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Arachnocampa luminosa

January 01, 1970

Arachnocampa luminosa (Skuse, 1891), commonly known as New Zealand glowworm or simply glowworm, is a species of fungus gnat endemic to New Zealand. The larval stage and the imago produce a blue-green bioluminescence.[2] The species is known to dwell in caves and on sheltered banks in native bush where humidity is high.[3] Its Māori name is titiwai, meaning "projected over water".[citation needed]

Arachnocampa luminosa
Glowworm (Arachnocampa luminosa) and silk snares
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Keroplatidae
Genus: Arachnocampa
Species:
A. luminosa
Binomial name
Arachnocampa luminosa
(Skuse, 1891)
Synonyms
  • Bolitophila luminosa[1]

The first written record of the species dates from 1871 when it was collected from a gold mine in New Zealand's Thames region. At first it was thought to be related to the European glowworm beetle (Lampyris noctiluca) but, in 1886, a Christchurch teacher showed it was a larva of a gnat, not a beetle.[2] The species was first formally described in 1891 with the species name Bolitiphila luminosa and was assigned to the family Mycetophilidae.[4] In 1924, it was placed within a new genus of its own, Arachnocampa, because the wing venation of the adults and the behaviour of the larvae differed significantly from other Bolitophila fly species.

Distribution edit

Arachnocampa luminosa is widespread in both the North and the South Island of New Zealand although populations generally occur in cave systems and in native bush where prey species are available and humidity is high. Some sites have become popular destinations for tourists wanting to see the glowworms. These include the caves in Waitomo, Waipu, Inglewood and Te Ana-au,[2][5] and also in areas of native vegetation such as the Wellington Botanical Gardens.[6]

Life cycle edit

 
Adult, larval and pupal life stages

The spherical eggs (0.75mm in diameter) are usually deposited directly onto the cave wall. Upon hatching, the cylindrical larva immediately begins to glow. When they first emerge they are usually between 3 and 5 millimeters long, and will grow to between 30 and 40mm across several months. The larva may move around on the surface of the cave or bank before selecting a site to begin producing its silk nest.[2] Most larvae emerge during the spring.[7]

The larva spins a nest out of silk on the ceiling of the cave and then hangs down up to 30 silk threads along which it regularly places small sticky droplets.[8] Their prey largely include other small Diptera (especially midges)[7] although glowworm living on banks may also trap spiders and other non-flying invertebrates.[8] When prey is entangled in a snare, the larva pulls it up by ingesting the snare and starts feeding on the prey alive.[9]

After five larval instars,[7] the larva will suspend itself on a long thread and pupates over up to 24 hours. The pupal phase lasts about two weeks. During this time, the pupa continue to glow although males eventually lose their glow. The adults which eventually emerge are poor fliers.[2] Adults usually emerge during the winter and tend to live for up to 76 hours in the case of females and up to 96 hours in the case of males.[7] Females usually lay over 100 eggs and eggs usually hatch after about 20 days.[2]

Sources of mortality for glowworms include predation by cave harvestmen (including the short-legged harvestmen, Hendea myersi cavernicola, and the long-legged harvestmen, Megalopsalis tumida), parasitic fungi (Tolypocladium sp.), and possibly cannibalism when adults become entangled in other larvae's silk threads although evidence is mixed.[7][8]

Behavior and Ecology edit

This luminescent species resides in dark, cool and damp places such as caves and their diet is predatory, they use their bluish green glow to lure in their prey.[8] Compared to other caves the Temperature and Humidity inside the Glowworm Cave are atypical. When comparing climatic data from 1977–80 and 1955 it is shown that the cave was more stable in 1955 than it is now, this increase in climatic variability is thought to be due to the fact that in 1975 the entrance was unblocked forcing the cave to behave as a wind tunnel.[7]


The behavior observed of both the pupae and adult New Zealand glowworm has shown that the longest stage that the Arachnocampa goes through is its larval stage which can last up to a year. Females of A. luminosa are the ones that are actually luminescent but it is still unknown whether or not the female's light is what attracts a male opposed to pheromones, especially when it could possibly be both. Their eyes are designed to function well with the spectral range that covers UV to green wavelengths. Adult A. luminosa are not very good fliers and they only live for a few days, on top of that they do not feed either.[10]

 
Arachnocampa luminosa adult
 
Wing of adult Arachnocampa luminosa

Bioluminescence edit

The larvae of this species glow to attract prey into their threads.[8] The glow has a maximum wavelength of 487 nm[11] and, like other species exhibiting bioluminescence, this glow is produced as a result a luciferase enzyme acting upon a small molecule of luciferin.[12] It occurs in modified excretory organs known as Malpighian tubules in the abdomen.[13] The luciferase enzyme in this species shares similarities with the protein that occurs in fireflies. However, the luciferin that the enzyme acts upon is entirely different to that of fireflies and, indeed, other currently known bioluminescent systems.[12]

The pupae and adults of this species also produce light although the purpose is not clear. One suggestion has been that the light allows adult males to find potential mates.[14] However, there is little evidence to support this.[15] It is possible that the bioluminescence in adults is simply a carry-over from the larval form because the Malpighian tubules are unaffected during metamorphosis.[16]

 
A larval glowworm in its nest with bioluminescent glow.

References edit

  1. ^ Gatenby, J. Bronte (May 1960). "The New Zealand Glow-Worm". Tuatara: Journal of the Biological Society. 8 (2): 86–92. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Richards, A. M. (1960). "Observations on the New Zealand Glow-worm "Arachnocampa luminosa" (Skuse) 1890". Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 88: 559–574.
  3. ^ Meyrick, E. (1886). "A luminous insect larva in New Zealand". The Entomologist's Monthly Magazine. 22: 266–267.
  4. ^ Skuse, F A A (1891). "Description of a luminous dipterous insect (fam. Mycetophilidae), from New Zealand". Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. 5: 677–679. doi:10.5962/bhl.part.18661. ISSN 0370-047X.
  5. ^ "7 Places to See the Famous Glowworms in New Zealand". Backpacker Guide NZ. 2019.
  6. ^ "Attractions". Wellington city Council. 2019.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Pugsley, Chris (1984). "Ecology of the New Zealand Glowworm, Arachnocampa luminosa (Diptera: Keroplatidae), in the Glowworm Cave, Waitomo". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 14 (4): 387–407. Bibcode:1984JRSNZ..14..387P. doi:10.1080/03036758.1984.10421739. ISSN 0303-6758.
  8. ^ a b c d e Broadley, R. Adam; Stringer, Ian A.N. (May 2001). "Prey attraction by larvae of the New Zealand glowworm, Arachnocampa luminosa (Diptera: Mycetophilidae)". Invertebrate Biology. 120 (2): 170–177. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7410.2001.tb00121.x. ISSN 1077-8306.
  9. ^ Edwards, F. W. (1924). "A note on the "New Zealand glow-worm"". Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 14 (9): 175–179. doi:10.1080/00222932408633104.
  10. ^ Meyer-Rochow, V. B. (May 2007). "Glowworms: a review of Arachnocampa spp. and kin". Luminescence. 22 (3): 251–265. doi:10.1002/bio.955. PMID 17285566.
  11. ^ Johnson, F. H.; Haneda, Y. (1966). Bioluminescence in progress proceedings. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400875689. OCLC 767691334.
  12. ^ a b Watkins, Oliver C.; Sharpe, Miriam L.; Perry, Nigel B.; Krause, Kurt L. (2018). "New Zealand glowworm (Arachnocampa luminosa) bioluminescence is produced by a firefly-like luciferase but an entirely new luciferin". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 3278. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.3278W. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-21298-w. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5818473. PMID 29459729.
  13. ^ Green, Louise F.B. (1979). "The fine structure of the light organ of the New Zealand glow-worm Arachnocampa luminosa (Diptera: Mycetophilidae)". Tissue and Cell. 11 (3). Elsevier BV: 457–465. doi:10.1016/0040-8166(79)90056-9. ISSN 0040-8166. PMID 494236.
  14. ^ Meyer-Rochow, V. B. (1990). The New Zealand glowworm. Waitomo Caves Museum Society. ISBN 090868309X. OCLC 154319848.
  15. ^ Broadley, R. A. (2012). "Notes on pupal behaviour, eclosion, mate attraction, copulation and predation of the New Zealand glowworm Arachnocampa luminosa (Skuse) (Diptera: Keroplatidae), at Waitomo". New Zealand Entomologist. 35 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1080/00779962.2012.649689. ISSN 0077-9962. S2CID 86160354.
  16. ^ Kerkut, G. A.; Gilbert, L. I. (1985). Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry and pharmacology. Pergamon P. ISBN 0080308082. OCLC 847201220.

Further reading edit

  • The Glow-Worm, Ormiston Walker and Judy Kerdel, MacMillan New Zealand, 1990, ISBN 0-7329-0121-9. (A children's book.)
  • Glowworm article, Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition
  • Broadley, R. A. and Stringer, I.A.N. (2009) Larval behaviour of the New Zealand glowworm, Arachnocampa luminosa (Diptera: Keroplatidae), in bush and caves. In: V.B. Meyer-Rochow (Ed.), Bioluminescence in Focus - A Collection of Illuminating Essays (pp. 325–355). Research Signpost. Kerala.

External links edit

  Media related to Arachnocampa luminosa at Wikimedia Commons

  • Arachnocampa luminosa discussed on RNZ Critter of the Week, 20 July 2018
  • Soil Bugs - An illustrated guide to the New Zealand invertebrates
  • Glowworm article in the Encyclopaedia of New Zealand 1966
  • Glowworms page ( 2009-10-25)

January 01, 1970
arachnocampa, luminosa, skuse, 1891, commonly, known, zealand, glowworm, simply, glowworm, species, fungus, gnat, endemic, zealand, larval, stage, imago, produce, blue, green, bioluminescence, species, known, dwell, caves, sheltered, banks, native, bush, where. Arachnocampa luminosa Skuse 1891 commonly known as New Zealand glowworm or simply glowworm is a species of fungus gnat endemic to New Zealand The larval stage and the imago produce a blue green bioluminescence 2 The species is known to dwell in caves and on sheltered banks in native bush where humidity is high 3 Its Maori name is titiwai meaning projected over water citation needed Arachnocampa luminosa Glowworm Arachnocampa luminosa and silk snares Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Arthropoda Class Insecta Order Diptera Family Keroplatidae Genus Arachnocampa Species A luminosa Binomial name Arachnocampa luminosa Skuse 1891 Synonyms Bolitophila luminosa 1 The first written record of the species dates from 1871 when it was collected from a gold mine in New Zealand s Thames region At first it was thought to be related to the European glowworm beetle Lampyris noctiluca but in 1886 a Christchurch teacher showed it was a larva of a gnat not a beetle 2 The species was first formally described in 1891 with the species name Bolitiphila luminosa and was assigned to the family Mycetophilidae 4 In 1924 it was placed within a new genus of its own Arachnocampa because the wing venation of the adults and the behaviour of the larvae differed significantly from other Bolitophila fly species Contents 1 Distribution 2 Life cycle 3 Behavior and Ecology 4 Bioluminescence 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External linksDistribution editArachnocampa luminosa is widespread in both the North and the South Island of New Zealand although populations generally occur in cave systems and in native bush where prey species are available and humidity is high Some sites have become popular destinations for tourists wanting to see the glowworms These include the caves in Waitomo Waipu Inglewood and Te Ana au 2 5 and also in areas of native vegetation such as the Wellington Botanical Gardens 6 Life cycle edit nbsp Adult larval and pupal life stages The spherical eggs 0 75mm in diameter are usually deposited directly onto the cave wall Upon hatching the cylindrical larva immediately begins to glow When they first emerge they are usually between 3 and 5 millimeters long and will grow to between 30 and 40mm across several months The larva may move around on the surface of the cave or bank before selecting a site to begin producing its silk nest 2 Most larvae emerge during the spring 7 The larva spins a nest out of silk on the ceiling of the cave and then hangs down up to 30 silk threads along which it regularly places small sticky droplets 8 Their prey largely include other small Diptera especially midges 7 although glowworm living on banks may also trap spiders and other non flying invertebrates 8 When prey is entangled in a snare the larva pulls it up by ingesting the snare and starts feeding on the prey alive 9 After five larval instars 7 the larva will suspend itself on a long thread and pupates over up to 24 hours The pupal phase lasts about two weeks During this time the pupa continue to glow although males eventually lose their glow The adults which eventually emerge are poor fliers 2 Adults usually emerge during the winter and tend to live for up to 76 hours in the case of females and up to 96 hours in the case of males 7 Females usually lay over 100 eggs and eggs usually hatch after about 20 days 2 Sources of mortality for glowworms include predation by cave harvestmen including the short legged harvestmen Hendea myersi cavernicola and the long legged harvestmen Megalopsalis tumida parasitic fungi Tolypocladium sp and possibly cannibalism when adults become entangled in other larvae s silk threads although evidence is mixed 7 8 Behavior and Ecology editThis luminescent species resides in dark cool and damp places such as caves and their diet is predatory they use their bluish green glow to lure in their prey 8 Compared to other caves the Temperature and Humidity inside the Glowworm Cave are atypical When comparing climatic data from 1977 80 and 1955 it is shown that the cave was more stable in 1955 than it is now this increase in climatic variability is thought to be due to the fact that in 1975 the entrance was unblocked forcing the cave to behave as a wind tunnel 7 The behavior observed of both the pupae and adult New Zealand glowworm has shown that the longest stage that the Arachnocampa goes through is its larval stage which can last up to a year Females of A luminosa are the ones that are actually luminescent but it is still unknown whether or not the female s light is what attracts a male opposed to pheromones especially when it could possibly be both Their eyes are designed to function well with the spectral range that covers UV to green wavelengths Adult A luminosa are not very good fliers and they only live for a few days on top of that they do not feed either 10 nbsp Arachnocampa luminosa adult nbsp Wing of adult Arachnocampa luminosaBioluminescence editThe larvae of this species glow to attract prey into their threads 8 The glow has a maximum wavelength of 487 nm 11 and like other species exhibiting bioluminescence this glow is produced as a result a luciferase enzyme acting upon a small molecule of luciferin 12 It occurs in modified excretory organs known as Malpighian tubules in the abdomen 13 The luciferase enzyme in this species shares similarities with the protein that occurs in fireflies However the luciferin that the enzyme acts upon is entirely different to that of fireflies and indeed other currently known bioluminescent systems 12 The pupae and adults of this species also produce light although the purpose is not clear One suggestion has been that the light allows adult males to find potential mates 14 However there is little evidence to support this 15 It is possible that the bioluminescence in adults is simply a carry over from the larval form because the Malpighian tubules are unaffected during metamorphosis 16 nbsp A larval glowworm in its nest with bioluminescent glow References edit Gatenby J Bronte May 1960 The New Zealand Glow Worm Tuatara Journal of the Biological Society 8 2 86 92 Retrieved 27 July 2015 a b c d e f Richards A M 1960 Observations on the New Zealand Glow worm Arachnocampa luminosa Skuse 1890 Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand 88 559 574 Meyrick E 1886 A luminous insect larva in New Zealand The Entomologist s Monthly Magazine 22 266 267 Skuse F A A 1891 Description of a luminous dipterous insect fam Mycetophilidae from New Zealand Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 5 677 679 doi 10 5962 bhl part 18661 ISSN 0370 047X 7 Places to See the Famous Glowworms in New Zealand Backpacker Guide NZ 2019 Attractions Wellington city Council 2019 a b c d e f Pugsley Chris 1984 Ecology of the New Zealand Glowworm Arachnocampa luminosa Diptera Keroplatidae in the Glowworm Cave Waitomo Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 14 4 387 407 Bibcode 1984JRSNZ 14 387P doi 10 1080 03036758 1984 10421739 ISSN 0303 6758 a b c d e Broadley R Adam Stringer Ian A N May 2001 Prey attraction by larvae of the New Zealand glowworm Arachnocampa luminosa Diptera Mycetophilidae Invertebrate Biology 120 2 170 177 doi 10 1111 j 1744 7410 2001 tb00121 x ISSN 1077 8306 Edwards F W 1924 A note on the New Zealand glow worm Annals and Magazine of Natural History 14 9 175 179 doi 10 1080 00222932408633104 Meyer Rochow V B May 2007 Glowworms a review of Arachnocampa spp and kin Luminescence 22 3 251 265 doi 10 1002 bio 955 PMID 17285566 Johnson F H Haneda Y 1966 Bioluminescence in progress proceedings Princeton N J Princeton University Press ISBN 9781400875689 OCLC 767691334 a b Watkins Oliver C Sharpe Miriam L Perry Nigel B Krause Kurt L 2018 New Zealand glowworm Arachnocampa luminosa bioluminescence is produced by a firefly like luciferase but an entirely new luciferin Scientific Reports 8 1 3278 Bibcode 2018NatSR 8 3278W doi 10 1038 s41598 018 21298 w ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 5818473 PMID 29459729 Green Louise F B 1979 The fine structure of the light organ of the New Zealand glow worm Arachnocampa luminosa Diptera Mycetophilidae Tissue and Cell 11 3 Elsevier BV 457 465 doi 10 1016 0040 8166 79 90056 9 ISSN 0040 8166 PMID 494236 Meyer Rochow V B 1990 The New Zealand glowworm Waitomo Caves Museum Society ISBN 090868309X OCLC 154319848 Broadley R A 2012 Notes on pupal behaviour eclosion mate attraction copulation and predation of the New Zealand glowworm Arachnocampa luminosa Skuse Diptera Keroplatidae at Waitomo New Zealand Entomologist 35 1 1 9 doi 10 1080 00779962 2012 649689 ISSN 0077 9962 S2CID 86160354 Kerkut G A Gilbert L I 1985 Comprehensive insect physiology biochemistry and pharmacology Pergamon P ISBN 0080308082 OCLC 847201220 Further reading editThe Glow Worm Ormiston Walker and Judy Kerdel MacMillan New Zealand 1990 ISBN 0 7329 0121 9 A children s book Glowworm article Encyclopaedia Britannica 15th edition Broadley R A and Stringer I A N 2009 Larval behaviour of the New Zealand glowworm Arachnocampa luminosa Diptera Keroplatidae in bush and caves In V B Meyer Rochow Ed Bioluminescence in Focus A Collection of Illuminating Essays pp 325 355 Research Signpost Kerala External links edit nbsp Media related to Arachnocampa luminosa at Wikimedia Commons Arachnocampa luminosa discussed on RNZ Critter of the Week 20 July 2018 Soil Bugs An illustrated guide to the New Zealand invertebrates Glowworm article in the Encyclopaedia of New Zealand 1966 Glowworms page Archived 2009 10 25 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Arachnocampa luminosa amp oldid 1196469107, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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