330 BC with Bessus being chosen as the leader of the Achaemenid forces probably due to his Achaemenid descent 11 The arrest of Darius III gave Alexander the pretext of avenging him Fleeing from the pursuing Macedonian forces Bessus and the rebels carried Darius III in a covered wagon reportedly in golden chains In order to buy some time for their escape Bessus and his co conspirators killed Darius III and left his body by the road 13 The murder took place near Hecatompylus in July 330 BC Darius III s body was later found by Alexander who had him buried in the royal crypt in Persepolis 14 15 Reign edit nbsp List of supplies for Bessus November December 330 BC from a collection of Achaemenid administrative documents In the autumn of 330 at the Bactrian capital of Bactra Bessus declared himself King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire assuming the royal name of Artaxerxes V 7 There he attempted to hold the eastern part of the empire against Alexander 16 His domain encompassed Bactria the main center Sogdia administered by officers such as Spitamenes and Oxyartes the nomadic Iranian tribes of Central Asia Aria governed by the satrap Satibarzanes who had initially surrendered to Alexander Arachosia Drangiana governed by Barsaentes Parthia and Hyrcania governed by Nabarazanes following his appointment by Bessus and western India 7 17 Bessus usurpation and the invigorated resistance in Central Asia created a new problem for the Macedonians If they failed to confront Bessus his usurpation could be seen as change in government thus rendering Darius III s death irrelevant 18 However Bessus empire quickly started to fall apart Nabarzanes accepting his hopeless position surrendered to Alexander and was pardoned with the help of Bagoas 17 19 Satibarzanes was defeated and killed by the Macedonian forces in 329 BC before Bessus was able to help him 7 20 Around the same time Barsaentes fled to India to escape the Macedonian forces 21 According to the 1st century BC Greek historian Diodorus Siculus died 30 BC Bessus had plans to defend Bactria and urged its inhabitants to fight for their independence He was able to muster a satrapal levy of 8 000 Bactrians seemingly the remnants of the troops that had fought under him at Gaugamela However many of those soldiers dispersed after receiving news that Alexander had crossed the Hindu Kush Instead of making a stand Bessus fled into Sogdia by crossing the Oxus where he hoped to obtain aid from the Sogdians the Chorasmians and the Scythians dwelling beyond the river Tanais 22 9 His flight from Bactria alienated many of his Bactrian supporters 23 The Canadian historian Waldemar Heckel suggests that Bessus may have in reality not been particularly popular and adds that his most prominent supporters had either been killed or fled The hyparchs and local dynasts of Bactria Sogdiana now realized that they were isolated and so a victory at least a great one was unlikely 23 nbsp The Punishment of Bessus Andre Castaigne 1899 Alexander since his victory at Gaugamela had behaved in the same manner as a sovereign ruler and had been on several occasions afterwards acknowledged as the King of Asia His actions indicated that he planned to continue the administrative system of the Achaemenid Empire which meant that the local leaders in Central Asia would be allowed to maintain their authority Furthermore Alexander had not only pardoned many of his former opponents but had also restored them to their former satrapies Thus the indigenous rulers now regarded Bessus as being a threat to their continued security 24 At Nautaca present day Shahrisabz Bessus was arrested by his Sogdian officers who included Spitamenes Dataphernes and Catanes They then handed him over to the following Macedonian forces 20 9 The handing over of Bessus took place in a village where he had been left by Spitamenes and Dataphernes He was picked up by the Macedonian general Ptolemy who following Alexander s instructions had Bessus brought to him naked in bonds 25 Bessus was at first flogged in public and then his ears and nose were cut off a traditional Persian punishment He was finally sent to Ecbatana where the Macedonians had him executed 26 The execution was supervised by Darius III s brother Oxyathres 27 In Persian literature editBessus appears in the 11th century Persian epic Shahnameh Book of Kings under the name of Janusipar Janushyar 28 Seeing as they are in a hopeless position Janusipar along with Mahyar Nabarzanes murders Dara II Darius III and then attempt to negotiate with Iskandar Alexander eventually meeting up with him 29 Following the funeral of Dara Iskandar has Janusipar and Mahyar executed 30 References edit Tavernier 2007 p 149 Tuplin 2020 p 149 Schmitt 1986 pp 654 655 Frye 1983 p 178 Wiesehofer 1986 pp 371 376 Briant 2002 p 871 a b c d e f g h Weiskopf 1989 pp 174 175 Olbrycht 2021 p 45 a b c Stark 2021 p 702 Foltz 2019 p 35 a b c Heckel 2006 p 71 Arrian Chapter VIII Heckel 2020 p 164 Binder 2021 p 469 EIr 1994 pp 51 54 Kuhrt amp Sancisi Weerdenburg 2006 a b Heckel 2006 p 171 Heckel 2020 p 171 Heckel 2020 p 167 a b Heckel 2006 p 72 Heckel 2006 p 69 Heckel 2020 p 175 see also note 19 a b Heckel 2020 p 176 Heckel 2020 pp 176 177 Heckel 2020 pp 177 178 Heckel 2020 p 178 Nawotka 2021 p 479 Briant 2015 p 394 Briant 2015 pp 384 404 Briant 2015 p 404 Bibliography editAncient works edit Arrian The Anabasis of Alexander Modern works edit Binder Carsten 2021 From Darius II to Darius III In Jacobs Bruno Rollinger Robert eds A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire John Wiley amp Sons pp 457 473 ISBN 978 1119174288 Briant Pierre 2002 From Cyrus to Alexander A History of the Persian Empire Eisenbrauns ISBN 978 1575060316 Briant Pierre 2015 Darius in the Shadow of Alexander Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0674493094 EIr 1994 Darius v Darius III In Yarshater Ehsan ed Encyclopaedia Iranica Volume VII 2 Dastur al Afazel Dehqan I London and New York Routledge amp Kegan Paul pp 51 54 ISBN 978 1 56859 020 2 Foltz Richard 2019 A History of the Tajiks Iranians of the East New York Bloomsbury Publishing ISBN 978 1784539559 Frye R N 1983 The political history of Iran under the Sasanians In Yarshater Ehsan ed The Cambridge History of Iran Volume 3 1 The Seleucid Parthian and Sasanian Periods Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 20092 X Heckel Waldemar 2006 Who s Who in the Age of Alexander the Great Prosopography of Alexander s Empire Blackwell Publishing ISBN 978 1405188395 Heckel Waldemar 2020 In the Path of Conquest Resistance to Alexander the Great Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0190076689 Kuhrt Amelie Sancisi Weerdenburg Helen 2006 Bessus In Salazar Christine F Landfester Manfred Gentry Francis G eds Brill s New Pauly Brill Online Nawotka Krzysztof 2021 The Conquest by Alexander In Jacobs Bruno Rollinger Robert eds A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire John Wiley amp Sons pp 473 485 ISBN 978 1119174288 Olbrycht Marek Jan 2021 Early Arsakid Parthia ca 250 165 B C Brill ISBN 978 9004460751 Tavernier Jan 2007 Iranica in the Achaeamenid Period ca 550 330 B C Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords Attested in Non Iranian Texts Peeters Publishers ISBN 978 90 429 1833 7 Tuplin Christopher J 2020 The Bodleian Letters Commentary In Tuplin Christopher J Ma John eds Arsama and his World The Bodleian Letters in Context Volume I The Bodleian Letters Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199687640 Schmitt R 1986 Artaxerxes In Yarshater Ehsan ed Encyclopaedia Iranica Volume II 6 Art in Iran I ʿAruz London and New York Routledge amp Kegan Paul pp 654 655 ISBN 978 0 71009 106 2 Stark Soren 2021 The Iranian East In Jacobs Bruno Rollinger Robert eds A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire John Wiley amp Sons pp 695 711 ISBN 978 1119174288 Weiskopf Michael 1989 Bessos In Yarshater Ehsan ed Encyclopaedia Iranica Volume IV 2 Behruz Bibliographies II London and New York Routledge amp Kegan Paul pp 174 175 ISBN 978 0 71009 125 3 Wiesehofer Joseph 1986 Ardasir I i History In Yarshater Ehsan ed Encyclopaedia Iranica Volume II 4 Architecture IV Armenia and Iran IV London and New York Routledge amp Kegan Paul pp 371 376 ISBN 978 0 71009 104 8 Further reading editTafazzoli Ahmad 1994 Dara b 1 In Yarshater Ehsan ed Encyclopaedia Iranica Volume VII 1 Dara b Dastur al Afazel London and New York Routledge amp Kegan Paul pp 1 2 ISBN 978 1 56859 019 6 Muller Sabine 2023 Besas and Ariobarzanes Trials and Tribulations regarding the Reception of the Identity Deed and Punishment of Darius assassins In Wulfram Hartmut ed Der lateinische Alexanderroman des Iulius Valerius De Gruyter pp 99 114 BessusAchaemenid dynastyBorn Died 329 BC Regnal titles Preceded byDarius III King of Kings of Persia330 329 BC Succeeded byAlexander III Alexander the Great Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Bessus amp oldid 1183875115, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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